Modern chemistry has its origins in the alchemical practices of ancient

civilizations, dating back to around 300 BCE in Hellenistic Egypt and earlier in
ancient China and India. Alchemists, often referred to as the "proto-chemists,"
sought to transform base metals into noble metals like gold and discover the elixir
of life.

The transition from alchemy to modern chemistry began during the Scientific
Revolution of the 17th century. This was the time of the experiments and
discoveries, and new theories in the area of chemistry. In this period, a number of
pioneering chemists provided the theoretical basis for all the research and
discoveries that were to follow. Here are the first four chemists known as the
fathers of modern chemistry that we have to know. Several key figures played
pivotal roles in shaping modern chemistry:
1. Antoine Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794)
Antoine Lavoisier was a French chemist. He is the “father of modern chemistry”.
He was a pioneer of stoichiometry. Lavoisier was the first person to state “the law
of conservation of mass” from his research on quantitative chemical experiments.
He investigated the composition of water and named the elements oxygen (1778)
and hydrogen (1783). He introduced the metric system, wrote the first extensive
list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature and analytical
chemistry. He discovered the role of oxygen in combustion and respiration. He
proved that diamond and charcoal are different forms of the same element,
which he named carbon.
2. Robert Boyle (January 25, 1627 – December 30, 1691)
Robert Boyle was an Irish chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman
scientist noted for his work in chemistry and physics. He is one of the founders of
modern chemistry. He is known for the formulation of the first gas law “Boyle’s
law”. He studied the physical properties of gases and developed the concept of an
element, compound and mixture. The Sceptical Chymist is the cornerstone book
in the field of chemistry.
3. John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844)
John Dalton was an English chemist, meteorologist, and physicist. In 1803, Dalton
proposed a modern atomic theory which stated that all matter was composed of
small indivisible particles termed atoms, atoms of a given element possess unique
characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms exist simple (elements),
compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules). He proposed
Dalton’s law or Dalton’s law of partial pressures in 1801, which describes the
relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative
pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture.

4. Jöns Jakob Berzelius (August 20, 1779 – August 7, 1848)

Friherre Jöns Jakob Berzelius was a Swedish chemist. He invented the modern
chemical notation. He is together with John Dalton, Antoine Lavoisier and Robert
Boyle considered as a father of modern chemistry. He discovered the law of
constant proportions, which showed that inorganic substances are composed of
different elements in constant proportions by weight. Berzelius discovered the
chemical elements silicon, selenium, thorium, and cerium. In addition, the
students working in his laboratory discovered lithium and vanadium. He
introduced the original chemical terms “catalysis”, “polymer”, “isomer” and
“allotrope” in chemistry.
5. Sir Humphry Davy (December 17, 1778 – May 29, 1829)
Sir Humphry Davy was a British chemist. He developed the theory of chemical
affinity. He isolated a series of alkali and alkaline-earth elements potassium,
sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, and magnesium, boron. Later, he discovered
the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. He introduced the acid and base
concept in chemistry.
6. Amedeo Avogadro (August 9, 1776 – July 9, 1856)
Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro was an Italian chemist. He proposed
the theory of molarity and molecular weight. As a tribute to him, the number of
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions, or other particles) in one mole of a
substance, 6.02214199×1023, is known as Avogadro’s number.
7. Friedrich Wöhler (July 31, 1800 – September 23, 1882)
Friedrich Wöhler was a German chemist, well known for the synthesis of urea,
but also the first isolation of several elements. Wöhler is considered as a pioneer
in organic chemistry because of his accidental synthesis of urea in 1828, which
was named as Wöhler synthesis. He was also a co-discoverer of elements
beryllium and silicon, as well as the synthesis of calcium carbide, among others.
He discovered aluminum metal. In 1834, Wöhler and Liebig published an
investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They proved by their experiments that a
group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an element, take
the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in chemical
compounds. He isolated pure nickel metal. His discoveries had a great influence
on the development of chemistry.
8. Alfred Nobel (October 21, 1833 – December 10, 1896)

Alfred Bernhard Nobel was a Swedish chemist, engineer and innovator. He was
the armaments manufacturer and the inventor of dynamite. He owned Bofors, a
major armaments manufacturer, which he had redirected from its previous role
as an iron and steel mill. In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute
the Nobel Prizes. The synthetic element nobelium was named after him.
9. Dmitri Mendeleev (February 8, 1834 – February 2, 1907)
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is well
known as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements
based on their chemical properties. Mendeleev also investigated the composition
of oil fields and helped to found the first oil refinery in Russia. He invented
pyrocollodion; a kind of smokeless powder based on nitrocellulose and organized
its manufacture in 1892 for the Russian navy. He was awarded Noble Prize in
chemistry for his discovery of a periodic table in 1906.
10. William Ramsay (October 2, 1852 – July 23, 1916)
Sir William Ramsay was a Scottish chemist. He discovered the noble gas argon in
1894. Later, he discovered neon, krypton, xenon, and helium. He received the
Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1904 “in recognition of his services in the discovery of
the inert gaseous elements in air”. In addition, he received another Nobel Prize in
physics in the same year for the discovery of argon with Lord Rayleigh.
PERIOD OF ALKANE (PRE CHEMICAL TRADITION)
it's essential to note that early chemists did not have a comprehensive
understanding of the molecular structure of compounds. Alkanes, as a specific
class of hydrocarbons, were not defined until later.

