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 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Chemistry is often called the central science because a basic knowledge of
chemistry is essential for students of biology, physics, geology, ecology, and
many other subjects. Indeed, it is central to our way of life; without it, we
would be living shorter lives in what we would consider primitive conditions,
without automobiles, electricity, computers, CDs, and many other everyday
conveniences.

The Development of Modern Chemistry

1. Practical Arts (--- to 600 B.C.)

The production of metals from ores (ores=rocks or minerals), the
manufacture of pottery, brewing, and the preparation of dyes and drugs are
ancient arts. Archaeological evidence proves that the inhabitants of ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia (in the area of modern Iraq and eastern Syria between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) were skilled in these crafts, but how and when
the crafts first developed are not known. These arts, which are chemical
processes, became highly developed during this period. The development,
however, was empirical, that is, based on the practical experience alone
without reference to underlying chemical principles.

2. Greek Theory (600 B.C. to 300 B.C.)

This period marks the beginning of the philosophical or theoretical
aspect of chemistry. The foundation of Greek science was the search for
principles through which an understanding of nature could be obtained. Two
theories of the Greeks became very important in the centuries that followed:
a. A concept that all substances found on earth are composed of four
elements (earth, air, fire, and water) in various proportions originated
with Greek philosophers of this period.
b. A theory that matter consists of separate and distinct units called
atoms was proposed by Leucippus and extended by Democritus in the
fifth century B.C.

Plato proposed that the atoms of one element differ in shape from the
atoms of another. Furthermore, he believed that atoms of one element could
be changed (or transmuted) into atoms of another by changing the shape of
atoms. The concept of transmutation is also found in Aristotle’s theories.
Aristotle (who did not believe in the existence of atoms) proposed that the
elements, and therefore all substances, are composed of the same primary
matter and they differ not only the shape but also the qualities (such as color
and hardness) that distinguish one substance from others. He proposed that

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changes in form constantly occur in nature and that all material things grow
and develop from immature forms to adult forms.

3. Alchemy (300 B.C. to 1650 A.D.)

The philosophical tradition of ancient Greece and the craft tradition of
ancient Egypt met in Alexandria, Egypt (the city founded by Alexander the
Great in 331 B.C.). Alchemy was the result of the union. The philosophical
content of alchemy incorporated elements of astrology (prophecy) and
mysticism (religion or spirituality) into the theories of the earlier Greeks. A
dominant interest of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals,
such as iron and lead, into gold. They believed that metal could be changed
by changing its qualities (particularly it's color) and that such changes occur
in nature – that metals strive for the perfection represented by gold.
Furthermore, the alchemists believed that these changes could be brought
about using a very small amount of a powerful transmuting agent called
philosopher’s stone.

In the seventh century A.D., the Arabs conquered the centers of

Hellenistic civilization (including Egypt in 640 A.D.), and alchemy passed into
their hands. Greek texts were translated into Arabic and served as the
foundation for the work of Arab alchemists. The Arabs called the
philosopher’s stone aliksir (which was later altered into elixir). Arab
alchemists believed that this substance could not only ennoble metals by
transmuting them into gold but could also ennoble life by curing all diseases.

For centuries afterward, the two principal goals of alchemy were the
transmutation of base metals into gold and the discovery of an elixir of life
that could make humans immortal by preventing death. In the twelfth and
thirteenth century, alchemy was gradually introduced into Europe by
translation of Arabic works into Latin.

Alchemy lasted until the 17th century. Gradually the theories and
attitudes of the alchemists began to be questioned. The work of Robert Boyle,
who published The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, is noteworthy. Although he
believed that the transmutation of base metals into gold might be possible,
he severely criticized alchemical thoughts. He emphasized that chemical
theory should be derived from experimental evidence.

4. Phlogiston (1650 to 1790)

The phlogiston theory, formulated by Georg Ernst Stahl, had dominated
chemistry throughout most of the 18th century. Phlogiston (a “fire principle”)
was assumed to be a constituent of any substance that could undergo
combustion (burning). Upon combustion, a substance was thought to lose its
phlogiston and be reduced to a simpler form. Air was believed to function in
combustion by carrying off the phlogiston as it was released. The combustion
of wood according to the phlogiston theory: wood → ashes + phlogiston
(removed by air). Wood, therefore, was believed to be a compound composed
of ashes and phlogiston. Readily combustible materials were thought to be
rich in phlogiston. (The actual reaction is: wood + oxygen gas (from air) →
ashes + oxygen-containing gases (CO2)

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 One difficulty inherent in the phlogiston theory was never adequately
explained. When wood burns, it supposedly loses phlogiston and the resulting
ashes weigh less than the original piece of wood. The adherents of the
phlogiston theory recognized this problem, but throughout most of the 18th
century, the importance of weighing and measuring was not realized.

