SOCIAL SCIENCE

CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
TEXTBOOK IN GEOGRAPHY FOR CLASS IX

2022-23
0968 – CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
ISBN 81-7450-520-2
Textbook in Geography for Class IX

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 FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework, (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s

life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle
marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to
shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community.
The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to
implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and
the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope
these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred
system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and
to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given
space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with
the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook
as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources
and sites of learning are ignored. Including creativity and initiative is possible
if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers
of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCER T)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for
this book, Professor M. H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful
to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions
and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their
resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members

2022-23
of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department
of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an
organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in
the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which
will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

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 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE AT THE

SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata

CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
K. Jaya, PGT, Convent of Jesus and Mary, Bangla Sahib Road, New Delhi
Punam Behari, Reader, Miranda House, Chhatra Marg, University of Delhi, Delhi
Saroj Sharma, TGT (Retd.), Mother’s International School, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi
Sudeshna Bhattacharya, Reader, Miranda House, Chhatra Marg, University
of Delhi, Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Tannu Malik, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

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 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

contributions of B.S. Butola, Professor, CSRD, JNU; Jebachh Singh, PGT Geography,
Sir G. D. Patliputra Inter School, Patna, and Krishna Kumar Upadhyaya, PGT Geography,
K.V.A.F.S., Bareily, in the development of this textbook.
Acknowledgements are also due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department
of Education in Social Science and Humanities, NCERT, for her valuable support at
every stage of preparation of this textbook.
The Council is also grateful to the individuals and organisations as listed below for
providing various photographs and illustrations used in this textbook:
M.H. Qureshi, Professor, CSRD, JNU, for Figure 2.5; ITDC/Ministry of Tourism,
Government of India for Figures 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.5, 4.1 and pictures of river, migratory
birds and a picture of montane forests on pages 23, 48 and 51 respectively, picture of
desert on Cover I, picture of clouds on Cover IV; cross-section interactive for a picture
of lions on page 48; Tourism of Andaman and Nicobar, Government of India for
Figure 2.9; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India for Figures
2.3, 3.6, picture of corals on page 15 and picture of forest on Cover I; Photo Division,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India for Figure 2.8; Business
Line for Figure 3.2; and Hindustan Times, New Delhi, for news in two collages given on
pages 38 and 50.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Anil Sharma and
Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty, Copy Editors;
Shreshtha and Deepti Sharma, Proof Readers; and Dinesh Kumar, In-charge,
Computer Station, who have helped in giving a final shape to this textbook. The efforts
of the Publication Division, NCERT, are also duly acknowledged.

The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this book
© Government of India, Copyright 2006
1. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.
2. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from
the appropriate base line.
3. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
4. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are
as interpreted from the ‘North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act,1971,’ but have yet to be verified.
5. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by
Survey of India.
6. The state boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh
and Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned.
7. The spellings of names in this map have been taken from various sources.

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2022-23
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
CHAPTER 1
India – Size and Location 1

CHAPTER 2
Physical Features of India 7

CHAPTER 3
Drainage 17

CHAPTER 4
Climate 26

CHAPTER 5
Natural Vegetation and Wildlife 42

CHAPTER 6
Population 53

GLOSSARY 63

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2022-23
 INDIA – SIZE
I
ndia is one of the ancient civilisations in the
world. It has achieved multi-faceted socio-
economic progress during the last five
decades. It has moved forward displaying
remarkable progress in the field of
agriculture, industry, technology and overall
economic development. India has also
contributed significantly to the making of
world history.
LOCATION
India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the
Northern hemisphere (Figure 1.1) the main
land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and
37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
180°W 150° 120° 90° 60°
AND LOCATION
1
The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the
country into almost two equal parts. To the
southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie
the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the
Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea respectively. Find out the extent
of these groups of islands from your atlas.
• The southernmost point of
the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under
the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.
SIZE
The land mass of India has an area of 3.28
million square km. India’s total area accounts
for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical
30°W 0° 30°E 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°E

75°N

60°
North
America Europe 45°
Asia

30°

PACIFIC ATLANTIC Africa PACIFIC 15°N

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
0°
South INDIAN
America OCEAN
15°S

Australia
30°

45°

60°

Antartica 75°S

Figure 1.1 : India in the World

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area of the world. From Figure 1.2 it is clear
that India is the seventh largest country of
the world. India has a land boundary of
about 15,200 km and the total length of the
coastline of the mainland, including
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep,
is 7,516.6 km.
India is bounded by the young fold
mountains in the northwest, north and
northeast. South of about 22° north
latitude, it begins to taper, and extends
towards the Indian Ocean, dividing it into
two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and
the Bay of Bengal on its east.
Look at Figure 1.3 and note that the
latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the
mainland is about 30°. Despite this fact, the
east-west extent appears to be smaller than
the north-south extent.
From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh,
there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time
along the Standard Meridian of India
(82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in
Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time
for the whole country. The latitudinal extent
influences the duration of day and night, as
one moves from south to north.
• Why 82°30'E has been selected as the Standard
Meridian of India?
• Why is the difference between the durations
of day and night hardly felt at Kanniyakumari
but not so in Kashmir?
INDIA AND THE WORLD
The Indian landmass has a central location
between the East and the West Asia. India is a
southward extension of the Asian continent. The
trans Indian Ocean routes, which connect the
countries of Europe in the West and the
countries of East Asia, provide a strategic central
location to India. Note that the Deccan Peninsula
protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping
India to establish close contact with West Asia,
Africa and Europe from the western coast and
with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern
coast. No other country has a long coastline on
the Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it is
India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean,
which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.
Since the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe
has been reduced by 7,000 km.

Source : United Nations Demographic Year Book 2015

Figure 1.2 : Seven Largest Countries of the World

2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 1.3 : India : Extent and Standard Meridian

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION 3

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 Figure 1.4 : India on International Highway of Trade and Commerce

India’s contacts with the World have

continued through ages but her relationships • The number of Union Territories
along the western and eastern coasts.
through the land routes are much older than • Area-wise which is the smallest and which is
her maritime contacts. The various passes across the largest state?
the mountains in the north have provided • The states which do not have an international
passages to the ancient travellers, while the border or lie on the coast.
oceans restricted such interaction for a long time. • Classify the states into four groups each
These routes have contributed in the having common frontiers with
(i) Pakistan, (ii) China, (iii) Myanmar, and
exchange of ideas and commodities since (iv) Bangladesh.
ancient times. The ideas of the Upanishads
and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra,
India shares its land boundaries with
the Indian numerals and the decimal system
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest,
thus could reach many parts of the world. The
China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north
spices, muslin and other merchandise were
and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east.
taken from India to different countries. On the
Our southern neighbours across the sea
other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture,
consist of the two island countries, namely
and the architectural styles of dome and
minarets from West Asia can be seen in
different parts of our country.
Before 1947, there were two
types of states in India — the provinces and the
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS Princely states. Provinces were ruled directly by
British officials, who were appointed by the
India occupies an important strategic position Viceroy. Princely states were ruled by local,
in South Asia. India has 28 states and Eight hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sovereignity
Union Territories (Figure 1.5). in return for local autonomy.

4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 1.5 : India and Adjacent Countries

Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is
separated from India by a narrow channel
of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf
of Mannar, while Maldives Islands are situated
to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.
India has had strong geographical and
historical links with her neighbours. Look
at the physical map of Asia in your atlas,
and note how India stands apart from the
rest of Asia.

School Bhuvan is a portal providing map-based learning to bring awareness among the
students about the country’s natural resources, environment and their role in sustainable development. It
is an initiative of Bhuvan — NRSC/ISRO based on NCERT syllabus. You can explore various maps of
India related to the secondary stage on https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION 5

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 EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) The Tropic of Cancer does not pass through
(a) Rajasthan (c) Chhattisgarh
(b) Odisha (d) Tripura
(ii) The easternmost longitude of India is
(a) 97° 25' E (c) 77° 6' E
(b) 68° 7' E (d) 82° 32' E
(iii) Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim have common
frontiers with
(a) China (c) Nepal
(b) Bhutan (d) Myanmar
(iv) If you intend to visit Kavarati during your summer vacations, which one of
the following Union Territories of India you will be going to
(a) Puducherry (c) Andaman and Nicobar
(b) Lakshadweep (d) Daman and Diu
(v) My friend hails from a country which does not share land boundary with
India. Identify the country.
(a) Bhutan (c) Bangladesh
(b) Tajikistan (d) Nepal
2 Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Name the group of islands lying in the Arabian Sea.
(ii) Name the countries which are larger than India.
(iii) Which island group of India lies to its south-east?
(iv) Which island countries are our southern neighbours?
3 The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat
in the west but the watches show the same time. How does this happen?
4 The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is considered of
great significance. Why?

MAP SKILLS

1. Identify the following with the help of map reading.

(i) The island groups of India lying in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
(ii) The countries constituting Indian subcontinent.
(iii) The States through which the Tropic of Cancer passes.
(iv) The northernmost latitude in degrees.
(v) The southernmost latitude of the Indian mainland in degrees.
(vi) The eastern and the western-most longitude in degrees.
(vii) The place situated on the three seas.
(viii) The strait separating Sri Lanka from India.
(ix) The Union Territories of India.

PROJECT/ACTIVITY

(i) Find out the longitudinal and latitudinal extent of your state.
(ii) Collect information about the ‘Silk Route’. Also find out the new
developments, which are improving communication routes in the regions of
high altitude.

6 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 PHYSICAL FEATURES
Y
ou have already learnt earlier that India
is a vast country with varied land forms.
What kind of terrain do you live in? If
you live in the plains, you are familiar with the
vast stretches of plain land. In contrast, if you
live in hilly region, the rugged terrain with
mountains and valleys are common features.
In fact, our country has practically all major
physical features of the earth, i.e., mountains,
plains, deserts, plateaus and islands.
The land of India displays great physical
variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on
the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one
of the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas
and the Northern Plains are the most recent
landforms. From the view point of geology,
Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone.
The whole mountain system of Himalaya
represents a very youthful topography with
high peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers.
The northern plains are formed of alluvial
deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed
of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently
rising hills and wide valleys.
MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
The physical features of India can be grouped
under the following physiographic divisions
(Figure 2.2):
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OF INDIA
2
(1) The Himalayan Mountains
(2) The Northern Plains
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
The Himalayas, geologically young and
structurally fold mountains stretch over the
northern borders of India. These mountain
ranges run in a west-east direction from the
Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas
represent the loftiest and one of the most
rugged mountain barriers of the world. They
form an arc, which covers a distance of about
2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in
Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The
altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern
half than those in the western half. The
Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in
its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie
between these ranges. The northern-most
range is known as the Great or Inner
Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most
continuous range consisting of the loftiest
peaks with an average height of
6,000 metres. It contains all prominent
Himalayan peaks.
 Figure 2.1 : Himalayas

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas The range lying to the south of the
Peak Country Height Himadri forms the most rugged mountain
in metres system and is known as Himachal or lesser
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed
Kanchenjunga India 8598
Makalu Nepal 8481 of highly compressed and altered rocks. The
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500
Nanga Parbat India 8126
metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
Annapurna Nepal 8078
Nanda Devi India 7817 While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest
Kamet India 7756 and the most important range, the Dhaula
Namcha Barwa India 7756
Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728
prominent ones. This range consists of the
The folds of the Great Himalayas are famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This
of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is region is well-known for its hill stations.
perennially snow bound, and a number of
glaciers descend from this range.
• Location of Mussoorie, Nainital,
Ranikhet from your atlas and also name the state
where they are located.
• The names of the glaciers and passes
that lie in the Great Himalayas.
• The name of the states where the highest The outer-most range of the Himalayas is
peaks are located. called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 2.2 : Relief

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 9

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 Figure 2.3 : The Himalayas

of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying categories. Find out some regional names of
between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges the Himalayas
are composed of unconsolidated sediments The Brahmaputra marks the eastern-most
brought down by rivers from the main boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang
Himalayan ranges located farther north. gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south
These valleys are covered with thick and spread along the eastern boundary of
gravel and alluvium. The longitudinal valley India. They are known as the Purvachal or the
lying between lesser Himalaya and the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills
Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, running through the north-eastern states are
Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the mostly composed of strong sandstones, which
well-known Duns. are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense
Besides the longitudinal divisions, the
forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges
Himalayas have been divided on the basis of
and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the
regions from west to east. These divisions
Patkai hills, the Naga hills, the Manipur hills
have been demarcated by river valleys. For
and the Mizo hills.
example, the part of Himalayas lying between
Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal
Himalaya from west to east respectively. The
part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj
and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon
Himalayas. The Kali and Teesta rivers
demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part
lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers is
known as Assam Himalayas. There are
regional names also in these broad Figure 2.4 : Mizo Hills

