Module 1: An Introduction to Chemistry

A. DEFINITION OF CHEMISTRY
 Chemistry is the central science. This means that a basic understanding of chemistry is
essential in the study of all other fields of science: physics, biology, earth science, ecology,
environmental science, and others.
 Chemistry is likewise central to our daily lives, be it as individuals or as a society.
 Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, its structure, its properties, the processes
that matter undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany these processes.

B. THE WORLD OF CHEMISTRY

Empedocles
 He thought that the world has four basic elements, earth, air, fire, and water, and all that is
matter composed of different proportions or concentrations of these essential elements.

Leucippus and Democritus (460-400 B.C.)

 They conceived the idea that matter is made up of minute, discrete particles which they
called “atomos”, from which the word atom came from.
 This kind of atomic theory is still generally accepted today, but is now more acceptable
with the newer discoveries on the characteristic of the atom.
 The modern theory of atom is that atoms themselves are composed of smaller units –
protons, electrons, neutrons – which, in turn, are also made up of more minute units, the
quarks.

Egypt, chemistry took a more practical application. The Egyptians had attained real skill in
working of gold, copper, iron lead, tin, and mercury. They knew something about the manufacture
of glass, soap, turpentine, sugar, blue vitriol, alum, natural dyes, and pigments.
When the Arabs swept Egypt in the seventh century A.D., they took over the practical skills
of the Egyptians and the theories of the Greeks. Adding skills and ideas of their own, they made
many advances in science, especially in mathematics and astronomy.

Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.)

 Aristotle speculates that metals could be converted into another, fascinated many
alchemists.
 If his theory was correct, they thought, any base metal like lead or tin could be converted
into gold.
 The chief aim of alchemy was the transmutation of common metals into gold and the search
for the alkahest, whom they called the philosopher’s stone.

King Henry IV of England,

 For instance, even required to study of alchemy to all noblemen, theologians, and scholars
during his time.
  Though some of the alchemists were earnest men with scientific interests, others turned
alchemy into one of the greatest frauds in history.

Iatrochemistry
 Iatrochemistry was born, from the term iatrochemist, one who tries to apply chemicals to
cure diseases. This became the precursor of pharmacology and medicine as separate
sciences.

Though probably not simultaneous, many alchemists were also found in China and India,
also as early as 400 B.C. In fact, the Chinese were the first ones to have discovered the explosive
mixture gunpowder. They created the first simple fireworks, exploding pieces of bamboo on fire as
early as 200 B.C. In 1275, Chinese writer Wu Tzu-Mu was describing how “the firecrackers made
glorious noise, which could be heard in the streets outside…”

Alchemy
 It was the empirical stage of chemical knowledge characterized by speculative theories.
 Alchemy came from two Greek words “al,” meaning “the,” and “quemia” meaning “black
art”.
 The practice of alchemy was often associated with magic as many were amazed at what the
alchemists were discovering and producing, simulating magic.
 Alchemy literally means “the black art”. In our language today, it would mean “the black
magic”.

Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan

 Around the year 750, an Arabian alchemist Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan, also known as Abu
Abdallah Jaber (721 – 815) or simply Geber, discovered several chemical compounds,
described calcination and reduction reactions, and developed methods for evaporation,
sublimation, and crystallization. The discoveries of sulfuric and nitric acids are attributed to
him.

Roger Bacon
 In the thirteenth century, an English Franciscan monk and philosopher named Roger Bacon
believed that observation and experimentation could bring about a greater understanding of
the natural world, hence, a staunched supporter of the inductive method in science.

Robert Boyle
 By the 1600s, the Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691) published his book, The
Skeptical Chymist, stressing the importance of experimentation to test ideas obtained by
reason.
 He pioneered the investigation of the behavior of gases bringing about the gas laws.

Joseph Priestly and Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

  Then in the late 1700s, Joseph Priestly (1733 – 1804) and Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(1743 – 1794) proved that air, one of Aristotle’s basic elements, was actually a mixture of
different gases, including nitrogen and oxygen.
 Lavoisier also emphasized the importance of precise measurements of the changes in
masses in chemical reactions.
 His experiments changed chemistry from a science of speculative observation to a science
of precise measurement that it is now. Because of this, Lavoisier is often regarded as the
Father of Modern Chemistry.