5. Modern Chemistry (1790 --- )

The work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) in the late
18th century is generally regarded as the beginning of modern chemistry. He
deliberately set out to overthrow the phlogiston theory and revolutionize
chemistry. He relied on the results of quantitative experimentation (he used
the chemical balance extensively) to arrive at his explanations of several
chemical phenomena.

The law of conservation of mass states that there is no detectable

change in mass during a chemical reaction. In other words, the total mass of
all materials entering into a chemical reaction equals the total mass of all
products of the reaction. To Lavoisier, therefore, the phlogiston theory was
impossible. When the law of conservation of mass is applied to combustion,
the masses of the gases used or produced in these reactions must be taken
into account. The correct interpretation of these processes, therefore, had
to wait until chemists identified the gases (especially oxygen) involved and
developed methods to handle and measure gases. Antoine Lavoisier, Carl
Wilhelm Scheele, and Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen gas independently.

Branches of Chemistry

Organic Chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, and

preparation of chemical compounds that consist primarily of carbon and
hydrogen. All living organisms have traces of carbon. The term organic is a
holdover from the time when it was believed that organic compounds could
be derived only from plant or animal sources. Friedrich Wohler (Father of
Organic Chemistry) derived urea, an organic compound, from inorganic
materials. Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including:
a. Medicinal chemistry —the design, development, and synthesis of
medicinal drugs. It overlaps with pharmacology (the study of drug
action).
b. Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds
containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
c. Polymer chemistry — the study of the chemistry of polymers.
d. Physical organic chemistry — the study of the interrelationships
between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
e. Stereochemistry — the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in
molecules and their effects on the chemical and physical properties of
substances.

Inorganic Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of

inorganic compounds. chemical elements and their compounds except for

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carbon. It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds.
Inorganic chemists study things such as crystal structures, minerals, metals,
catalysts, and most elements in the Periodic Table. Branches of inorganic
chemistry include:
a. Bioinorganic chemistry — the study of the interaction of metal ions
with living tissue, mainly through their direct effect on enzyme
activity.
b. Geochemistry — the study of the chemical composition and changes in
rocks, minerals, and atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.
c. Nuclear chemistry — the study of radioactive substances.
d. Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds
containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
e. Solid-state chemistry — the study of the synthesis, structure, and
properties of solid materials.

Analytical Chemistry involves the qualitative and quantitative

determination of the chemical components of substances. It seeks to improve
the means of measuring the chemical composition of natural and artificial
materials. In medicine, this is the basis for clinical laboratory tests for disease
diagnosis. The nutritional value of the food we eat is determined through
chemical analysis. Analytical chemists analyze many household products.
Examples of areas using analytical chemistry include:
a. Forensic chemistry — the application of chemical principles,
techniques, and methods to the investigation of crime.
b. Environmental chemistry —the study of the chemical and biochemical
phenomena that occur in the environment. It relies heavily on
analytical chemistry and includes atmospheric, aquatic, and soil
chemistry.
c. Bioanalytical Chemistry — the examination of biological materials
such as blood, urine, hair, saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of
specific drugs.

Physical Chemistry deals with the study of the effect of chemical

structure on the physical properties of a substance. Physical chemists
typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the interaction of molecules
with radiation, and the calculation of structures and properties. Sub-branches
of physical chemistry include:
a. Photochemistry — the study of the chemical changes caused by light.
b. Surface chemistry — the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of
substances. It includes topics like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis,
the formation of colloids, corrosion, electrode processes, and
chromatography.
c. Chemical kinetics — the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the
factors affecting those rates, and the mechanism by which the
reactions proceed.
d. Quantum chemistry — the mathematical description of the motion and
interaction of subatomic particles. It incorporates quantization of
energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and their
relationship to chemical processes.

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 e. Spectroscopy — the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of
electromagnetic radiation by matter to study the matter or the
chemical processes it undergoes.

Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in

living things. It tries to explain them in chemical terms. Biochemical research
includes cancer and stem cell biology, infectious disease, and cell membrane,
and structural biology. It spans the following:
a. Molecular biology — the study of the interactions between the various
systems of a cell, such as the different types of DNA, RNA, and protein
biosynthesis.
b. Genetics — the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living
organisms.
c. Pharmacology — the study of mechanisms of drug action and the
influence of drugs on an organism.
d. Toxicology —a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of
poisons on living organisms.
e. Clinical biochemistry — the study of the changes that disease causes
in the chemical composition and biochemical processes of the body.
f. Agricultural biochemistry — the study of the chemistry that occurs in
plants, animals, and microorganisms.

REFLECTION

In your own words, explain why Chemistry is considered

as the “Central Science”.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. In your own opinion, explain how Chemistry is related to

Agriculture.
2. Make a timeline of the development of modern Chemistry.

NOTE: Answers in the Reflection and Learning Activity must be placed in a short bond paper.
Follow the details of submission posted in the FB group and google classroom.

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