10 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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The Northern Plain
The northern plain has been formed by the
interplay of the three major river systems,
namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. This
plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition
of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills
of the Himalaya over millions of years, formed
this fertile plain. It spreads over an area of 7
lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 km
long and 240 to 320 km broad, is a densely
populated physiographic division. With a rich
soil cover combined with adequate water
supply and favourable climate it is
agriculturally a productive part of India.
Figure 2.5 : The Northern Plains
The rivers coming from northern
mountains are involved in depositional work.
In the lower course, due to gentle slope, the
velocity of the river decreases, which results in
the formation of riverine islands.
Majuli, in the Brahmaputra
river, is the largest inhabited riverine island in the
world.
The rivers in their lower course split into
numerous channels due to the deposition of silt.
These channels are known as distributaries.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
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The Northern Plain is broadly divided into
three sections. The Western part of the Northern
Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains.
Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the
larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan. The
Indus and its tributaries — the Jhelum, the
Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
originate in the Himalaya. This section of the
plain is dominated by the doabs.
‘Doab’ is made up of two words
— ‘do’ meaning two and ‘ab’ meaning water. Similarly
‘Punjab’, is also made up two words — ‘Punj’ meaning
five and ‘ab’ meaning water.
The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar
and Teesta rivers. It is spread over North India in
Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and
West Bengal. In the East, particularly in Assam
lies the Brahmaputra plain.
The northern plains are generally described
as flat land with no variations in its relief. It is
not true. These vast plains also have diverse
relief features. According to the variations in
relief features, the Northern plains can be
divided into four regions. The rivers, after
descending from the mountains deposit
pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km
in width lying parallel to the slopes of the
Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar. All the
streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South
of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge
and create a wet, swampy and marshy region
known as terai. This was a thickly forested
region full of wildlife. The forests have been
cleared to create agricultural land and to settle
migrants from Pakistan after partition. Locate
Dudhwa National Park in this region.
The largest part of the northern plain is
formed of older alluvium. It lies above the
floodplains of the rivers and presents a terrace-
like feature. This part is known as bhangar.
The soil in this region contains calcareous
deposits, locally known as kankar. The
11
newer, younger deposits of the floodplains
are called khadar. They are renewed almost
every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for
intensive agriculture.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is a tableland
composed of the old crystalline, igneous and
metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the
breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land
and thus, making it a part of the oldest
landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow
valleys and rounded hills. This plateau consists
of two broad divisions, namely, the Central
Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The part
of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of
the Narmada river, covering a major area of the
Malwa plateau, is known as the Central
Highlands. The Vindhyan range is bounded
by the Satpura range on the south and the
Aravalis on the northwest. The further
westward extension gradually merges with the
sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The
flow of the rivers draining this region, namely
the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken
is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating
the slope. The Central Highlands are wider in
the west but narrower in the east. The eastward
extensions of this plateau are locally known
as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
Figure 2.6 : A Waterfall in Chotanagpur Plateau
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The Chotanagpur plateau marks the
further eastward extension, drained by the
Damodar river.
The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass
that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The
Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north,
while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the
Maikal range form its eastern extensions. Locate
these hills and ranges in the Physical map of
India. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west
and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the
Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally
known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau
and North Cachar Hills. It is separated by a fault
from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three prominent
hill ranges from the west to the east are the Garo,
the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
mark the western and the eastern edges of the
Deccan Plateau respectively. Western Ghats lie
parallel to the western coast. They are continuous
and can be crossed through passes only. Locate
the Thal, Bhor and Pal Ghats in the Physical
map of India.
The Western Ghats are higher than the
Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900–
1600 metres as against 600 metres of the
Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch
from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the
south. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous
and irregular and dissected by rivers draining
into the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats
cause orographic rain by facing the rain
bearing moist winds to rise along the western
slopes of the Ghats. The Western Ghats are
known by different local names. The height of
the Western Ghats progressively increases
from north to south. The highest peaks
include the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the
Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri
(1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the
Eastern Ghats. Shevroy Hills and the Javadi
Hills are located to the southeast of the
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
Eastern Ghats. Locate the famous hill stations more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan
of Udagamandalam, popularly known as boundary. If you visit Jaisalmer, you may go
Ooty and the Kodaikanal. to see a group of barchans.
One of the distinct features of the
Peninsular plateau is the black soil area The Coastal Plains
known as Decean Trap. This is of volcanic
The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch
origin, hence, the rocks are igneous. Actually,
of narrow coastal strips, running along the
these rocks have denuded over time and are
Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal
responsible for the formation of black soil. The
on the east. The western coast, sandwiched
Aravali Hills lie on the western and
between the Western Ghats and the Arabian
northwestern margins of the Peninsular
Sea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three
plateau. These are highly eroded hills and are
sections. The northern part of the coast is called
found as broken hills. They extend from
the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch
Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast
is called the Kannad Plain, while the southern
direction.
stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast.
The Indian Desert
The Indian desert lies towards the western
margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating
sandy plain covered with sand dunes. This
region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm
per year. It has arid climate with low vegetation
cover. Streams appear during the rainy
season. Soon after they disappear into the
sand as they do not have enough water to
reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in
this region.

Figure 2.8 : The Coastal Plains

The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide

and level. In the northern part, it is referred to
as the Northern Circar, while the southern part
is known as the Coromandel Coast. Large
rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed
extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is
an important feature along the eastern coast.
Figure 2.7 : The Indian Desert

The Chilika Lake is the

Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes) cover largest salt water lake in India. It lies in the state
larger areas but longitudinal dunes become of Odisha, to the south of the Mahanadi delta.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 13

2022-23
The Islands
You have already seen that India has a vast
mainland. Besides this, the country has two groups
of islands. Can you identify these island groups?
Figure 2.9 : An Island
Locate the Lakshadweep Islands group
lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This
group of islands is composed of small coral
isalnds. Earlier they were known as Laccadive,
Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973, these were
named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area
of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the
administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
This island group has great diversity of flora
and fauna. The Pitti island, which is
uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
Corals
Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic
organisms, which live in colonies. They flourish
in shallow, mud-free and warm waters. They
secrete calcium carbonate. The coral secretion
and their skeletons from coral deposits in the
form of reefs: they are mainly of three kinds:
barrier reef. fringing reef and atolls. The Great
Barrier Reef of Australia is a good example of the
first kind of coral reefs. Atolls are circular or
horse shoe-shaped coral reefs.
14
2022-23
Now you see the elongated chain of islands
located in the Bay of Bengal extending from
north to south. These are Andaman and
Nicobar islands. They are bigger in size and
are more numerous and scattered. The entire
group of islands is divided into two broad
categories – The Andaman in the north and
the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that these
islands are an elevated portion of submarine
mountains. These island groups are of great
strategic importance for the country. There is
great diversity of flora and fauna in this group
of islands too. These islands lie close to equator
and experience equatorial climate and has
thick forest cover.
India’s only active volcano is
found on Barren island in Andaman and Nicobar
group of Islands.
A detailed account of the different
physiographic units highlights the unique
features of each region. It would, however,
be clear that each region complements the
other and makes the country richer in its
natural resources. The mountains are the
major sources of water and forest wealth.
The northern plains are the granaries of the
country. They provide the base for early
civilisations. The plateau is a storehouse
of minerals, which has played a crucial role
in the industrialisation of the country. The
coastal region and island groups provide
sites for fishing and port activities. Thus,
the diverse physical features of the land
have immense future possibilities
of development.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is referred to as
(a) Coast (c) Peninsula
(b) Island (d) None of the above
(ii) Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with
Myanmar are collectively called
(a) Himachal (c) Purvachal
(b) Uttarakhand (d) None of the above
(iii) The western coastal strip, south of Goa is referred to as
(a) Coromandel (c) Kannad
(b) Konkan (d) Northern Circar
(iv) The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is
(a) Anai Mudi (c) Mahendragiri
(b) Kanchenjunga (d) Khasi
2 Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What is the bhabar?
(ii) Name the three major divisions of the Himalayas from north to south.
(iii) Which plateau lies between the Aravali and the Vindhyan ranges?
(iv) Name the island group of India having coral origin.
3. Distinguish between
(i) Bhangar and Khadar
(ii) Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
4. Which are the major physiographic divisions of India? Contrast the relief of the
Himalayan region with that of the Peninsular plateau.
5. Give an account of the Northern Plains of India.
6. Write short notes on the following.
(i) The Indian Desert
(ii) The Central Highlands
(iii) The Island groups of India

MAP SKILLS

On an outline map of India show the following.

(i) Mountain and hill ranges – the Karakoram, the Zaskar, the Patkai Bum,
the Jaintia, the Vindhya range, the Aravali, and the Cardamom hills.
(ii) Peaks – K2, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat and the Anai Mudi.
(iii) Plateaus, Chotanagpur and Malwa
(iv) The Indian Desert, Western Ghats, Lakshadweep Islands

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 15

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 PROJECT/ACTIVITY

Locate the peaks, passes, ranges, plateaus, hills, and duns hidden in the puzzle.
Try to find where these features are located. You may start your search
horizontally, vertically or diagonally.

16 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 DRAINAGE
3
T
he term drainage describes the river DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN INDIA
system of an area. Look at the physical
The drainage systems of India are mainly
map. You will notice that small streams
controlled by the broad relief features of the
flowing from different directions come together
subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers
to form the main river, which ultimately drains
are divided into two major groups:
into a large water body such as a lake or a sea
• the Himalayan rivers; and
or an ocean. The area drained by a single river
• the Peninsular rivers.
system is called a drainage basin. A closer
Apart from originating from the two major
observation on a map will indicate that any
physiographic regions of India, the Himalayan
elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland,
and the Peninsular rivers are different from
separates two drainage basins. Such an upland
each other in many ways. Most of the
is known as a water divide (Figure 3.1).
Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means
that they have water throughout the year.
am
m
BB These rivers receive water from rain as well
treea
Sr
S
as from melted snow from the lofty
ammA W
at
treea mountains. The two major Himalayan rivers,
Sr
S er
Di
vi
de
the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate
from the north of the mountain ranges. They
have cut through the mountains making
gorges. The Himalayan rivers have long
courses from their source to the sea.

Figure 3.1 : Water Divide

The world’s largest drainage

basin is of the Amazon river

• Which river has the largest basin in India?

Figure 3.2 : A Gorge

2022-23
They perform intensive erosional activity in
their upper courses and carry huge loads of
silt and sand. In the middle and the lower
courses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow
lakes, and many other depositional features
in their floodplains. They also have well-
developed deltas (Figure 3.3).
Source of River
Upper Course
Middle Course
Meander
Ox-Bow Lake
Lower
Course
Delta
Figure 3.3 : Some Features Made by Rivers
A large number of the Peninsular rivers are
seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall.
During the dry season, even the large rivers
have reduced flow of water in their channels.
The Peninsular rivers have shorter and
shallower courses as compared to their
Himalayan counterparts. However, some of
them originate in the central highlands and flow
towards the west. Can you identify two such
large rivers? Most of the rivers of peninsular
India originate in the Western Ghats and flow
towards the Bay of Bengal.
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The Himalayan Rivers
The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are
long, and are joined by many large and
important tributaries. A river alongwith its
tributaries may be called a river system.
The Indus River System
The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake
Mansarowar. Flowing west, it enters India in the
Ladakh. It forms a picturesque gorge in this
part. Several tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra,
the Shyok and the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir
region. The Indus flows through Baltistan and
Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock.
The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and
the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near
Mithankot in Pakistan. Beyond this, the Indus
flows southwards eventually reaching the
Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus plain
has a very gentle slope. With a total length of
2900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers
of the world. A little over a third of the Indus
basin is located in India Ladakh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and the
rest is in Pakistan.
• According to the regulations
of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can
use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by
the Indus river system. This water is used for
irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and the southern
and the western parts of Rajasthan.
The Ganga River System
The headwaters of the Ganga, called the
‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and
joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in
Uttarakhand. At Haridwar, the Ganga emerges
from the mountains on to the plains.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 Figure 3.4 : Major Rivers and Lakes