John Dalton
 Not long after, in 1808, the English chemist John Dalton (1766 – 1844) put forward his
atomic theory which explains that all the atoms of an element are identical but different
from the atoms of every other element.

Amedeo Avogadro
 Three years later, Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856) showed that water is a
combination of an atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. This paved the way to a
new idea of the existence of the so-called molecules.

Sir Joseph John Thomson

 It was Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856 – 1940), a British physicist, who forwarded the idea,
through his cathode ray gun experiments, that there are particles around 1,800 times smaller
than the smallest atoms, which are parts of the atom itself.
 He called them “electrons” which he believed are embedded on the surface of the atom
something like raisins on a raisin bread.

Ernest Rutherford
 However, in 1911, further experiments proved otherwise as Ernest Rutherford discovered
that at the heart of every atom is a tiny but very dense “nucleus”.
 He believed that the electrons simply swirl around this nucleus forming an electron cloud
which is largely an empty space.
 It was Rutherford who was able to split the atom for the first time in 1919

Niels Bohr
 In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons spin around the nucleus in
orbits, much like the planets around the sun.
 These orbits are arranged in layers or “shells”.

James Chadwick
 More than a decade after Rutherford discovered the nucleus of the atom, another kind of
particle was discovered in the nucleus by James Chadwick.
 Because these particles did not have charge, they were referred to as “neutrons”.
 C. BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
1. Organic Chemistry - the study of carbon-based compounds; with few exceptions like
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. Inorganic Chemistry - the general, the study of compounds that do not contain carbon
3. Biochemistry - the study of the chemistry of living systems
4. Analytical Chemistry - the study of the quality and quantity of components of substances
5. Physical chemistry - the study of the mechanisms, rates, and energetics of chemical
reactions

Module 2: Basic Concepts about Matter

A. STUDY OF MATTER
 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Everything on Earth has mass and
takes up space; meaning, everything you see around you is matter. It exists in three state of
matter. It includes all things – both living and nonliving.
Examples: plants, soil, air, bacteria
 Various forms of energy such as heat, light, and electricity are not considered to be matter.
 The universe is composed entirely of matter and energy.
 The classification of a given matter sample in terms of physical state is based on whether its
shape and volume are definite or indefinite.
 Matter exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas

B. PHYSICAL STATE OF MATTER

1. Solid - a state of matter, has definite shape and volume
2. Liquid - another state of matter, has indefinite shape and definite volume
3. Gas - it has indefinite shape and volume

Table 1. Properties of Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Property Solid Liquid Gas
Almost Slightly compressible Highly compressible
Compressibility
incompressible
Density High High Very low
Retains own volume Definite volume; does Fills the container
Volume
not fill container
Retains own shape Assumes shapes of Assumes shapes of
Shape
container container
Diffusion Extremely slow; Slow Rapid
 occurs only at surface
Low expansion in Low expansion in High expansion in
Expansion
heating heating heating

C. PROPERTIES AND CHANGES OF MATTER

Properties of Matter
 Property - is a distinguishing characteristic of a substance that is used in its identification
and description. Each substance has a unique set of properties that distinguishes it from all
other substances.

Two General Types:

 Physical Property - is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed without
changing the basic identity of the substance.
Example: Color, odor, physical state, melting point, boiling point, and hardness
• Intensive Physical Property - it is also called intrinsic property, does not depend
on the size or amount of the same.
Example: a 100mL water and a 10mL water have the same boiling point (100°C),
freezing point (0°C), and density (1 g/mL at 4°C).
• Extensive Physical Property - it is also called extrinsic property is those that can
be affected by the size and amount of samples.
Example: mass, volume, length, and shape of the substance.
 Chemical Property - is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way the substance
undergoes or resist change to form a new substance.
Example: copper objects turn green in air
Changes in Matter
 Physical Change - is a process in which a substance changes its physical appearance but
not its chemical composition. A new substance is never formed as a result of a physical
change.
Example: boiling or freezing water
 Chemical Change - is a process in which a substance undergoes a change in chemical
composition. It Involves conversion of the material(s) into one or more new substances.
Example: methane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

Module 3: Basic Concepts about Matter (cont.)

D. PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

 Pure Substance - is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of
matter by any physical means.
Examples: water or carbon dioxide
 Mixture - is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in which substances
retains its own chemical identity.
 Example: salt water

Mixtures have variable composition:

 Heterogeneous mixture - is a mixture that contains visibly different phase, each of which
has different properties.
 Homogeneous mixture - is a mixture that contains only one visibly distinct phase, which
has uniform properties throughout.

E. ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

 Element - is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler pure substances by
chemical means such as a chemical reaction, and electric current, heat or a beam of light.
Examples: gold, silver, copper
 Compound - is a pure substance that can be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means.
Examples: water, carbon dioxide, ammonia

F. DISCOVERY AND ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS

The discovery and isolation of the 118 known elements, the building blocks for all matter, have
taken place over a period of several centuries. Most of the discoveries have occurred since 1700,
with the 1800s being the most active period.
Eighty-eight of the 118 elements occur naturally, and 30 have been synthesized in the laboratory by
bombarding samples of naturally occurring elements with small particles. The synthetic
(laboratory-produced) elements are unstable (radioactive) and usually revert quickly back to
naturally occurring elements.
The naturally occurring elements are not evenly distributed on Earth and in the universe. What is
startling is the nonuniformity of the distribution. A small number of elements account for the
majority of the elemental particles (atom).
Abundance of Elements (in Atom Percent) in the Universe

Abundance of Elements (in Atom Percent) in the Earth’s Crust

Elemental Composition of the Human Body (in Atom Percent)

G. NAMES AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF THE ELEMENTS

Each element has a unique name that, in most cases, was selected by its discoverer. A wide
variety of rationales for choosing a name have been applied. Some elements bear geographical
names: germanium is named after the native country of its German discoverer, and the elements
francium and polonium are named after France and Poland. The elements mercury, uranium, and
neptunium are all named for planets. Helium gets its name from the Greek word helios, for "sun",
because it was first observed spectroscopically in the sun's corona during an eclipse. Some
elements carry names that reflect specific properties of the element or of the compounds that
contain it. Chlorine's name is derived from the Greek chloros, denoting "greenish-yellow", the
color of chlorine gas. Iridium gets its name from the Greek iris, meaning "rainbow"; this alludes to
the varying colors of the compounds from which it was isolated.
Abbreviations called chemical symbols also exist for the names of the elements. A
chemical symbol is a one or two letter designation for an element derived from the element's name.
These chemical symbols are used more frequently than the elements' names. Chemical symbols can
be written more quickly than the names, and they occupy less space.
Note that the first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized and the second is not.
Two letter chemical symbols are often, but not always, the first two letters of the element's name.
Eleven elements have chemical symbols that bear no relationship to the element's English language
name. In ten of these cases, the symbol is derived from the Latin name of the element; in the cases
of the element tungsten, its German name is the symbol's source. Most of these elements have been
known for hundreds of years and date back to the time when Latin was the language of scientists.

Module 4: Measurement in Chemistry

A. MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Measurements is the determination of the dimensions, capacity, quantity, or extent of
something. In chemical laboratories, the most common types of measurements are those of mass,
volume, length, time, temperature, pressure and concentration.
Two systems of measurement are in use in the United States: (1) the English system of units
and (2) the metric system of units. Common measurements of commerce, such as those used in a
grocery store, are made in the English system.

System of Measurement
 English system
- inch, foot, pound, quart, and gallon
 Metric system
- gram, meter, and liter.

B. METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS

In the metric system, there is one base unit for each type of measurement. The names of
fractional parts of the base unit and multiples of the base unit are constructed by adding prefixes to
the base unit. These prefixes indicate the size of the unit relative to the base unit.
The meaning of a metric system prefix is independent of the base unit it modifies and
always remains constant. For example the prefix kilo- always means 1000; a kilosecond is 1000
seconds, a kilowatt is 1000 watts, and a kilocalorie is 1000 calories. Similarly, the prefix nano-
always means one-billionth of a gram, and a nanoliter is one-billionth of a liter.