In the pre-modern chemical tradition, alkanes were not recognized as distinct

compounds. Hydrocarbons in general were known, primarily in the form of
natural substances like petroleum and natural gas. However, the systematic study
and classification of hydrocarbons into specific groups, such as alkanes, alkenes,
and alkynes, and the determination of their molecular structures, occurred during
the 19th and early 20th centuries as modern chemistry developed.

The concept of alkanes, characterized by saturated carbon-carbon single bonds,

was formalized later in the history of chemistry, leading to the development of
organic chemistry as a field of study. This understanding came about in the 19th
century, thanks to the work of chemists like Aleksandr Butlerov and August
Kekulé.

So, in summary, the period of recognizing alkanes as a distinct class of compounds

and understanding their chemical structure began to take shape in the 19th
century, during the development of modern chemistry

PERIOD OF MEDICAL TRADITION

The medical tradition in chemistry refers to the historical practice of using
chemical substances and compounds for medicinal purposes. This tradition dates
back centuries and has played a significant role in the development of modern
medicine. It includes the study of pharmacology, the use of drugs and chemicals
in treating various medical conditions, and the exploration of chemical processes
for drug synthesis. Over time, this tradition has evolved, leading to the
development of pharmaceuticals and the integration of chemistry into medical
research and healthcare.

TECHNOLOGICAL TRADITION
The technological tradition in chemistry refers to the utilization of chemical
knowledge and principles to create and enhance various technologies and
innovations. This tradition encompasses a wide range of applications, including
the development of new materials, the design of chemical processes, and the
advancement of technology in various sectors such as electronics, transportation,
and energy production. It often involves interdisciplinary collaborations between
chemists, engineers, and other professionals to solve complex problems and drive
technological advancements. The technological tradition in chemistry plays a
pivotal role in shaping the modern world by contributing to advancements in
fields like information technology, renewable energy, and healthcare.

PHLOGISTON THEORY
The phlogiston theory was a once widely accepted but now obsolete scientific
theory in the field of chemistry. It was proposed in the 17th century and
suggested that there was a substance called "phlogiston" that was released
during combustion, explaining why things burned and why metals appeared to
gain weight when heated in air.

According to this theory, when a substance burned, it was losing phlogiston.

However, this theory was later replaced by the oxygen theory of combustion,
which demonstrated that substances actually gained weight when they burned
due to the absorption of oxygen from the air. Antoine Lavoisier's work in the late
18th century played a significant role in discrediting the phlogiston theory and
laying the foundation for modern chemistry
Question 2: WRITE BRIEFLY ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
The scientific method in chemistry involves a systematic approach to conducting
experiments and making observations to answer questions or solve problems. The
scientific method is a procedure used to provide scientific explanations for
questions about the world. It outlines the way a scientist can perform an
experiment to collect empirical data which can be used to answer a question. The
scientist plans their experiment based on background research that allows them
to form a hypothesis predicting what may happen. When the experiment is
complete, they will use their data to form a conclusion. It typically consists of
these steps:

Observation: Start by observing a phenomenon or asking a question about a

chemical process or substance.

Hypothesis: Formulate a testable hypothesis, which is a proposed explanation for

the observed phenomenon. It should be based on existing knowledge and be
specific.

Experimentation: Design and conduct controlled experiments to test your

hypothesis. This involves manipulating variables and collecting data.

Data Collection: Record detailed and accurate data during experiments. Use
appropriate instruments and techniques for measurement.

Analysis: Analyze the data collected to determine if it supports or refutes your

hypothesis. This may involve statistical analysis or other data interpretation
methods.

Conclusion: Draw conclusions based on the analysis of your data. Decide whether
the results support your hypothesis or not.
Communication: Share your findings through scientific papers, presentations, or
other means so that other scientists can review and verify your work.

Peer Review: The scientific community reviews your work to ensure its validity
and reliability. This step is crucial for the acceptance of your findings.

Revision and Replication: If necessary, revise your hypothesis or experimental

design based on feedback. Other scientists may attempt to replicate your
experiments to confirm your results.

Theory Development: If your hypothesis is consistently supported by evidence

and withstands scrutiny, it may contribute to the development of scientific
theories, which are well-established explanations of natural phenomena.

The scientific method is iterative, meaning that it often leads to further questions
and experiments. It is a fundamental process in chemistry and all scientific
disciplines, promoting objectivity and rigor in the pursuit of knowledge.