DRAINAGE 19

2022-23

Figure 3.5 : Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda at
Devaprayag
The Ganga is joined by many tributaries
from the Himalayas, a few of them being major
rivers, such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the
Gandak and the Kosi. The river Yamuna rises
from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas.
It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right
bank tributary meets the Ganga at Allahabad.
The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise
in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers,
which flood parts of the northern plains every
year, causing widespread damage to life and
property, whereas, they enrich the soil for
agricultural use.
The main tributaries, which come from the
peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the
Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi-arid
areas, have shorter courses and do not carry
much water in them. Find out where and how
they ultimately join the Ganga.
• The Namami Gange Programme
is an Integrated Conservation Mission approved as
a ‘flagship programme’ by the Union Government
in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of
effective abatement of pollution, conservation and
rejuvenation of the national river, Ganga. You may
explore about this project at http://nmcg.nic.in/
NamamiGanga.sspx#
Enlarged with the waters from its right and
left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows
eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is
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the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The
river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly
(a distributary) flows southwards through the
deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The
mainstream, flows southwards into
Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Further downstream, it is known as the
Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into
the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these
rivers is known as the Sundarban Delta.
• The Sundarban Delta derived
its name from the Sundari tree, which grows well
in marshland.
• It is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta.
It is also the home of Royal Bengal tiger.
The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km.
Look at Figure 3.4; can you identify the type of
drainage pattern formed by the Ganga river
system? Ambala is located on the water divide
between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban
stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its
slope is hardly 300 metres. In other words, there
is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km.
Therefore, the river develops large meanders.
The Brahmaputra River System
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of
Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of
the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer
than the Indus, and most of its course lies
outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to
the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha
Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters
India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge.
Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by
the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other
tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• Brahmaputra is known as
the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 In Tibet, the river carries a smaller volume of
water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area.
In India, it passes through a region of high
rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume of
water and considerable amount of silt. The
Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire
length in Assam and forms many riverine islands.
Do you remember the name of the world’s largest
riverine island formed by the Brahmaputra?
Every year during the rainy season, the
river overflows its banks, causing widespread
devastation due to floods in Assam and
Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers,
the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits
of silt on its bed causing the riverbed to rise.
The river also shifts its channel frequently.
The Peninsular Rivers
The main water divide in Peninsular India is
formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from
north to south close to the western coast. Most
of the major rivers of the Peninsula, such as
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the
Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at
their mouths. There are numerous small
streams flowing west of the Western Ghats.
The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long
rivers, which flow west and make esturies. The
drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are
comparatively smaller in size.
The Narmada Basin
The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills
in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west
in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its
way to the sea, the Narmada creates many
picturesque locations. The ‘Marble rocks’,
near Jabalpur, where the Narmada flows
through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar
falls, where the river plunges over steep rocks,
are some of the notable ones.
DRAINAGE
2022-23
• The Narmada river
conservation mission has been undertaken by the
government of Madhya Pradesh by a scheme named
Namami Devi Narmade. You may visit their website.
http://www.namamidevinarmade.mp.gov.in to
learn more about it.
All tributaries of the Narmada are very short
and most of these join the main stream at right
angles. The Narmada basin covers parts of
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
The Tapi Basin
The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the
Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows
in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is
much shorter in length. Its basin covers parts
of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The coastal plains between Western Ghats
and the Arabian Sea are very narrow. Hence,
the coastal rivers are short. The main west
flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi,
Bharathpuzha and Periyar. Find out the states
in which these rivers drain the water.
The Godavari Basin
The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It
rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in
the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is
about 1500 km. It drains into the Bay of Bengal.
Its drainage basin is also the largest among the
peninsular rivers. The basin covers parts of
Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin
area lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari is
joined by a number of tributaries, such as the
Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Manjra,
the Wainganga and the Penganga. The last three
tributaries are very large. Because of its length
and the area it covers, it is also known as the
Dakshin Ganga.
The Mahanadi Basin
The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of
Chhattisgarh. It flows through Odisha to reach
21
the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is
about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
and Odisha.
The Krishna Basin
Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the
Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches
the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the
Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the
Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage
basin is shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh.
The Kaveri Basin
The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the
Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal
in south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. The total
length of the river is about 760 km. Its main
tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati
and Kabini. Its basin drains parts of Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• The river Kaveri makes the
second biggest waterfall in India, known as
Shivasamudram Falls. The hydroelectric power
generated from the falls is supplied to Mysuru,
Bengaluru and the Kolar Gold Field.
• The name of the biggest waterfall
in India.
Besides these major rivers, there are some
smaller rivers flowing towards the east. The
Damoder, the Brahmani, the Baitarni and the
Subarnrekha are some notable examples.
Locate them in your atlas.
• 71 per cent of the world’s
surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of
that is salt water.
• Of the 3 per cent that is available as freshwater,
three quarters of it is trapped as ice.
LAKES
You may be familiar with the valley of Kashmir
and the famous Dal Lake, the house boats and
shikaras, which attract thousands of tourists
every year. Similarly, you may have visited
some other tourist spot near a lake and enjoyed
boating, swimming and other water games.
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Imagine that if Srinagar, Nainital and other
tourists places did not have a lake would they
have been as attractive as they are today? Have
you ever tried to know the importance of lakes
in making a place attractive to tourists? Apart
from attraction for tourists, lakes are also useful
to human beings in many ways.
• Lakes of large extent are called seas,
like the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.
India has many lakes. These differ from
each other in size and other characteristics.
Most lakes are permanent; some contain water
only during the rainy season, like the lakes in
the basins of inland drainage of semi-arid
regions. There are some lakes which are the
result of the action of glaciers and ice sheets,
while others have been formed by wind, river
action and human activities.
A meandering river across a floodplain
forms cut-offs that later develops into ox-bow
lakes. Spits and bars form lagoons in the
coastal areas, e.g. the Chilika lake, the Pulicat
lake and the Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region
of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for
example, the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which
is a salt water lake. Its water is used for
producing salt.
Most of the freshwater lakes are in the
Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin.
In other words, they formed when glaciers
dug out a basin, which was later filled with
snowmelt. The Wular lake in Jammu and
Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of tectonic
activity. It is the largest freshwater lake in
India. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak
and Barapani are some other important
freshwater lakes.
Figure 3.6 : Loktak Lake
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 Apart from natural lakes, the damming of
the rivers for the generation of hydel power has
also led to the formation of lakes, such as Guru
Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).
Activity
Make a list of natural and artificial
lakes with the help of the atlas.
Lakes are of great value to human beings.
A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river.
During heavy rains, it prevents flooding and
during the dry season, it helps to maintain
an even flow of water. Lakes can also be used
for developing hydel power. They moderate the
climate of the surroundings; maintain the
aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty,
help develop tourism and provide recreation.
ROLE OF RIVERS IN THE ECONOMY
Rivers have been of fundamental importance
throughout the human history. Water from
rivers is a basic natural resource, essential
for various human activities. Therefore,
riverbanks have attracted settlers from ancient
times. These settlements have now become big
cities. Make a list of cities in your state which
are located on the bank of a river.
Using rivers for irrigation, navigation,
hydro-power generation is of special
significance — particularly to a country like
India, where agriculture is the major source
of livelihood of the majority of its population.
RIVER POLLUTION
The growing domestic, municipal, industrial
and agricultural demand for water from rivers
naturally affects the quality of water. As a
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) In which of the following states is the Wular lake located?
(a) Rajasthan
(b) Uttar Pradesh
DRAINAGE
National River Conservation Plan
(NRCP)
The river cleaning programme in the
country was initiated with the launching
of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP)
in 1985. The Ganga Action Plan was
expanded to cover other rivers under the
National River Conservation Plan
(NRCP) in the year 1995. The objective
of the NRCP is to improve the water
quality of the rivers, which are major
water sources in the country, through
the implementation of pollultion
abatement work.
Source: http://nrcd.nic.in/nrcp.pd as on
25.07.17
result, more and more water is being drained
out of the rivers reducing their volume. On the
other hand, a heavy load of untreated sewage
and industrial effluents are emptied into the
rivers. This affects not only the quality of water
but also the self-cleansing capacity of the river.
For example, given the adequate streamflow,
the Ganga water is able to dilute and assimilate
pollution loads within 20 km of large cities.
But the increasing urbanisation and
industrialisation do not allow it to happen and
the pollution level of many rivers has been
rising. Concern over rising pollution in our
rivers led to the launching of various action
plans to clean the rivers. Have you heard about
such action plans? How does our health get
affected by polluted river water? Think about
“life of human beings without fresh water”.
Arrange a debate on this topic in the class.
(c) Punjab
(d) Jammu and Kashmir
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 (ii) The river Narmada has its source at
(a) Satpura (c) Amarkantak
(b) Brahmagiri (d) Slopes of the Western Ghats
(iii) Which one of the following lakes is a salt water lake?
(a) Sambhar (c) Wular
(b) Dal (d) Gobind Sagar
(iv) Which one of the following is the longest river of the Peninsular India?
(a) Narmada (c) Godavari
(b) Krishna (d) Mahanadi
(v) Which one amongst the following rivers flows through a rift valley?
(a) Mahanadi (c) Krishna
(b) Tungabhadra (d) Tapi
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What is meant by a water divide? Give an example.
(ii) Which is the largest river basin in India?
(iii) Where do the rivers Indus and Ganga have their origin?
(iv) Name the two headstreams of the Ganga. Where do they meet to form the Ganga?
(v) Why does the Brahmaputra in its Tibetan part have less silt, despite a
longer course?
(vi) Which two Peninsular rivers flow through trough?
(vii) State some economic benefits of rivers and lakes.
3. Below are given names of a few lakes of India. Group them under two categories
– natural and created by human beings.
(a) Wular (b) Dal
(c) Nainital (d) Bhimtal
(e) Gobind Sagar (f) Loktak
(g) Barapani (h) Chilika
(i) Sambhar (j) Rana Pratap Sagar
(k) Nizam Sagar (l) Pulicat
(m) Nagarjuna Sagar (n) Hirakund
4. Discuss the significant difference between the Himalayan and the Peninsular
rivers.
5. Compare the east flowing and the west flowing rivers of the Peninsular plateau.
6. Why are rivers important for the country’s economy?

Map Skills
(i) On an outline map of India mark and label the following rivers: Ganga,
Satluj, Damodar, Krishna, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra.
(ii) On an outline map of India mark and label the following lakes: Chilika,
Sambhar, Wular, Pulicat, Kolleru.

24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 Project/Activity
Solve this crossword puzzle with the help of given clues.

Across
1. Nagarjuna Sagar is a river valley project. Name the river?
2. The longest river of India.
3. The river which originates from a place known as Beas Kund.
4. The river which rises in the Betul district of MP and flows westwards.
5. The river which was known as the “Sorrow” of West Bengal.
6. The river on which the reservoir for Indira Gandhi Canal has been built.
7. The river whose source lies near Rohtang Pass.
8. The longest river of Peninsular India?

Down
9. A tributary of Indus originating from Himachal Pradesh.
10. The river flowing through fault, drains into the Arabian Sea.
11. A river of south India, which receives rainwater both in summer and winter.
12. A river which flows through Ladakh, Gilgit and Pakistan.
13. An important river of the Indian desert.
14. The river which joins Chenab in Pakistan.
15. A river which rises at Yamunotri glacier.

DRAINAGE 25

2022-23

CLIMATE
I
n the last two chapters you have read about
the landforms and the drainage of
our country. These are the two of the three
basic elements that one learns about the natural
environment of any area. In this chapter you
will learn about the third, that is, the
atmospheric conditions that prevail over our
country. Why do we wear woollens in December
or why it is hot and uncomfortable in the month
of May, and why it rains in June - July? The
answers to all these questions can be found out
by studying about the climate of India.
Climate refers to the sum total of weather
conditions and variations over a large area for
a long period of time (more than thirty years).
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere
over an area at any point of time. The elements
of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind,
humidity and precipitation. You may have
observed that the weather conditions fluctuate
very often even within a day. But there is some
common pattern over a few weeks or months,
i.e. days are cool or hot, windy or calm, cloudy
or bright, and wet or dry. On the basis of the
generalised monthly atmospheric conditions,
the year is divided into seasons such as winter,
summer or rainy seasons.
The world is divided into a number of
climatic regions. Do you know what type of
climate India has and why it is so? We will
learn about it in this chapter.
• The word monsoon is
derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which
literally means season.
• ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the
wind direction during a year.
2022-23
4
The climate of India is described as the
‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate
is found mainly in the south and the southeast.
Despite an overall unity in the general pattern,
there are perceptible regional variations in
climatic conditions within the country. Let us
take two important elements – temperature and
precipitation, and examine how they vary from
place to place and season to season.
In summer, the mercury occasionally
touches 50°C in some parts of the Rajasthan
desert, whereas it may be around 20°C in
Pahalgam in Jammu and Kashmir. On a winter
night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and
Kashmir may be as low as minus 45°C.
Thiruvananthapuram, on the other hand, may
have a temperature of 22°C.
In certain places there is a
wide difference between day and night
temperatures. In the Thar Desert the day
temperature may rise to 50°C, and drop down
to near 15°C the same night. On the other hand,
there is hardly any difference in day and night
temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar
islands or in Kerala.
Let us now look at precipitation. There are
variations not only in the form and types of
precipitation but also in its amount and the
seasonal distribution. While precipitation is
mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper parts
of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the
country. The annual precipitation varies from
over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm
in Ladakh and western Rajasthan. Most parts
of the country receive rainfall from June to
September. But some parts like the Tamil Nadu
coast gets a large portion of its rain during
October and November.
In general, coastal areas experience less
contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal
contrasts are more in the interior of the
country. There is decrease in rainfall generally
from east to west in the Northern Plains. These
variations have given rise to variety in lives of
people – in terms of the food they eat, the
clothes they wear and also the kind of houses
they live in.
• Why the houses in Rajasthan have thick
walls and flat roofs?
• Why is it that the houses in the Tarai region and
in Goa and Mangalore have sloping roofs?
• Why houses in Assam are built on stilts?
CLIMATIC CONTROLS
There are six major controls of the climate of
any place. They are: latitude, altitude,
pressure and wind system, distance from
the sea (continentality), ocean currents and
relief features.
Due to the curvature of the earth, the
amount of solar energy received varies
according to latitude. As a result, air
temperature generally decreases from the
equator towards the poles. As one goes from
the surface of the earth to higher altitudes,
the atmosphere becomes less dense and
temperature decreases. The hills are therefore
cooler during summers. The pressure and
wind system of any area depend on the
latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it
influences the temperature and rainfall
pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence
on climate: As the distance from the sea
increases, its moderating influence decreases
and the people experience extreme weather
conditions. This condition is known as
continentality (i.e. very hot during summers
and very cold during winters). Ocean currents
along with onshore winds affect the climate of
the coastal areas, For example, any coastal
area with warm or cold currents flowing past
it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are
onshore.
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2022-23
• Why most of the world’s deserts are
located in the western margins of continents in the
subtropics?
Finally, relief too plays a major role in
determining the climate of a place. High mountains
act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may
also cause precipitation if they are high enough
and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The
leeward side of mountains remains relatively dry.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE
Latitude
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle
of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the
west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the
country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer,
belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining
area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of
tropical as well as subtropical climates.
Altitude
India has mountains to the north, which have
an average height of about 6,000 metres. India
also has a vast coastal area where the
maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The
Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central
Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is
because of these mountains that this
subcontinent experiences comparatively
milder winters as compared to central Asia.
Pressure and Winds
The climate and associated weather conditions
in India are governed by the following
atmospheric conditions:
• Pressure and surface winds;
• Upper air circulation; and
• Western cyclonic disturbances and
tropical cyclones.
India lies in the region of north easterly
winds. These winds originate from the
subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern
27
hemisphere. They blow southwards, get
deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force,
and move towards the equatorial low-pressure
area. Generally, these winds carry little
moisture as they originate and blow over land.
Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence,
India should have been an arid land, but it is
not so. Let us see why?
Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s
rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting
winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere
and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This
is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.
The pressure and wind conditions over
India are unique. During winter, there is a
high-pressure area north of the Himalayas.
Cold dry winds blow from this region to the
low-pressure areas over the oceans to the
south. In summer, a low-pressure area
develops over interior Asia, as well as, over
northwestern India. This causes a complete
reversal of the direction of winds during
summer. Air moves from the high-pressure
area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a
south-easterly direction, crosses the equator,
and turns right towards the low-pressure areas
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known
as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds
blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture
and bring widespread rainfall over the
mainland of India.
The upper air circulation in this region is
dominated by a westerly flow. An important
component of this flow is the jet stream.
These jet streams are located approximately
over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are
known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over
India, these jet streams blow south of the
Jet stream: These are a narrow belt of high
altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the
troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110
km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
A number of separate jet streams have been
identified. The most constant are the mid-latitude
and the sub-tropical jet stream.
28
2022-23
Himalayas, all through the year except in
summer. The western cyclonic disturbances
experienced in the north and north-western parts
of the country are brought in by this westerly
flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet
stream moves north of the Himalayas with the
apparent movement of the sun. An easterly jet
stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet stream
blows over peninsular India, approximately over
14°N during the summer months.
Western Cyclonic Disturbances
The western cyclonic disturbances are weather
phenomena of the winter months brought in by the
westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They
usually influence the weather of the north and
north-western regions of India. Tropical cyclones
occur during the monsoon, as well as, in
October – November, and are part of the easterly
flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions
of the country. Have you read or heard about the
disasters caused by them on Odisha and Andhra
Pradesh coast?
THE INDIAN MONSOON
The climate of India is strongly influenced by
monsoon winds. The sailors who came to India
in historic times were one of the first to have
noticed the phenomenon of the monsoon. They
benefited from the reversal of the wind system
as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of
winds. The Arabs, who had also come to India
as traders named this seasonal reversal of the
wind system ‘monsoon’.
Figure 4.1 : Arrival of Monsoon
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 Figure 4.2 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January