Common Metric System Prefixes

 Metric Length Unit
Meter (m) - Base unit of length.
• Length is measured by determining the distance between two points.

Metric Mass Unit

Gram (g) - Base unit of mass
• Mass is measured by determining the amount of matter in an object.
• Mass – measure of the total quantity of matter in an object
• Weight – measure of the force exerted on an object by gravitational forces

Metric Mass Unit

Liter (L) - Base unit of volume
• Volume is measured by determining the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional
object.
• 1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
• 1 mL = 1 cm3
• mL generally used for liquids and gases.
• cm3 used for solids

C. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

When measurements are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided, consideration must be
given to the number of significant figures in the computed result. Mathematical operations should
not increase (or decrease) the uncertainty of experimental measurements.

Guidelines for Determining Significant Figures

1. In any measurement, all nonzero digits are significant.
• 3456 has 4 sig figs.
2. There are three classes of zeros.
 a. Leading zeros are zeros that are at the beginning of a number. These do not count as
significant figures.
• 0.048 has 2 sig figs.
b. Confined zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures.
• 16.07 has 4 sig figs.
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only if the
number contains a decimal point.
• 9.300 has 4 sig figs.
Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are not significant if the
number lacks an explicitly shown decimal point.
• 150 has 2 sig figs.

Rounding Off Numbers

When calculator answers contain too many digits, it is necessary to delete (drop) the
nonsignificant digits, a process that is called rounding off. Rounding off is the process of deleting
unwanted (nonsignificant) digits from calculated numbers. There are two rules in rounding off
numbers.
1. If the first digit to be deleted is 4 or less, simply drop it and all the following digits. For
example, the number 3.724567 becomes 3.72 when rounded to three significant figures.
2. If the first digit to be deleted is 5 or greater, that digit and all that follow are dropped, and
the last retained digit is increased by one. The number 5.00673 becomes 5.01 when rounded
to three significant figures.

Operational Rules
1. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the answer is the same as the
number of significant figures in the measurement that contains the fewest significant figures.
Example: 1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 → 7.4
2. In addition and subtraction, the answer has no more digits to the right of the decimal point than
are found in the measurement with the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point.
Example: 23.445 + 7.83 = 31.275 → 31.28

Exponential Notation
• A numerical system in which numbers are expressed in the form A × 10n where A is a
number with a single nonzero digit to the left of the decimal place and n is a whole number.
• A is the coefficient
• n is a whole number

Converting from Decimal to Scientific Notation

 1. The decimal point in the decimal number is moved to the position behind (to the right of)
the first nonzero digit.
2. The exponent for the exponential term is equal to the number of places the decimal point
has moved.
• 300. written as 3.00 × 102 (three sig figs)
• 0.004890 written as 4.890 × 10–3 (four sig figs)

Multiplication and Division in Scientific Notation

• To multiply exponential terms, add the exponents.
• To divide exponential terms, subtract the exponents.

Module 5: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

A. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE CONCEPTS OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

Our theory about the atom has changed over time as new studies are done. Even though no
one has ever seen an atom up close we are still able to make new discoveries just like we have
made new discoveries about dinosaurs.
Democritus
• Democritus was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived from 460 - 370 B.C.
• He thought matter is like motion. It cannot be divided in half forever.
• The tortoise and hare would never finish the race if you could keep dividing the distance to
the finish line in half forever.

Atomos
• The Greek word “atomos” means not able to be divided or “indivisible.”

What did Democritus propose about the atom?

• Atoms are small hard particles.
• Made of a single material that’s formed into different shapes and sizes.
• They are always moving
• They form different materials by joining together.

Aristotle
• Aristotle was a very famous Greek philosopher who believed that matter could be divided
into smaller and smaller pieces forever.
• He held a very strong influence on popular belief and his views on this were accepted for
two thousand years.