Figure 4.3 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of June

CLIMATE 29

2022-23
 The monsoons are experienced in the
tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20°
S. To understand the mechanism of the
monsoons, the following facts are important.
(a) The differential heating and cooling of
land and water creates low pressure on the
landmass of India while the seas around
experience comparatively high pressure.
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over
the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough
normally positioned about 5°N of the
equator. It is also known as the monsoon-
trough during the monsoon season).
(c) The presence of the high-pressure area,
east of Madagascar, approximately at
20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity
and position of this high-pressure area
affects the Indian Monsoon.
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely
heated during summer, which results in
strong vertical air currents and the
formation of low pressure over the plateau
at about 9 km above sea level.
(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream
to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet
stream over the Indian peninsula during
summer.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a
broad trough of low pressure in equatorial
latitudes. This is where the northeast and the
southeast trade winds converge. This
convergence zone lies more or less parallel to
the equator but moves north or south with the
apparent movement of the sun.
Apart from this, it has also been noticed that
changes in the pressure conditions over the
southern oceans also affect the monsoons.
Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific
Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical
eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure.
But in certain years, there is a reversal in the
pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has
lower pressure in comparison to the eastern
Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure
30
2022-23
conditions is known as the Southern
Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure
over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and
Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean,
12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the
intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure
differences were negative, it would mean below
average and late monsoons. A feature connected
with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon in which
a warm ocean current that flows past the
Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian
current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in
pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino.
Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO
(El Nino Southern Oscillations).
El Nino: This is a name given to the periodic
development of a warm ocean current along the
coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the
cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’ is a Spanish word
meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the baby Christ,
as this current starts flowing during Christmas.
The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase
in sea-surface temperatures and weakening of
the trade winds in the region.
THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL
The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady
winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by
different atmospheric conditions encountered
by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas.
The duration of the monsoon is between 100-
120 days from early June to mid-September.
Around the time of its arrival, the normal
rainfall increases suddenly and continues
constantly for several days. This is known as
the ‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be
distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers.
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the
Indian peninsula generally by the first week of
June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the
Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches
Mumbai about ten days later on
approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly
rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also
advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the
first week of June. The lofty mountains causes
the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
over the Ganga plains. By mid-June the
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives
over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part
of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over
the northwestern part of the Ganga plains.
Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers
from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of
June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first
week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the
monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches
Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country
(Figure 4.3).
Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon
is a more gradual process (Figure 4.4). The
withdrawal of the monsoon begins in
northwestern states of India by early
September. By mid-October, it withdraws
completely from the northern half of the
peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern
half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from
the rest of the country.
The islands receive the very first monsoon
showers, progressively from south to north,
from the last week of April to the first week of
May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively
from north to south from the first week of
December to the first week of January. By this
time the rest of the country is already under
the influence of the winter monsoon.
THE SEASONS
The monsoon type of climate is characterised
by a distinct seasonal pattern. The weather
conditions greatly change from one season to
the other. These changes are particularly
noticeable in the interior parts of the country.
The coastal areas do not experience much
variation in temperature though there is
variation in rainfall pattern. How many seasons
are experienced in your place? Four main
seasons can be identified in India – the cold
weather season, the hot weather season, the
advancing monsoon and the retreating
monsoon with some regional variations.
CLIMATE
2022-23
The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
The cold weather season begins from mid-
November in northern India and stays till
February. December and January are the
coldest months in the northern part of India.
The temperature decreases from south to the
north. The average temperature of Chennai, on
the eastern coast, is between 24° – 25° Celsius,
while in the northern plains, it ranges between
10°C and 15° Celsius. Days are warm and
nights are cold. Frost is common in the north
and the higher slopes of the Himalayas
experience snowfall.
During this season, the northeast trade
winds prevail over the country. They blow from
land to sea and hence, for most part of the
country, it is a dry season. Some amount of
rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from
these winds as, here they blow from sea to land.
In the northern part of the country, a feeble
high-pressure region develops, with light winds
moving outwards from this area. Influenced by
the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga
valley from the west and the northwest. The
weather is normally marked by clear sky, low
temperatures and low humidity and feeble,
variable winds.
A characteristic feature of the cold weather
season over the northern plains is the inflow of
cyclonic disturbances from the west and the
northwest. These low-pressure systems,
originate over the Mediterranean Sea and
western Asia and move into India, along with
the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed
winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the
mountains. Although the total amount of
winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is
small, they are of immense importance for the
cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
The peninsular region does not have a well-
defined cold season. There is hardly any
noticeable seasonal change in temperature
pattern during winters due to the moderating
influence of the sea.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
Due to the apparent northward movement of the
sun, the global heat belt shifts northwards. As
such, from March to May, it is hot weather season
31
 Figure 4.4 : Advancing Monsoon

32 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
in India. The influence of the shifting of the heat
belt can be seen clearly from temperature
recordings taken during March-May at different
latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is
about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan
plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May,
temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the
northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular
India, temperatures remain lower due to the
moderating influence of the oceans.
The summer months experience rising
temperature and falling air pressure in the
northern part of the country. Towards the end
of May, an elongated low-pressure area
develops in the region extending from the Thar
Desert in the northwest to Patna and
Chotanagpur plateau in the east and
southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in
around this trough.
A striking feature of the hot weather season
is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry
winds blowing during the day over the north and
northwestern India. Sometimes they even
continue until late in the evening. Direct exposure
to these winds may even prove to be fatal. Dust
storms are very common during the month of
May in northern India. These storms bring
temporary relief as they lower the temperature
and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is
also the season for localised thunderstorms,
associated with violent winds, torrential
downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West
Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal
Baisakhi’.
Towards the close of the summer season,
pre-monsoon showers are common especially,
in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early
ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to
as ‘mango showers’.
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)
By early June, the low-pressure condition over
the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the
trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These
south-east trade winds originate over the
warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans.
They cross the equator and blow in a south-
CLIMATE
2022-23
westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula
as the south-west monsoon. As these winds
blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant
moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are
strong and blow at an average velocity of 30
km per hour. With the exception of the extreme
north-west, the monsoon winds cover the
country in about a month.
The inflow of the south-west monsoon into
India brings about a total change in the
weather. Early in the season, the windward
side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy
rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan
Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also
receive some amount of rain in spite of lying
in the rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall
of this season is received in the north-eastern
part of the country. Mawsynram in the
southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the
highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall
in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to
the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get
scanty rainfall.
Another phenomenon associated with the
monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in
rainfall. Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In
other words, the monsoon rains take place
only for a few days at a time. They are
interspersed with rainless intervals. These
breaks in monsoon are related to the
movement of the monsoon trough. For
various reasons, the trough and its axis keep
on moving northward or southward, which
determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over
the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On
the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer
to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells
in the plains, and widespread rain occur in
the mountainous catchment areas of the
Himalayan rivers. These heavy rains bring in
their wake, devastating floods causing
damage to life and property in the plains. The
frequency and intensity of tropical
depressions too, determine the amount and
duration of monsoon rains. These
depressions form at the head of the Bay of
Bengal and cross over to the mainland. The
depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon
33
 Figure 4.5 : Retreating Monsoon

34 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is
known for its uncertainties. The alternation
of dry and wet spells vary in intensity,
frequency and duration. While it causes heavy
floods in one part, it may be responsible for
droughts in the other. It is often irregular in
its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes
disturbs the farming schedule of millions of
farmers all over the country.
Retreating/Post Monsoons
(The Transition Season)
During October-November, with the apparent
movement of the sun towards the south, the
monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough
over the northern plains becomes weaker. This
is gradually replaced by a high-pressure
system. The south-west monsoon winds
weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By
the beginning of October, the monsoon
withdraws from the Northern Plains.
The months of October-November form a
period of transition from hot rainy season to
dry winter conditions. The retreat of the
monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in
Mawsynram, the wettest
place on the earth is also reputed for its
stalagmite and stalactite caves.
temperature. While day temperatures are
high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land
is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high
temperature and humidity, the weather
becomes rather oppressive during the day.
This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In
the second half of October, the mercury begins
to fall rapidly in northern India.
The low-pressure conditions, over north-
western India, get transferred to the Bay of
Bengal by early November. This shift is
associated with the occurrence of cyclonic
depressions, which originate over the
Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross
the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and
widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are
often very destructive. The thickly populated
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deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which
cause great damage to life and property.
Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts
of Odisha, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The
bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
derived from depressions and cyclones.
DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
Parts of western coast and northeastern India
receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western
Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat,
Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low
in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east
of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive
low rainfall? A third area of low precipitation
is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest
of the country receives moderate rainfall.
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
Owing to the nature of monsoons, the
annual rainfall is highly variable from year to
year. Variability is high in the regions of low
rainfall, such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat
and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As
such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to
be affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are
drought-prone (Figure 4.6 and 4.7).
MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND
You have alr eady known the way the
Himalayas protect the subcontinent from
extremely cold winds from central Asia. This
enables northern India to have uniformly
higher temperatures compared to other areas
on the same latitudes. Similarly, the
Peninsular plateau, under the influence of the
sea from three sides, has moderate
temperatures. Despite such moderating
influences, there are great variations in the
temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
unifying influence of the monsoon on the
Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The
seasonal alteration of the wind systems and
the associated weather conditions provide a
rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the
uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution
35
 Figure 4.6 : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)

36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 4.7 : Annual Rainfall

CLIMATE 37

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38
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

Activity
(i) On the basis of the news items above, find out the names of places and the seasons described.
(ii) Compare the rainfall description of Chennai and Mumbai and explain the reasons for the difference.
(iii) Evaluate flood as a disaster with the help of a case study.

2022-23
are very much typical of the monsoons. The
Indian landscape, its animal and plant life,
its entire agricultural calendar and the life of
the people, including their festivities, revolve
around this phenomenon. Year after year,
people of India from north to south and from
east to west, eagerly await the arrival of the
monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the
whole country by providing water to set the
agricultural activities in motion. The river
valleys which carry this water also unite as a
single river valley unit.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the correct answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following places receives the highest rainfall in the world?
(a) Silchar (c) Cherrapunji
(b) Mawsynram (d) Guwahati
(ii) The wind blowing in the northern plains in summers is known as:
(a) Kaal Baisakhi (c) Trade Winds
(b) Loo (d) None of the above
(iii) Which one of the following causes rainfall during winters in north-western
part of India.
(a) Cyclonic depression (c) Western disturbances
(b) Retreating monsoon (d) Southwest monsoon
(iv) Monsoon arrives in India approximately in:
(a) Early May (c) Early June
(b) Early July (d) Early August
(v) Which one of the following characterises the cold weather season in India?
(a) Warm days and warm nights
(b) Warm days and cold nights
(c) Cool days and cold nights
(d) Cold days and warm nights
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the controls affecting the climate of India?
(ii) Why does India have a monsoon type of climate?
(iii) Which part of India does experience the highest diurnal range of temperature
and why?
(iv) Which winds account for rainfall along the Malabar coast?
(v) What are Jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India?
(vi) Define monsoons. What do you understand by “break” in monsoon?
(vii) Why is the monsoon considered a unifying bond?
3. Why does the rainfall decrease from the east to the west in Northern India.
4. Give reasons as to why.
(i) Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian
subcontinent?
(ii) The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months.
(iii) The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall.
(iv) The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.
(v) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are
drought-prone.

CLIMATE 39

2022-23
 5. Describe the regional variations in the climatic conditions of India with the help
of suitable examples.
6. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons.
7. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season.
8. Give the characteristics and effects of the monsoon rainfall in India.

MAP SKILLS
On an outline map of India, show the following.
(i) Areas receiving rainfall over 400 cm.
(ii) Areas receiving less than 20 cm of rainfall.
(iii) The direction of the south-west monsoon over India.

PROJECT/ACTIVITY
(i) Find out which songs, dances, festivals and special food preparations are
associated with certain seasons in your region. Do they have some
commonality with other regions of India?
(ii) Collect photographs of typical rural houses, and clothing of people from
different regions of India. Examine whether they reflect any relationship
with the climatic condition and
relief of the area.
FOR DOING IT YOURSELF
1. In Table-I, the average mean monthly
temperatures and amounts of rainfall of 10
representative stations have been given. It is
for you to study on your own and convert them
into ‘temperature and rainfall’ graphs. A
glance at these visual representations will help
you to grasp instantly the smilarities and
differences between them. One such graph
(Figure 1) is already prepared for you. See if
you can arrive at some broad generalisations
about our diverse climatic conditions. We hope
you are in for a great joy of learning. Do the Figure 1 : Temperature and Rainfall of Delhi
following activities.
2. Re-arrange the 10 stations in two different sequences:
(i) According to their distance from the equator.
(ii) According to their altitude above mean sealevel.
3. (i) Name two rainiest stations.
(ii) Name two driest stations.
(iii) Two stations with most equable climate.
(iv) Two stations with most extreme climate.
(v) Two stations most influenced by the Arabian branch of southwest monsoons.
(vi) Two stations most influenced by the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoons.
(vii) Two stations influenced by both branches of the southwest monsoons
(viii) Two stations influenced by retreating and northeast monsoons.
(ix) Two stations receiving winter showers from the western disturbances.
(x) The two hottest stations in the months of
(a) February (b) April (c) May (d) June

40 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 Table I
Stations Latitude Altitude Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
(Metres) Rainfall

Temperature (°C) 20.5 22.7 25.2 27.1 26.7 24.2 23.0 23.0 23.1 22.9 18.9 20.2
Bengaluru 12°58'N 909
Rainfall (cm) 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.5 10.7 7.1 11.1 13.7 16.4 15.3 6.1 1.3 88.9

Temperature (°C) 24.4 24.4 26.7 28.3 30.0 28.9 27.2 27.2 27.2 27.8 27.2 25.0
Mumbai 19° N 11
Rainfall (cm) 0.2 0.2 – – 1.8 50.6 61.0 36.9 26.9 4.8 1.0 – 183.4

Temperature (°C) 19.6 22.0 27.1 30.1 30.4 29.9 28.9 28.7 28.9 27.6 23.4 19.7
Kolkata 22°34' N 6
Rainfall (cm) 1.2 2.8 3.4 5.1 13.4 29.0 33.1 33.4 25.3 12.7 2.7 0.4 162.5

Temperature (°C) 14.4 16.7 23.3 30.0 33.3 33.3 30.0 29.4 28.9 25.6 19.4 15.6
Delhi 29° N 219
Rainfall (cm) 2.5 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.8 7.4 19.3 17.8 11.9 1.3 0.2 1.0 67.0

Temperature (°C) 16.8 19.2 26.6 29.8 33.3 33.9 31.3 29.0 20.1 27.0 20.1 14.9
Jodhpur 26°18' N 224
Rainfall (cm) 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.0 3.1 10.8 13.1 5.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 36.6

Temperature (°C) 24.5 25.7 27.7 30.4 33.0 32.5 31.0 30.2 29.8 28.0 25.9 24.7
Chennai 13°4' N 7
Rainfall (cm) 4.6 1.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 4.5 8.7 11.3 11.9 30.6 35.0 13.9 128.6

Temperature (°C) 21.5 23.9 28.3 32.7 35.5 32.0 27.7 27.3 27.9 26.7 23.1 20.7
Nagpur 21°9' N 312
Rainfall (cm) 1.1 2.3 1.7 1.6 2.1 22.2 37.6 28.6 18.5 5.5 2.0 1.0 124.2

Temperature (°C) 9.8 11.3 15.9 18.5 19.2 20.5 21.1 20.9 20.0 17.2 13.3 10.4
Shillong 24°34' N 1461
Rainfall (cm) 1.4 2.9 5.6 14.6 29.5 47.6 35.9 34.3 30.2 18.8 3.8 0.6 225.3

Temperature (°C) 26.7 27.3 28.3 28.7 28.6 26.6 26.2 2.6.2 26.5 26.7 26.6 26.5
Thiruvananthapuram 8°29' N 61
Rainfall (cm) 2.3 2.1 3.7 10.6 20.8 35.6 22.3 14.6 13.8 27.3 20.6 7.5 181.2

Temperature (°C) – 8.5 – 7.2 – 0.6 6.1 10.0 14.4 17.2 16.1 12.2 6.1 0.0 – 5.6
Leh 34° N 34°N 3506
Rainfall (cm) 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.5 – 0.5 8.5

4. Now find out

(i) Why are Thiruvananthapuram and Shillong rainier in June than in July?
(ii) Why is July rainier in Mumbai than in Thiruvananthapuram?
(iii) Why are southwest monsoons less rainy in Chennai?
(iv) Why is Shillong rainier than Kolkata?
(v) Why is Kolkata rainier in July than in June unlike Shillong which is rainier in June than
in July?
(vi) Why does Delhi receive more rain than Jodhpur?
5. Now think why
— Thiruvananthapuram has equable climate?
— Chennai has more rains only after the fury of monsoon is over in most parts of the country?
— Jodhpur has a hot desert type of climate?
— Leh has moderate precipitation almost throughut the year?
— while in Delhi and Jodhpur most of the rain is confined to nearly three months, in
Thiruvananthapuram and Shillong it is almost nine months of the year?
In spite of these facts see carefully if there are strong evidences to conclude that the monsoons
still provide a very strong framework lending overall climatic unity to the whole country.

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 NATURAL VEGETATION
H
ave you observed the type of trees,
bushes, grasses and birds in the fields
and parks in and around your school?
Are they similar or there are variations? India
being a vast country you can imagine the
types of bio-forms available throughout the
country.
Our country India is one of the 12 mega
bio-diversity countries of the world. With
about 47,000 plant species India occupies
tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in
plant diversity. There are about 15,000
flowering plants in India, which account for
6 per cent in the world’s total number of
flowering plants. The country has many non-
flowering plants, such as ferns, algae and
fungi. India also has approximately 90,000
species of animals, as well as, a rich variety of
fish in its fresh and marine waters.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community, which has grown naturally
without human aid and has been left
undisturbed by humans for a long time. This
is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus,
cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part
of vegetation but not natural vegetation.
The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or
indigenous species but those which have come
from outside India are termed as exotic plants.
The term flora is used to denote plants of
a particular region or period. Similarly, the
species of animals are referred to as fauna. This
huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is
due to the following factors.
2022-23
AND WILDLIFE
5
RELIEF
Land
Land affects the natural vegetation directly
and indirectly. Do you expect the same type
of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and
plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The
nature of land influences the type of
vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted
to agriculture. The undulating and rough
terrains are areas where grassland and
woodlands develop and give shelter to a
variety of wildlife.
Soil
The soils also vary over space. Different types
of soils provide basis for different types of
vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert
support cactus and thorny bushes, while wet,
marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and
deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some
depth of soil have conical trees.
CLIMATE
Temperature
The character and extent of vegetation are
mainly determined by temperature along with
humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the
fall in the temperature affects the types of
vegetation and its growth, and changes it from
tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine
vegetation.
 Table 5.1 : Temperature Characteristics of the Vegetation Zones

Vegetation Zones Mean annual Mean Temp. Remarks

Average Temp. in January
(in degree C) (in degree C)

Tropical Above 24°C Above 18° No Frost

Subtropical 17°C to 24°C 10°C to 18°C Frost is rare
Temperate 7°C to 17° C -1°C to (-10 ) °C Frost some snow
Alpine Below 7°C Below–1°C Snow
Source : Environment Atlas of India, June 2001, Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi

Photoperiod (Sunlight ) humus to the soil and shelter to the wildlife.

India’s natural vegetation has undergone
The variation in duration of sunlight at different
many changes due to several factors, such as
places is due to differences in latitude, altitude,
the growing demand for cultivated land,
season and duration of the day. Due to longer
development of industries and mining,
duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in
urbanisation and over-grazing of pastures.
summer.

Why are the southern slopes in Himalayan
region covered with thick vegetation cover as compared
to northern slopes of the same hills?
Activity
Celebrate Van Mahotsav in your school/locality
and plant a few spalings and notice their growth

Precipitation
The vegetation cover of India in large parts
In India, almost the entire rainfall is brought in is no more natural in the real sense. Except in
by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to
some inaccessible regions, like the Himalayas,
September) and retreating northeast monsoons.
the hilly region of central India and the
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
marusthali, the vegetation in most of the areas
as compared to areas of less rainfall.
has been modified at some places, or replaced
or degraded by human occupancy.
Why are the western stopes of the
Western Ghats covered with thick forests and not
Activity
the eastern slopes?
Study the bar graph (Figure 5.1) and
answer the following questions.
Have you ever thought as to why forests
(i) Name the state having maximum area under
are important for human beings? Forests are forest cover.
renewable resources and play a major role in (ii) Name the union territory having minimum
enhancing the quality of environment. They area under forest cover and why?
modify local climate, control soil erosion,
regulate stream flow, support a variety of
industries, provide livelihood for many
communities and offer panoramic or scenic According to India State of
view for recreation. They control wind force and Forest Report 2019, the forest cover in India is
temperature and cause rains. They provide 21.67per cent.

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 43

2022-23
 AREA IN PER CENT

STATE/UT

Source : India State of Forest Report 2013–14 Figure 5.1 Area under Forest Cover

TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may
be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall
areas of the Western Ghats and the island
groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and
Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu
coast. They are at their best in areas having
more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry
season. The trees reach great heights up to 60
metres or even above. Since the region is warm
and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant
vegetation of all kinds — trees, shrubs and
creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There
is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
Figure 5.2 : Tropical Evergreen Forest
As such, these forests appear green all the
year round.

44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 Figure 5.3 : Natural Vegetation
Study the given map for the forest cover and try to find the reasons as to why certain states have more forest area
as compared to others?

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 45

2022-23
 Some of the commercially important trees
of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood,
rubber and cinchona.
The common animals found in these forests
are elephant, monkey, lemur and deer. One-
horned rhinoceroses are found in the jungles
of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these
animals, plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions
and snails are also found in these jungles.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests of India.
They are also called the monsoon forests and
spread over the region receiving rainfall
between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest
type shed their leaves for about six to eight
weeks in dry summer.
On the basis of the availability of water,
these forests are further divided into moist and
dry deciduous. The former is found in areas
receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the
eastern part of the country — northeastern
states, along the foothills of the Himalayas,
Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh,
and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,
kusum, arjun and mulberry are other
commercially important species.
Figure 5.4 : Tropical Deciduous Forest
46
2022-23
The dry deciduous forests are found in areas
having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
These forests are found in the rainier parts of
the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches,
in which teak, sal, peepal and neem grow. A
large part of this region has been cleared for
cultivation and some parts are used for grazing.
In these forests, the common animals found
are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge
variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises
are also found here.
The Thorn Forests and Scrubs
In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the
natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and
bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the
north-western part of the country, including
semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and
Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti
are the main plant species. Trees are scattered
and have long roots penetrating deep into the
soil in order to get moisture. The stems are
succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly
thick and small to minimise evaporation. These
forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in
arid areas.
In these forests, the common animals are
rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild
ass, horses and camels.
Figure 5.5 : Thorn Forests and Scrubs
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
the corresponding change in natural
vegetation. As such, there is a succession of
natural vegetation belts in the same order as
we see from the tropical to the tundra region.
The wet temperate type of forests are found
between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.
Evergreen broad-leaf trees, such as oaks and
chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and
3000 metres, temperate forests containing
coniferous trees, like pine, deodar, silver fir,
spruce and cedar, are found. These forests
cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and north-east India. At higher
elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
At high altitudes, generally, more than 3,600
metres above the sea level, temperate forests
and grasslands give way to the Alpine
vegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and
birches are the common trees of these forests.
However, they get progressively stunted as
they approach the snow-line. Ultimately,
through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into
the Alpine grasslands. These are used
Figure 5.6 : Montane Forests
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
2022-23
extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes, like
the Gujjars and the Bakarwals. At higher
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of
tundra vegetation.
The common animals found in these forests
are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
Mangrove Forests
The mangrove tidal forests are found in the
areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense
mangroves are the common varieties with roots
of the plants submerged under water. The
deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-
Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found,
which provide durable hard timber. Palm,
coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some
parts of the delta.
Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal
in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials
and snakes are also found in these forests.
Figure 5.7 : Mangrove Forests
Let us discuss : What will happen if plants and
animals disappear from the earth’s surface? Can
the human beings survive under such a situation?
Why is biodiversity necessary and why should it be
conserved?
47
 MEDICINAL PLANTS
India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have been described in Ayurveda
and at least 500 are in regular use. The World Conservation Union’s Red List has named 352 medicinal plants
of which 52 are critically threatened and 49 endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:
Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.
Jamun : The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar, which is carminative and diuretic, and
has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling diabetes.
Arjun : The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate blood pressure.
Babool : Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem : Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi : Is used to cure cough and cold.
Kachnar : Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for digestive problems.
Identify more medicinal plants in your area. Which plants are used as medicines by local
people to cure some diseases?

Source : Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of India

different species of deer are some

other animals found in India. It also
has several species of monkeys.

Wildlife Protection Act

was implemented in 1972 in India.

India is the only country in the

Activity
Can you identify the type of forest shown in this picture?
Identify some trees in it. What type of similarity/
dissimilarity you notice in this type of vegetation from
the one found in your region?
WILDLIFE
Like its flora, India is also rich in its fauna. It
has approximately 90,000 animal species.
The country has about 2,000 species of birds.
They constitute 13% of the world’s total. There
are 2,546 species of fish, which account for
nearly 12% of the world’s stock. It also shares
between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
The elephants are the most majestic
animals among the mammals. They are found
in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and
Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses are the other
animals, which live in swampy and marshy
lands of Assam and West Bengal. Arid areas
of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert
are the habitat for wild ass and camels
respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull),
chousingha (four-horned antelope), gazel and
world that has both tigers and lions.
The natural habitat of the Indian lion
is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are
found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh,
the Sundarbans of West Bengal and the
Himalayan region. Leopards, too, are
members of the cat family. They are
important among animals of prey.
Do you know
The Gir Forest is the
last remaining habitat
of the Asiatic lion.
The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of
animals, which survive in extreme cold.
Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are a home to
yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing
around one tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the
bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang
(Tibetan wild ass). Furhtermore, the ibex, bear,
snow-leopard and rare red panda are found
in certain pockets.
In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas,
turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found. The

48 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 Dampara

Figure 5.8 : Wildlife Reserves

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 49

2022-23
latter is the only representative of a variety of
crocodile, found in the world today.
Bird life in India is colourful. Peacocks,
pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and
pigeons are some of the birds inhabiting the
forests and wetlands of the country.
We have selected our crops from a
bio-diverse environment, i.e., from the reserve
of edible plants. We also experimented and
selected many medicinal plants. The animals
were selected from large stock provided by
nature as milch animal. They also provided
us draught power, transportation, meat and
eggs. The fish provide nutritive food. Many
insects help in pollination of crops and fruit
trees and exerting biological control on such
insects is harmful. Every species has a role to
play in the ecosystem. Hence, conservation is
essential. As has been mentioned earlier due
to excessive exploitation of plant and animal
resources by human beings, the ecosystem
has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant
species are endangered and 20 species are
extinct. Quite a few animal species are also
endangered and some have become extinct.
The main causes for this major threat to
nature are hunting by greedy hunters for
commercial purposes. Pollution due to
chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits,
introduction of alien species and reckless
cutting of the forests to bring land under
cultivation and habitation, are also
responsible for the imbalance.
To protect the flora and fauna of the
country, the government has taken many
steps.
(i) Eighteen biosphere reserves have been
set up in the country to protect flora and
fauna. Ten out of these, the Sundarbans
Nanda Devi, the Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiri,
Nokrek, Great Nicobar, Manas, Simlipal,
Pachmarhi and Achanakmar-Amarkantak
have been included in the world network
of biosphere reserves.

Activity
(i) Find out from the above newspaper cuttings, the main concern highlighted in the given news items.
(ii) Collect more information about various endangered species from newspapers and magazines.
(iii) Find out various steps taken by the Indian government to protect them.
(iv) Describe how you can contribute to the protection of endangered animals and birds.