John Dalton
• Two thousand years later a British chemist and schoolteacher brings back Democritus’s
idea of the atom
 • He performed many experiments to study how elements join together to form new
substances
• He found that they combine in specific ratios (remember the electrolysis of water) and he
supposed it was because the elements are made of atoms.

J.J. Thomson
• What particle did Thomson discover? J.J. Thomson discovered that atoms are made of
smaller negatively-charged particles called electrons.
• Thomson’s discovery was the result of doing experiments with “cathode ray tubes”.

Ernest Rutherford
• Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of alpha particles, positively
charged particles emitted from radioactive elements.
• Was a student of J.J. Thomson but disagreed with the “Plum Pudding Model”.
• Devised an experiment to investigate the structure of positive and negative charges in the
atom.

Niels Bohr
• Bohr proposed that electrons move in paths at certain distances around the nucleus.
• Electrons can jump from a path on one level to a path on another level.

B. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Subatomic Particle
• A very small particle that is a building block for atoms.

Three Types of Subatomic Particles

• Electrons – found outside the nucleus; possesses a negative electrical charge;
smallest mass.
• Protons – found in the nucleus; positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron’s
negative charge.
• Neutrons – found in the nucleus; no charge; virtually same mass as a proton.

Charge and Mass Characteristics

The nucleus is:

• Small compared with the overall size of the atom.
• Extremely dense; accounts for almost all of the atom’s mass.
• Positively charged center of an atom.
C. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
• Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Mass Number (A) – sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

Complete Chemical Symbol Notation

Element
• A pure substance in which all atoms present have the same atomic number.
• All atoms with the same atomic number have the same chemical properties and are atoms of
the same element.
D. ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASSES
Isotopes
• Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons and the same number of
electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
• Show almost identical chemical properties; chemistry of atom is due to its electrons.
• Physical properties are often slightly different because they have different masses.
• In nature most elements contain mixtures of isotopes.

Module 6: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table (cont.)

E. THE PERIODIC LAW AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

• Periodic Law – When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number,
elements with similar chemical properties occur at periodic (regularly recurring) intervals.
• Periodic Table – Tabular arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic
number such that elements having similar chemical properties are positioned in vertical
columns.

The Periodic Table

• Periods – horizontal rows of elements.
• Groups – elements in the same vertical columns; have similar chemical properties.
Groups
• Table of common charges formed when creating ionic compounds.

Group Charge
Alkali Metals (1A) 1+
Alkaline Earth Metals (2A) 2+
Halogens (7A) 1-
Noble Gases (8A) 0

F. METALS AND NONMETALS

Metal
• An element that has the characteristic properties of luster, thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity, and malleability.
Nonmetal
• An element characterized by the absence of the properties of luster, thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, and malleability.
Dividing Line between Metals and Nonmetals

G. ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS WITHIN ATOMS

Electron Shells
• A region of space about a nucleus that contains electrons that have approximately the same
energy and that spend most of their time approximately the same distance from the nucleus.
• Electrons that occupy the first electron shell are closer to the nucleus and have a lower
energy than electrons in the second electron shell.
Electron Subshells
A region of space within an electron shell that contains electrons that have the same energy.
 Subshell Number of Electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14

Electron Orbitals
• A region of space within an electron subshell where an electron with a specific energy is
most likely to be found.
• An electron orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons.

Electron Orbitals
Subshell Number of Electrons
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7

Electron Spin
• As an electron “moves about” within an orbital, it spins on its own axis in either a
clockwise or a counterclockwise direction.
• When two electrons are present in an orbital, they always have opposite spins.

H. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND ORBITAL DIAGRAMS

Rules for Assigning Electrons to Various Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals
1. Electron subshells are filled in order of increasing energy.
2. Electrons occupy the orbitals of a subshell such that each orbital acquires one electron
before any orbital acquires a second electron. All electrons in such singly occupied orbitals
must have the same spin.
3. No more than two electrons may exist in a given orbital – and then only if they have
opposite spins.