50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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Figure 3.5 : Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda at
Devaprayag
The Ganga is joined by many tributaries
from the Himalayas, a few of them being major
rivers, such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the
Gandak and the Kosi. The river Yamuna rises
from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas.
It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right
bank tributary meets the Ganga at Allahabad.
The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise
in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers,
which flood parts of the northern plains every
year, causing widespread damage to life and
property, whereas, they enrich the soil for
agricultural use.
The main tributaries, which come from the
peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the
Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi-arid
areas, have shorter courses and do not carry
much water in them. Find out where and how
they ultimately join the Ganga.
• The Namami Gange Programme
is an Integrated Conservation Mission approved as
a ‘flagship programme’ by the Union Government
in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of
effective abatement of pollution, conservation and
rejuvenation of the national river, Ganga. You may
explore about this project at http://nmcg.nic.in/
NamamiGanga.sspx#
Enlarged with the waters from its right and
left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows
eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is
20
2022-23
the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The
river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly
(a distributary) flows southwards through the
deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The
mainstream, flows southwards into
Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Further downstream, it is known as the
Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into
the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these
rivers is known as the Sundarban Delta.
• The Sundarban Delta derived
its name from the Sundari tree, which grows well
in marshland.
• It is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta.
It is also the home of Royal Bengal tiger.
The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km.
Look at Figure 3.4; can you identify the type of
drainage pattern formed by the Ganga river
system? Ambala is located on the water divide
between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban
stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its
slope is hardly 300 metres. In other words, there
is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km.
Therefore, the river develops large meanders.
The Brahmaputra River System
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of
Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of
the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer
than the Indus, and most of its course lies
outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to
the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha
Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters
India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge.
Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by
the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other
tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• Brahmaputra is known as
the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What factors are responsible for the distribution of plants and animals in
India?
(ii) What is a bio-reserve? Give two examples.
(iii) Name two animals having habitat in tropical and montane type of vegetation.
3. Distinguish between
(i) Flora and Fauna
(ii) Tropical Evergreen and Deciduous forests
4. Name different types of Vegetation found in India and describe the vegetation of
high altitudes.
5. Quite a few species of plants and animals are endangered in India. Why?
6. Why has India a rich heritage of flora and fauna?

Map Skills

On an outline map of India, label the following.

(i) Areas of Evergreen Forests
(ii) Areas of Dry Deciduous Forests
(iii) Two national parks each in Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western parts
of the Country

Project/Activity

(i) Find some trees in your neighbourhood having medicinal values.

(ii) Find ten occupations getting raw material from forests and wildlife.
(iii) Write a poem or paragraph showing the importance of wildlife.
(iv) Write the script of a street play giving the importance of tree plantation and
try to enact it in your locality.
(v) Plant a tree either on your birthday or one of your family member’s birthday.
Note the growth of the tree and notice in which season it grows faster.

52 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 6
POPULATION

C
an you imagine a world without human
beings? Who would have utilised
the resources and created social and
cultural environment? The people are
important to develop the economy and the
society. The people make and use resources
and are themselves resources with varying
quality. Coal is but a piece of rock, until people
were able to invent technology to obtain it and
make it ‘resource’. Natural events, like a flood
or a Tsunami, becomes a ‘disaster’ only when
they affect a crowded village or a town.
Hence, population is the pivotal element in
social studies. It is the point of reference from
which all other elements are observed and from
which they derive significance and meaning.
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all
meaningful only in relation to human beings.
Their numbers, distribution, growth and
characteristics or qualities provide the basic
background for understanding and
appreciating all aspects of the environment.
Human beings are producers and
consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it
is important to know how many people are
there in a country, where do they live, how and
why their numbers are increasing and what
are their characteristics. The census of India
provides us with information regarding the
population of our country.
We are primarily concerned with three
major questions about population:
(i) Population size and distribution: How
many people are there and where are they
located?
(ii) Population growth and processes of
population change: How has the
population grown and changed through
time?
(iii) Characteristics or qualities of the
population: What are their age, sex
composition, literacy levels, occupational
structure and health conditions?
POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
India’s Population Size and Distribution
by Numbers
India’s population as on March 2011 stood at
1,210.6 million, which account for 17.5 per cent
of the world’s population. These 1.21 billion
people are unevenly distributed over our
country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km,
which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s
area (Figure 6.1).
The 2011 Census data reveal that Uttar
Pradesh with a population size of 199 million
is the most populous state of India. Uttar

Census
A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. In India, the first census was held in the year
1872. The first complete census, however, was taken in the year 1881. Since then, censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year.
The Indian Census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data. Have you
ever seen a census report? Check in your library if it has one.

2022-23
 POPULATION Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent of the
country’s population. On the other hand, the
Rest of the world, 82.5%
Himalayan state of Sikkim has a population of
just about 0.6 million and Lakshadweep has
only 64,429 people.
Almost half of India’s population lives in
just five states. These are Uttar Pradesh,
India, 17.5%
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra
Pradesh. Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms
AREA
of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total
population of India (Figure 6.2)
Rest of the world, 97.6%

• What could be the reason

of uneven distribution of population in India?

India’s Population Distribution by Density

India, 2.4%
Population density provides a better picture
Fig 6.1 : India’s Share of World’s Area and Population of the uneven distribution. Population density

Fig. 6.2: Distribution of Population

Source: Census of India, 2011

54 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2022-23
 Fig. 6.3: Density of Population 2011

Note: Telangana became the 29th State of India in June 2014.

* State of Jammu and Kashmir was bifurcated into two union territories namely Jammu and
Kashmir and Ladakh on 05.08.19.

POPULATION 55

2022-23
is calculated as the number of persons per Population Growth
unit area. India is one of the most densely Growth of population refers to the change in
populated countries of the world. the number of inhabitants of a country/territory
during a specific period of time, say during the
Only Bangladesh and Japan have last 10 years. Such a change can be expressed
Do You Know higher average population densities in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and
than India. Find out the population in terms of percentage change per year.
densities of Bangladesh and Japan. The absolute numbers added each year or
decade is the magnitude of increase. It is
The population density of India in the year obtained by simply subtracting the earlier
2011 was 382 persons per sq km. Densities population (e.g. that of 2001) from the later
vary from 1,102 persons per sq km in Bihar to population (e.g. that of 2011). It is referred to
only 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal as the absolute increase.
Pradesh. A study of the Figure 6.3 shows the The rate or the pace of population increase
pattern of uneven distribution of population is the other important aspect. It is studied in
densities at the State level. per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of
2 per cent per annum means that in a given
Activity year, there was an increase of two persons for
Study the Figure 6.3 and compare it with every 100 persons in the base population. This
Figure 2.4 and Figure 4.7. Do you find any is referred to as the annual growth rate.
corelation between these maps?
India’s population has been steadily
increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1210
Note the States with population densities
million in 2011.
below 250 persons per square km. Rugged
Table 6.1 : The Magnitude and Rate of India’s
terrain and unfavourable climatic conditions Population Growth
are primarily responsible for sparse population
Year Total Absolute Annual
in these areas. Which states have density below Population Increase in Growth
250 persons per square km? (in million) the Decade Rate
Assam and most of the Peninsular states (in million) (%)
have moderate population densities. Hilly, 1951 361.0 42.43 1.25
dissected and rocky nature of the terrain, 1961 439.2 78.15 1.96
1971 548.2 108.92 2.20
moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less fertile 1981 683.3 135.17 2.22
soils have influenced population densities in 1991 846.4 163.09 2.16
these areas. 2001 1028.7 182.32 1.97
The Northern plains and Kerala in the south 2011 1210.6 181.46 1.64
have high to very high population densities
because of the flat plains with fertile soils and Table 6.1 and Figures 6.4 (a) and 6.4 (b)
reveal that from 1951 to 1981, the annual
abundant rainfall. Identify the three states of
rate of population growth was steadily
the Northern Plains with high population
increasing; which explains the rapid increase
densities.
in population from 361 million in 1951 to
683 million in 1981.
POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES
OF POPULATION CHANGE • Table 6.1 reveals that despite the
Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The decline in growth rates, the number of people being
added every decade is steadily increasing. Why?
numbers, distribution and composition of the
population are constantly changing. This is the
influence of the interaction of the three processes, Since 1981, however, the rate of growth
namely — births, deaths and migrations. started declining gradually. During this period,
birth rates declined rapidly. Still 182 million

56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Fig. 6.4(a): India’s Population Growth Rates during 1951-2011

Fig. 6.4(b): India’s Population 1901-2011

people were added to the total population in
the 1990s alone (an annual addition larger
than ever before).
It is essential to realise that India has a very
large population. When a low annual rate is
applied to a very large population, it yields a
large absolute increase. When more than a
billion people increase even at a lower rate, the
total number being added becomes very large.
India’s annual increase in population is large
enough to neutralise efforts to conserve the
resource endowment and environment.

POPULATION 57

2022-23
 The declining trend of the growth rate is
indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth
control. Despite that, the total additions to the
population base continue to grow, and India
may overtake China in 2045 to become the
most populous country in the world.
Processes of Population Change/Growth
There are three main processes of change of
population : birth rates, death rates and
migration.
The natural increase of population is the
difference between birth rates and death rates.
Birth rate is the number of live births per
thousand persons in a year. It is a major
component of growth because in India, birth
rates have always been higher than death
rates.
Death rate is the number of deaths per
thousand persons in a year. The main cause
of the rate of growth of the Indian population
has been the rapid decline in death rates.
Till 1980, high birth rates and declining
death rates led to a large difference between
birth rates and death rates resulting in higher
rates of population growth. Since 1981, birth
rates have also started declining gradually,
resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of
population growth. What are the reasons for
this trend?
The third component of population growth
is migration. Migration is the movement of
people across regions and territories. Migration
can be internal (within the country) or
international (between the countries).
Internal migration does not change the size
of the population, but influences the distribution
of population within the nation. Migration plays
a very significant role in changing the composition
and distribution of population.
Activity
On a map, trace the migration of each
of your grandparents and parents
since their birth. Try and analyse the
reasons for each move.
58
2022-23
In India, most migrations have been from
rural to urban areas because of the “push”
factor in rural areas. These are adverse
conditions of poverty and unemployment in the
rural areas and the “pull” of the city in terms
of increased employment opportunities and
better living conditions.
Migration is an important determinant of
population change. It changes not only the
population size but also the population
composition of urban and rural populations
in terms of age and sex composition. In India,
the rural-urban migration has resulted in a
steady increase in the percentage of population
in cities and towns. The urban population has
increased from 17.29 per cent of the total
population in 1951 to 31.80 per cent in 2011.
There has been a significant increase in the
number of ‘million plus cities’ from 35 to 53 in
just one decade, i.e., 2001 to 2011.
Age Composition
The age composition of a population refers to
the number of people in different age groups
in a country. It is one of the most basic
characteristics of a population. To an important
degree, a person’s age influences what he/she
needs, buys, does and his/her capacity to
perform. Consequently, the number and
percentage of a population found within the
children, working age and aged groups are
notable determinants of the population’s social
and economic structure.
The population of a nation is, generally,
grouped into three broad categories:
Children (generally below 15 years)
They are economically unproductive and need
to be provided with food, clothing, education
and medical care.
Working Age (15–59 years)
They are economically productive and
biologically reproductive. They comprise the
working population.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
 India : Age Structure Adults, 58.7%
Aged, 6.9%
Children, 34.4%
Figure 6.5: India: Age Composition
Aged (Above 59 years)
They can be economically productive though
they may have retired. They may be working
voluntarily but they are not available for
employment through recruitment.
The percentage of children and the aged
affect the dependency ratio because these
groups are not producers. The proportion of
the three groups in India’s population is
already presented in Figure 6.5 .
Activity :
(i) How many children do you know who are
engaged as household helpers or labourers
in your locality?
(ii) How many adults do you know in your locality
who are unemployed?
(iii) What do you feel are the reasons for this?
Sex Ratio
Sex ratio is defined as the number of females
per 1000 males in the population. This
information is an important social indicator
to measure the extent of equality between
males and females in a society at a given time.
The sex ratio in the country has always
remained unfavourable to females. Find out
why this is so? Table 6.2 shows the sex ratio
from 1951–2011.
POPULATION
2022-23
Table 6.2 : India : Sex Ratio 1951-2011
Census year Sex ratio
(Females per 1000 males)
1951 946
1961 941
1971 930
1981 934
1991 929
2001 933
2011 943
• Kerala has a sex ratio of 1084
females per 1000 males, Puducherry has 1038
females for every 1000 males, while Delhi has
only 866 females per 1000 males and Haryana
has just 877.
• What could be the reasons for such
variations?
Literacy Rates
Literacy is a very important quality of a
population. Obviously, only an informed and
educated citizen can make intelligent choices
and undertake research and development
projects. Low levels of literacy are a serious
obstacle for economic improvement.
According to the Census 2011, a person
aged 7 years and above, who can read and
write with understanding in any language, is
treated as literate.
There has been a steady improvement in
the literacy levels in India. The literacy rate in
the country as per the Census of 2011 is 73
per cent; 80.9 per cent for males and 64.6
per cent for females. Why do such differences
exist?
Occupational Structure
The percentage of population that is
economically active is an important index of
development. The distribution of the population
according to different types of occupation is
referred to as the occupational structure. An
enormous variety of occupations are found in
any country. Occupations are, generally,
classified as primary, secondary and tertiary.
59
 Primary activities include agriculture,
animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining
and quarrying, etc. Secondary activities
include manufacturing industry, building
and construction work, etc. Tertiary activities
include transport, communications,
commerce, administration and other services.
The proportion of people working in
different activities varies in developed and
developing countries. Developed nations have
a high proportion of people in secondary, and
tertiary activities. Developing countries tend
to have a higher proportion of their workforce
engaged in primary activities. In India, about
64 per cent of the population is engaged only
in agriculture. The proportion of population
dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors
is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively.
There has been an occupational shift in favour
of secondary and tertiary sectors because of
growing industrialisation and urbanisation in
recent times.
Health
Health is an important component of
population composition, which affects the
process of development. Sustained efforts of
government programmes have registered
significant improvements in the health
conditions of the Indian population. Death
rates have declined from 25 per 1000
population in 1951 to 7.2 per 1000 in 2011
and life expectancy at birth has increased from
36.7 years in 1951 to 67.9 years in 2012.
The substantial improvement is the result
of many factors including improvement in
public health, prevention of infectious
diseases and application of modern medical
practices in diagnosis and treatment of
ailments.
Despite considerable achievements, the
health situation is a matter of major concern
for India. The per capita calorie consumption
is much below the recommended levels and
malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our
population. Safe drinking water and basic
60
2022-23
sanitation amenities are available to only
one-third of the rural population. These
problems need to be tackled through an
appropriate population policy.
Adolescent Population
The most significant feature of the Indian
population is the size of its adolescent
population. It constitutes one-fifth of the total
population of India. Adolescents are,
generally, grouped in the age group of 10 to
19 years. They are the most important
resource for the future. Nutrition
requirements of adolescents are higher than
those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition
can lead to deficiency and stunted growth.
But in India, the diet available to adolescents
is inadequate in all nutrients. A large number
of adolescent girls suffer from anaemia. Their
problems have so far not received adequate
attention in the process of development. The
adolescent girls have to be sensitised to the
problems they confront. Awareness among
them can be improved through the spread of
literacy and education.
National Population Policy
Recognising that the planning of families
would improve individual health and
welfare, the Government of India initiated a
comprehensive Family Planning Programme
in 1952. The Family Welfare Programme has
sought to promote responsible and planned
parenthood on a voluntary basis. The National
Population Policy (NPP) 2000 is a
culmination of years of planned efforts.
The NPP 2000 provides a policy
framework for imparting free and compulsory
school education up to 14 years of age,
reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per
1000 live births, achieving universal
immunisation of children against all vaccine
preventable diseases, promoting delayed
marriage for girls, and making family welfare
a people-centred programme.
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I
NPP 2000 and Adolescents
NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the
major section of the population that need
greater attention. Besides nutritional
requirements, the policy puts greater
emphasis on other important needs of
adolescent including protection from
unwanted pregnancies and sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs). It called for
programmes that aim towards encouraging
delayed marriage and child-bearing,
education of adolescents about the risks of
unprotected sex, making contraceptive
services accessible and affordable, providing
food supplements, nutritional services, and
strengthening legal measures to prevent child
marriage.
People are the nation’s most valuable
resource. A well-educated healthy population
provides potential power.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Migrations change the number, distribution and composition of the
population in
(a) the area of departure (c) both the area of departure and arrival
(b) the area of arrival (d) none of the above
(ii) A large proportion of children in a population is a result of
(a) high birth rates (c) high death rates
(b) high life expectancies (d) more married couples
(iii) The magnitude of population growth refers to
(a) the total population of an area
(b) the number of persons added each year
(c) the rate at which the population increases
(d) the number of females per thousand males
(iv) According to the Census, a “literate” person is one who
(a) can read and write his/her name
(b) can read and write any language
(c) is 7 years old and can read and write any language with understanding
(d) knows the 3 ‘R’s (reading, writing, arithmetic)
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Why is the rate of population growth in India declining since 1981?
(ii) Discuss the major components of population growth.
(iii) Define age structure, death rate and birth rate.
(iv) How is migration a determinant factor of population change?
3. Distinguish between population growth and population change.
4. What is the relation between occupational structure and development?
5. What are the advantages of having a healthy population?
6. What are the significant features of the National Population Policy 2000?

POPULATION 61

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 PROJECT/ACTIVITY

Conduct a class census by preparing a questionnaire. The questionnaire should contain

minimum five questions. Questions should relate to students, their family members, their
class performance, their health, etc. Each student is required to fill in the questionnaire.
Compile the information in numerical terms (in terms of percentage). Present the information
through pie-chart, bar-diagram or in any other way.

62 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 GLOSSARY
Adolescence : Adolescence is a period in which a person is no longer a child and
not yet an adult. Such persons are grouped in the age group of
10 to 19 years.
Alluvial plain : A level tract of land made up of alluvium or fine rock material
brought down by a river.
Base population : The total population of an area at the beginning of a given time
period.
Biome : Plant communities occuring in distinct groups in areas having
similar climatic conditions.
Birth rate : The number of live births for every 1000 persons in a year.
Depression : In meteorology; it denotes an area of relatively low atmospheric
pressure, which is found mainly in temperate regions. In geology,
it refers to a hollow sunken area of the earth’s surface.
Death rate : The number of deaths per 1000 persons in year.
Density of population : The average number of persons per unit area, such as a square
kilometre.
Dependency ratio : The ratio of people of dependent age (below 15 and above 60 years)
to people of economically active ages (15-59 years).
Ecosystem : A system which comprises the physical environment and the
organisms living therein.
Environment : Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or thing
exists and develops his or its character. It covers both physical
and cultural elements.
Fault : A linear break in rocks of the earth’s crust along which there has
been displacement in a horizontal, vertical or oblique direction.
Fauna : The animal life of a given area.
Flora : The total vegetation or plant cover of a region.
Fold : A bend in the rock strata resulting from compression of an area of
the earth’s crust.
Geosyncline : A narrow, shallow, elongated basin with a sinking bottom in which
a considerable thickness of sediments was deposited by the rivers
coming from Angara and Gondwanaland.
Glacier : A mass of snow and ice that moves slowly under the influence of
gravity along a confined course away from its place of accumulation.
Growth rate of population : The growth rate of population indicates the rate at which the
population is growing. In estimating the growth rate the increase
in population is compared with the base population. It can be
measured annually or over a decade.
Indian mainland : It refers to the contiguous stretch of landmass from Jammu and
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari and from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh.
Indian Standard Time : The local time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E).
Inland drainage : A drainage system in which the waters of the rivers do not reach
the oceans but fall into an inland sea or lake.

2022-23
Igneous rocks : Rocks formed as a result of solidification of magma either below
the earth’s surface or above it.
Lagoon : A salt-water lake separated from the sea by the sandbars and spits.
Lake : A body of water that lies in a hollow in the earth’s surface and is
entirely surrounded by land.
Lithospheric plates : Large segments of the earth’s crust composed of continental and
oceanic lithospheric parts, floating above the asthenosphere.
Life expectancy : The average number of years one is expected to live.
Local time : The time of a place determined by the midday sun is called the
local time.
Metamorphic rocks : Deformation and alteration of pre-existing igneous and
sedimentary rocks as a result of changes in physical and chemical
conditions due to intense heat or pressure.
Migration : Movement of people from one place to another. Internal migration
means movement of people within a country and external migration
means movement of people between countries. When people come
to a country from another country, it is called immigration and
when they leave that country, it is called emigration.
Million plus cities : Cities with a population of more than one million or 10 lakh.
Monsoon : A complete reversal of winds over a large area leading to a change
of seasons.
Mountain : An upward projected features of the earth’s surface that rises to
high altitude and usually possesses steep slopes.
National park : A reserved area for preserving its natural vegetation, wildlife and
the natural environment.
Plain : An extensive area of flat or gently undulating land.
Plateau : An extensive elevated area of relatively flat land.
Plate tectonics : The scientific concept that explains the movements of the crustal
plates.
Relief : The differences in elevation or the physical outline of the land
surface or ocean floor.
Subsidence : In meteorology, it is the downward movement of the air. In geology,
it refers to the sinking of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Sedimentary rocks : Rocks composed of sediments and generally having a layered
structure.
Sex-ratio : Sex-ratio is defined as the number of females per thousand males.
Subcontinent : A big landmass, which stands out as a distinct geographical unit
from the rest of the continent.
Tectonic : Forces originating within the earth and responsible for bringing
widespread changes in the landform features.
Young mountains : The fold mountains formed during the most recent major phase
of folding in the earth’s crust.

64 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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Notes

2022-23
Notes

2022-23
 Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce

content load on students. The National Education Policy 2020,
also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset.
In this background, NCERT has undertaken the exercise
to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning
Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes
have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view
of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject
areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in
same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without
much interventions from teachers and can be learned
through children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This booklet contains information in tabular form about
subject-wise contents which have been dropped and
hence are not to be assessed.
 List of Rationalised Content in Textbooks

968 – Contemporary India-I

Chapter Page No. Dropped Topics/Chapter

Jet streams, western cyclonic

Chapter 4: 28, 29, 30, disturbances, The Indian Monsoon, the
Climate 31, 36 onset of the monsoon and withdrawal and
related Figs 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.6

Chapter  5:
Factors affecting the diversity of flora and
Natural
42–44 fauna
Vegetation
Fig 5.1 and Table 5.1
and Wildlife

Pointers regarding three major questions

Chapter 6: 53, 58, 59, about population, age composition, sex
Population 60, 61 ratio, literacy rates, occupational structure,
health, NPP 2000 and adolescents
Social Science

Contemporary
India Textbook in Geography
for Class X
II

2022-23
1068 – CONTEMPORARY INDIA ISBN 81-7450-644-6
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
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2022-23
trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is
known for its uncertainties. The alternation
of dry and wet spells vary in intensity,
frequency and duration. While it causes heavy
floods in one part, it may be responsible for
droughts in the other. It is often irregular in
its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes
disturbs the farming schedule of millions of
farmers all over the country.
Retreating/Post Monsoons
(The Transition Season)
During October-November, with the apparent
movement of the sun towards the south, the
monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough
over the northern plains becomes weaker. This
is gradually replaced by a high-pressure
system. The south-west monsoon winds
weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By
the beginning of October, the monsoon
withdraws from the Northern Plains.
The months of October-November form a
period of transition from hot rainy season to
dry winter conditions. The retreat of the
monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in
Mawsynram, the wettest
place on the earth is also reputed for its
stalagmite and stalactite caves.
temperature. While day temperatures are
high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land
is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high
temperature and humidity, the weather
becomes rather oppressive during the day.
This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In
the second half of October, the mercury begins
to fall rapidly in northern India.
The low-pressure conditions, over north-
western India, get transferred to the Bay of
Bengal by early November. This shift is
associated with the occurrence of cyclonic
depressions, which originate over the
Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross
the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and
widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are
often very destructive. The thickly populated
CLIMATE
2022-23
deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which
cause great damage to life and property.
Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts
of Odisha, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The
bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
derived from depressions and cyclones.
DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
Parts of western coast and northeastern India
receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western
Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat,
Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low
in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east
of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive
low rainfall? A third area of low precipitation
is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest
of the country receives moderate rainfall.
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
Owing to the nature of monsoons, the
annual rainfall is highly variable from year to
year. Variability is high in the regions of low
rainfall, such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat
and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As
such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to
be affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are
drought-prone (Figure 4.6 and 4.7).
MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND
You have alr eady known the way the
Himalayas protect the subcontinent from
extremely cold winds from central Asia. This
enables northern India to have uniformly
higher temperatures compared to other areas
on the same latitudes. Similarly, the
Peninsular plateau, under the influence of the
sea from three sides, has moderate
temperatures. Despite such moderating
influences, there are great variations in the
temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
unifying influence of the monsoon on the
Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The
seasonal alteration of the wind systems and
the associated weather conditions provide a
rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the
uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution
35
the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw
upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the
members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department
of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

iv

2022-23
Textbook development committee

C HAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

THE SECONDARY LEVEL

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of

Calcutta, Kolkata

C HIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

ADVISOR
B. S. Butola, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
Aparajita De, Lecturer, Department of Geography,
Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Geeta Duggal, Former Principal, Delhi Public School, Rewari
Indu Sharma, PGT, Demonstration School RIE, Ajmer
K. Jaya, PGT, Convent of Jesus and Mary, Bangla Sahib Road, New Delhi
Punam Behari, Reader, Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi
Saroj Sharma, TGT (Retd.), Mother’s International School,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi

MEMBER- COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Department of Education in Social Sciences
and Humanities, NCERT, New Delhi

2022-23
2022-23
Acknowledgements

The National Council of Educational Research and Training

acknowledges the support of individuals and organisations as listed
below for providing various photographs and other materials such as
articles used in this textbook — Shveta Uppal, NCERT, New Delhi for
Fig. 1.11, 2.4, 4.3, 4.10, 4.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Kalyan Banerjee, NCERT,
New Delhi for Fig. 7.9; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
for Fig. 2.2 (Endangered : the Nicobar megapode), 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
4.1, 5.14; CCSHAU, Hisar for Fig. 4.4(a), 4.13, 4.16; Directorate of
Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, I.A.R.I. Campus, New Pusa, New
Delhi for Fig. 4.2, 4.4(b), 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 (Groundnut and Mustard),
4.12 (Apple and Pomegranate), 4.15, 4.18; Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India for Fig. 2.2, 2.3, 4.17, 5.10, 6.11; Ministry
of Coal, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.11(a) and (b); Ministry of Mines, Govt. of
India for Fig. 5.3, 5.5, 5.8; Department of Road Transport and Highways,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.2, 7.10; Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises,
Govt. of India for Fig. 5.12, 6.6, 6.9, 6.10, 6.12; Department of Shipping,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8; Kurukshetra magazine for collage on page 24; The
Times of India for collage on page 20, 24, 29, 26, 57, 91; The Hindu for
collage on page 20; Hindustan for collage on page 91; NCERT, Social
Science, Part-II, Textbook for Class-VIII for Fig. 1.12, 2.1, 3.2.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook.
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities for her
valuable support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.
Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for
going through the textbook and for giving useful suggestions.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
Ishwar Singh, DTP Operator; Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; Dinesh Kumar,
Computer Incharge, who have helped in giving a final shape to this book.
The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.

The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this textbook
1. © Government of India, Copyright 2006
2. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the
publisher.
3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

2022-23
4. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are
at Chandigarh.
5. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and
Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.
6. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master
Copy certified by Survey of India.
7. The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar &
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by
the Governments concerned.
8. The spellings of names in these maps have been taken from various sources.

School Bhuvan–NCERT an Online web portal

Web based online e-learning Geo spatial portal School Bhuvan–NCERT has
been launched by NCERT and ISRO in collaboration to enhance geo spatial
skills among students. This online e-learning portal includes thematic maps
given in Geography textbooks. This portal enables students to use Geo-spatial
technology for better understanding of concepts in Geography. Online activities
available on the portal as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 encourage learners
from Classes VI to XII to develop neighbourhood maps and their attributes on
satellite imageries available on School Bhuvan–NCERT.

viii

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Contents

Foreword iii

1. Resources and Development 1

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 14

3. Water Resources 23

4. Agriculture 34

5. Minerals and Energy Resources 48

6. Manufacturing Industries 63

7. Lifelines of National Economy 79

Appendix–I 92

Appendix–II 93

Glossary 94

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 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

2022-23

Can you identify and name the various items
used in making life comfortable in our villages
and towns. List the items and name the
material used in their making.
Everything available in our environment
which can be used to satisfy our needs,
provided, it is technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between
nature, technology and institutions
Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources
2022-23
The process of transformation of things
available in our environment involves an
interactive relationship between nature,
technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their
economic development.
Do you think that resources are free
gifts of nature as is assumed by many?
They are not. Resources are a function of
human activities. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and international
(d) On the basis of status of development –
potential, developed stock and reserves.