Electron Configurations
• A statement of how many electrons an atom has in each of its electron subshells.
• An oxygen atom as an electron arrangement of two electrons in the 1s subshell, two
electrons in the 2s subshell, and four electrons in the 2p subshell.
Example: Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Orbital Diagrams
• A notation that shows how many electrons an atom has in each of its occupied electron
orbitals.
Example: Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Oxygen: 1s 2s 2p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

The Electronic Basis for the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
• The electron arrangement in the outermost shell is the same for elements in the same group.

• This is why elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
• Group 1A – very reactive
Li: 1s22s1
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
K: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

Distinguishing Electron
• Last electron added to the electron configuration for an element when electron subshells are
filled in order of increasing energy.
• This last electron is the one that causes an element’s electron configuration to differ from
that of an element immediately preceding it in the periodic table.

Classification of the Elements

1. A system based on selected physical properties of the elements, in which they are described
as metals or nonmetals.
 2. A system based on the electron configurations of the elements, in which elements are
described as noble-gas, representative, transition, or inner transition elements.

Classification Scheme on the Periodic Table

Module 7: Chemical Bonding: The Ionic Bond Model

A. CHEMICAL BOND
• Attractive force that holds two atoms together in a more complex unit.
• Form as a result of interactions between electrons found in the combining atoms.

Two Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond
• Chemical bond formed through the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom or
group of atoms to another atom or group of atoms.
• Ionic Compound - A compound in which ionic bonds are present.
• Chemical bond formed through the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom or
group of atoms to another atom or group of atoms.
• A compound in which ionic bonds are present.

Bonding
• Most bonds are not 100% ionic or 100% covalent.
• Most bonds have some degree of both ionic and covalent character.

Two Fundamental Concepts

1. Not all electrons in an atom participate in bonding. Those that participate are called valence
electrons.
 2. Certain arrangements of electrons are more stable than others, as is explained by the octet
rule.

B. VALENCE ELECTRONS AND LEWIS SYMBOLS

Valence Electron
• An electron in the outermost electron shell of a representative element or noble-gas
element.
• Valence electrons are found in either s or p subshells.

Lewis Symbol
• Chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal in number to the number of
valence electrons present in atoms of the element.

Lewis Symbols for Selected Representative and Noble-Gas Elements

Three Important Generalizations

1. Representative elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
2. The number of valence electrons for representative elements is the same as the Roman
numeral periodic-table number.
3. The maximum number of valence electrons for any element is eight.

C. THE OCTET RULE

• Certain arrangements of valence electrons are more stable than others.
• The valence electron configurations of the noble gases are considered the most stable of all
valence electron configurations.
• In forming compounds, atoms of elements lose, gain, or share electrons in such a way as to
produce a noble-gas electron configuration for each of the atoms involved.

D. THE IONIC BOND MODEL

Ion
• An atom (or group of atoms) that is electrically charged as a result of the loss or gain of
electrons.
• If an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion.
• If an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion.
The Ionic Bond Model

The Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge

• Atoms tend to gain or lose electrons until they have obtained an electron configuration that
is the same as that of a noble gas.
• Example: K+ (1s22s22p63s23p6)
• Lost one electron to obtain electron configuration for Ar (1s22s22p63s23p6).
1. Metal atoms containing one, two, or three valence electrons tend to lose electrons to
acquire a noble-gas electron configuration.
Group Charge
IA 1+
IIA 2+
IIIA 3+

2. Nonmetal atoms containing five, six, or seven valence electrons tend to gain
electrons to acquire a noble-gas electron configuration.
Group Charge
VIIA 1-
VIA 2-
VA 3-

3. Elements in Group IVA occupy unique positions relative to the noble gases (could
gain or lose four electrons).

E. LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

Formation of an Ionic Compound
• Ion formation requires the presence of two elements:
– A metal that can donate electrons.
– A nonmetal that can accept electrons.
• The electrons lost by the metal are the same ones gained by the nonmetal.
• The positive and negative ions simultaneously formed from such electron transfer attract
one another.
Lewis Structure
 • Combination of Lewis symbols that represents either the transfer or the sharing of electrons
in chemical bonds.

The Reaction between Sodium and Chlorine

The Reaction between Sodium and Oxygen

The Reaction between Calcium and Chlorine

Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds are always neutral; no net charge is present.
• The ratio in which positive and negative ions combine is the ratio that achieves charge
neutrality for the resulting compound.

Writing Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds

1. The symbol for the positive ions is always written first.
2. The charges on the ions that are present are not shown in the formula.
3. The subscripts in the formula give the combining ratio for the ions.
Example:
• Compound formed between Li+ and O2–
• Need two Li+ to balance out the 2- charge on oxygen.
• Formula is Li2O.

Module 8: Chemical Bonding: The Covalent Bond Model

A. THE COVALENT MODEL

Key Differences between Ionic and Covalent Bonding

1. Ionic bonds form between a metal and nonmetal. Covalent bonds usually form between
nonmetals.
2. Ionic bonds involve electron transfer. Covalent bonds involve electron sharing.
3. Ionic compounds do not contain discrete molecules. Covalent compounds has a molecule as
its basic structural unit.
4. All ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. Covalent compounds are varied.
 5. Soluble ionic solids form aqueous solutions that conduct electricity. Soluble covalent
compounds usually produce a non-conducting aqueous solution.

Covalent Bond
 A chemical bond resulting from two nuclei attracting the same shared electrons.

A Hydrogen Molecule
• Electron sharing can occur only when electron orbitals from two different atoms overlap.
• Produces increased stability.

Lewis Notation
• The two shared electrons do double duty, helping each hydrogen atom achieve a helium
noble-gas configuration.

B. LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Bonding Electrons
• Pairs of valence electrons that are shared between atoms in a covalent bond.
• Represent the shared electron pairs with dashes.

Nonbonding Electrons
• Pairs of valence electrons on an atom that are not involved in electron sharing.
• Also referred to as unshared electron pairs, lone electron pairs, or lone pairs.
C. SINGLE, DOUBLE, AND TRIPLE COVALENT BONDS
Single Covalent Bond
• A covalent bond in which two atoms share one pair of electrons.
• Example: H–H

Double Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
• Example: O=C=O

Triple Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share three pairs of electrons.
• Example: N ≡ N

D. VALENCE ELECTRONS AND NUMBER OF COVALENT BONDS FORMED

• There is a strong tendency for atoms of nonmetallic elements to form a specific number of
covalent bonds.
• The number of bonds formed is equal to the number of electrons the nonmetallic atom must
share to obtain an octet of electrons.

Oxygen (6 Valence Electrons, 2 Octet Vacancies)

Nitrogen (5 Valence Electrons, 3 Octet Vacancies)

Carbon (4 Valence Electrons, 4 Octet Vacancies)

 E. COORDINATE COVALENT BONDS
• A covalent bond in which both electrons of a shared pair come from one of the two atoms
involved in the bond.
• Enables an atom that has two or more vacancies in its valence shell to share a pair of
nonbonding electrons that are located on another atom.

Comparison of HOCl and HClO2

• In HOCl, all the bonds are “ordinary” covalent bonds.

• In HClO2, the “new” chlorine-oxygen bond is a coordinate covalent bond.

F. SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURES FOR DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES

Steps for Writing Lewis Structures
1. Calculate the total number of valence electrons available in the molecule by adding together the
valence electron counts for all atoms in the molecule. (Use the periodic table.)
Example: H2O
2 (1 e–) + 6 e– = 8 e– total

2. Write the chemical symbols of the atoms in the molecule in the order in which they are bonded
to one another, and then place a single covalent bond, involving two electrons, between each pair
of bonded atoms.
 Determine central atom – usually atom that appears only once in the formula.
Example: H2O
H-O-H

3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such that each atom bonded to the central atom
has an octet of electrons. Remember that for hydrogen, an “octet” is only 2 electrons.
Example: H2O and PBr3

4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom of the structure.

Example: PBr3 = 26 valence e–
5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, then use one or more pairs of
nonbonding electrons on the atoms bonded to the central atom to form double or triple bonds.
Example: HCN
H-C≡N:

6. Count the total number of electrons in the completed Lewis structure to make sure it is equal to
the total number of valence electrons available for bonding, as calculated in Step 1. (Serves as a
double check.)