Identify at least two resources from each
category.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
On the Basis of Origin
Biotic Resources: These are obtained from
biosphere and have life such as human
beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock
etc.
Abiotic Resources: All those things which are
composed of non-living things are called abiotic
resources. For example, rocks and metals.
On the Basis of Exhaustibility
Renewable Resources: The resources
which can be renewed or reproduced by
physical, chemical or mechanical processes
are known as renewable or replenishable
resources. For example, solar and wind
energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. The
renewable resource may further be divided
into continuous or flow (Fig.1.2).
Non-Renewable Resources: These occur
over a very long geological time. Minerals and
fossil fuels are examples of such resources.
These resources take millions of years in their
formation. Some of the resources like metals
are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot
be recycled and get exhausted with their use.
On the Basis of Ownership
Individual Resources: These are also owned
privately by individuals. Many farmers own
land which is allotted to them by government
against the payment of revenue. In villages
there are people with land ownership but
there are many who are landless. Urban
people own plots, houses and other property.
Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in
wells etc. are some of the examples of
resources ownership by individuals. Make a
list of resources owned by your household.
Community Owned Resources: There are
resources which are accessible to all the
members of the community. Village commons
(grazing grounds, burial grounds, village
2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots,
playgrounds in urban areas are de facto
accessible to all the people living there.
National Resources: Technically, all the
resources belong to the nation. The country
has legal powers to acquire even private
property for public good. You might have seen
roads, canals, railways being constructed on
fields owned by some individuals. Urban
Development Authorities get empowered by the
government to acquire land. All the minerals,
water resources, forests, wildlife, land within
the political boundaries and oceanic area
up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the
coast termed as territorial water and resources
therein belong to the nation.
International Resources: There are
international institutions which regulate
some resources. The oceanic resources
beyond 200 nautical miles of the coastline
of the country belong to open ocean and no
individual country can utilise these without
the concurrence of international institutions.
India has got the right to mine manganese
nodules from the bed of the Indian Ocean
from that area which lies beyond the exclusive
economic zone. Identify some other resources
which are international in nature.
On the Basis of the Status of Development
Potential Resources: Resources which are
found in a region, but have not been utilised.
For example, the western parts of India
particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have
enormous potential for the development of
wind and solar energy, but so far these have
not been developed properly.
Developed Resources: Resources which are
surveyed and their quality and quantity have
been determined for utilisation. The
development of resources depends on
technology and level of their feasibility.
Stock: Materials in the environment which
have the potential to satisfy human needs
but human beings do not have the
appropriate technology to access these, are
included among stock. For example, water is
a compound of two gases; hydrogen and
oxygen. Hydrogen can be used as a rich
source of energy. But we do not have
advanced technical ‘know-how’ to use it for
this purpose. Hence, it can be considered as
stock.
Reserves are the subset of the stock,
which can be put into use with the help of
existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use
has not been started. These can be used for
meeting future requirements. River water can
be used for generating hydroelectric power
but presently, it is being utilised only to a
limited extent. Thus, the water in the dams,
forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in
the future.
Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resources
that you are familiar with from your local area.
D EVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES
Resources are vital for human survival as well
as for maintaining the quality of life. It was
believed that resources are free gifts of nature.
A s a result, human beings used them
indiscriminately and this has led to the
following major problems.
• Depletion of resources for satisfying the
greed of a few individuals.
• Accumulation of resources in few hands,
which, in turn, divided the society into two
segments i.e. haves and have nots or rich
and poor.
1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted
one day, how would this affect our life style?
2. Plan a survey in your colony/village to
investigate people’s attitude towards
recycling of the domestic/agricultural
wastes. Ask questions about :
(a) What do they think about resources
they use?
(b) What is their opinion about the
wastes, and its utilisation?
(c) Collage your results.
2022-23
• Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has
led to global ecological crises such as, global
warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land
degradation.
An equitable distribution of resources has
become essential for a sustained quality of life
and global peace. If the present trend of resource
depletion by a few individuals and countries
continues, the future of our planet is in danger.
Therefore, resource planning is essential
for sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Sustainable existence is a component of
sustainable development.
Sustainable development
Sustainable economic development means
‘development should take place without
damaging the environment, and development
in the present should not compromise with the
needs of the future generations.’
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
International Earth Summit. The Summit was
convened for addressing urgent problems of
environmental protection and socio-
economic development at the global level.
The assembled leaders signed the
Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
endorsed the global Forest Principles and
adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
Agenda 21
It is the declaration signed by world leaders
in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
aims at achieving global sustainable
development. It is an agenda to combat
environmental damage, poverty, disease
through global co-operation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared
responsibilities. One major objective of the
Agenda 21 is that every local government
should draw its own local Agenda 21.
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3
RESOURCE PLANNING
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for
judicious use of resources. It has importance
in a country like India, which has enormous
diversity in the availability of resources. There
are regions which are rich in certain types of
resources but are deficient in some other
resources. There are some regions which can
be considered self sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some
regions which have acute shortage of some
vital resources. For example, the states of
J harkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water
resources but lacks in infrastructural
development. The state of Rajasthan is very
well endowed with solar and wind energy but
lacks in water resources. The cold desert of
Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of
the country. It has very rich cultural heritage
but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and
some vital minerals. This calls for balanced
resource planning at the national, state,
regional and local levels.
Prepare a list of resources found in your state
and also identify the resources that are
important but deficit in your state.
Resource Planning in India
Resource planning is a complex process which
involves : (i) identification and inventory of
resources across the regions of the country.
This involves surveying, mapping and
qualitative and quantitative estimation and
measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a
planning structure endowed with appropriate
technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans. (iii)
Matching the resource development plans with
overall national development plans.
India has made concerted efforts for
achieving the goals of resource planning right
from the First Five Year Plan launched after
Independence.
4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
What resources are being developed in your
surroundings by the community/village
panchayats/ward level communities with the
help of community participation?
The availability of resources is a necessary
condition for the development of any region,
but mere availability of resources in the
absence of corresponding changes in
technology and institutions may hinder
development. There are many regions in our
country that are rich in resources but these
are included in economically backward regions.
On the contrary there are some regions which
have a poor resource base but they are
economically developed.
Can you name some resource rich but
economically backward regions and some
resource poor but economically developed
regions? Give reasons for such a situation.
The history of colonisation reveals that
rich resources in colonies were the main
attractions for the foreign invaders. It was
primarily the higher level of technological
development of the colonising countries that
helped them to exploit resources of other
regions and establish their supremacy over
the colonies. Therefore, resources can
contribute to development only when they are
accompanied by appropriate technological
development and institutional changes. India
has experienced all this in different phases of
colonisation. Therefore, in India, development,
in general, and resource development in
particular does not only involve the availability
of resources, but also the technology, quality
of human resources and the historical
experiences of the people.
Conservation of Resources: Resources are
vital for any developmental activity. But
irrational consumption and over-utilisation
of resources may lead to socio-economic and
environmental problems. To overcome these
problems, resource conservation at various
levels is important. This had been the main
concern of the leaders and thinkers in the
past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in
voicing his concern about resource
conservation in these words: “There is
enough for everybody’s need and not for any
body’s greed.” He placed the greedy and
selfish individuals and exploitative nature of
modern technology as the root cause for
resource depletion at the global level. He was
against mass production and wanted to
replace it with the production by the masses.
At the international level, the Club of Rome
advocated resource conservation for the first
time in a more systematic way in 1968.
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal
contribution with respect to resource
conservation at the global level was made
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.
This report introduced the concept of
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated
it as a means for resource conservation,
which was subsequently published in a book
entitled Our Common Future. Another
significant contribution was made at the Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
LAND RESOURCES
We live on land, we perform our economic
activities on land and we use it in different
ways. Thus, land is a natural resource of
utmost importance. It supports natural
vegetation, wild life, human life, economic
activities, transport and communication
systems. However, land is an asset of a finite
magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the
Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief
Features
2022-23
available land for various purposes with careful
planning.
India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
and islands. About 43 per cent of the land
area is plain, which provides facilities for
agriculture and industry. Mountains account
for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the
country and ensure perennial flow of some
rivers, provide facilities for tourism and
ecological aspects. About 27 per cent of the
area of the country is the plateau region. It
possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels
and forests.
LAND UTILISATION
Land resources are used for the following
purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation
for one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left
uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land
on which corps are sown harvested is
known as net sown area.
Area sown more than once in an
agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA
The use of land is determined both by physical
factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population
density, technological capability and culture
and traditions etc.
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 5
 Reporting Area: 100 Per cent
Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017
Fig. 1.4
Total geographical area of India is 3.28
million sq km. Land use data, however, is
available only for 93 per cent of the total
geographical area because the land use
reporting for most of the north-east states
except Assam has not been done fully.
Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir
occupied by Pakistan and China have also
not been surveyed.
Try to do a comparison between the two pie
charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61
to 2014-15 very marginally.
The land under permanent pasture has
also decreased. How are we able to feed our
huge cattle population on this pasture land
and what are the consequences of it? Most of
the other than the current fallow lands are
either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation
6 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
of such land is very high. Hence, these lands
are cultivated once or twice in about two to
three years and if these are included in the
net sown area then the percentage of NSA in
India comes to about 54 per cent of the total
reporting area.
The pattern of net sown area varies greatly
from one state to another. It is over 80 per
cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman
Nicobar Islands.
Find out reasons for the low proportion of
net sown area in these states.
Forest area in the country is far lower than
the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy
(1952). It was considered essential for
maintenance of the ecological balance. The
livelihood of millions of people who live on
the fringes of these forests depends upon it.
A part of the land is termed as waste land
and land put to other non-agricultural uses.
Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert
areas and land put to other non-agricultural
uses includes settlements, roads, railways,
industry etc. Continuous use of land over a
long period of time without taking appropriate
measures to conserve and manage it, has
resulted in land degradation. This, in turn,
has serious repercussions on society and the
environment.
L AND D EGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
MEASURES
We have shared our land with the past
generations and will have to do so with the
future generations too. Ninety-five per cent of
our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing
are obtained from land. Human activities have
not only brought about degradation of land
but have also aggravated the pace of natural
forces to cause damage to land.
Some human activities such as
deforestation, over grazing, mining and
quarrying too have contributed significantly
in land degradation.
Mining sites are abandoned after
excavation work is complete leaving deep scars
and traces of over-burdening. In states like
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
and Odisha deforestation due to mining have
caused severe land degradation. In states like
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main
reasons for land degradation. In the states of
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over
irrigation is responsible for land degradation
due to water logging leading to increase in
salinity and alkalinity in the soil. The mineral
processing like grinding of limestone for
cement industry and calcite and soapstone
for ceramic industry generate huge quantity
of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the
process of infiltration of water into the soil
after it settles down on the land. In recent
years, industrial effluents as waste have
become a major source of land and water
pollution in many parts of the country.
2022-23
There are many ways to solve the problems
of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
management of grazing can help to some
extent. Planting of shelter belts of plants,
control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand
dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of
the methods to check land degradation in arid
areas. Proper management of waste lands,
control of mining activities, proper discharge
and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes
after treatment can reduce land and water
degradation in industrial and suburban areas.
S OIL AS A RESOURCE
Soil is the most important renewable natural
resource. It is the medium of plant growth
and supports different types of living organisms
on the earth. The soil is a living system. It
takes millions of years to form soil upto a few
cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock,
climate, vegetation and other forms of life and
time are important factors in the formation of
soil. Various forces of nature such as change
in temperature, actions of running water, wind
and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.
contribute to the formation of soil. Chemical
and organic changes which take place in the
Top soil
the upper soil layer
Subsoil weathered
rocks sand and
silt clay
Substratum
weathered parent
rock material
Unweathered
parent bed rock
Fig. 1.5: Soil Profile
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 7
soil are equally important. Soil also consists
of organic (humus) and inorganic materials
(Fig. 1.5).
On the basis of the factors responsible for
soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age,
chemical and physical properties, the soils of
India are classified in different types.
Classification of Soils
India has varied relief features, landforms,
climatic realms and vegetation types. These
have contributed in the development of various
types of soils.
Alluvial Soils
This is the most widely spread and important
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are
made of alluvial soil. These have been
deposited by three important Himalayan river
systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in
Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow
corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the
eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna
and the Kaveri rivers.
Fig. 1.6: Alluvial Soil
The alluvial soil consists of various
proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles
appear some what bigger in size. In the upper
reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope, the soils are coarse.
Such soils are more common in piedmont
plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai.
Apart from the size of their grains or
components, soils are also described on the
basis of their age. According to their age
alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The
bangar soil has higher concentration of
8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has more
fine particles and is more fertile than the
bangar.
Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which
are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due
to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are
intensively cultivated and densely populated.
Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and
can be productive after proper treatment and
irrigation.
Black Soil
These soils are black in colour and are also
known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
growing cotton and is also known as black
cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
along with the parent rock material are the
important factors for the formation of black
soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan
trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.
Fig. 1.7: Black Soil
The black soils are made up of extremely
fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known
for their capacity to hold moisture. In
addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such
as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
India: Major Soil Types

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 9

2022-23
lime. These soils are generally poor in
phosphoric contents. They develop deep
cracks during hot weather, which helps in
the proper aeration of the soil. These soils
are sticky when wet and difficult to work on
unless tilled immediately after the first shower
or during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Yellow Soils
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow
and red soils are also found in parts of
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop
a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Laterite Soil
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil
develops under tropical and subtropical
climate with alternate wet and dry season.
This soil is the result of intense leaching due
to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep
to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally
deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly
in southern states, Western Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West
Bengal and North-east regions. Where these
soils support deciduous and evergreen
forests, it is humus rich, but under sparse
Fig. 1.8: Laterite Soil
10 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is
generally humus poor. They are prone to
erosion and degradation due to their position
on the landscape. After adopting appropriate
soil conservation techniques particularly in
the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable
for crops like cashew nut.
Arid Soils
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
They are generally sandy in texture and saline
in nature. In some areas the salt content is
very high and common salt is obtained by
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate,
high temperature, evaporation is faster and
the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower
horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
because of the increasing calcium content
downwards. The Kankar layer formations in
the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
water. After proper irrigation these soils
become cultivable as has been in the case of
western Rajasthan.
Fig. 1.9: Arid Soil
Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available. The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment
where they are formed. They are loamy and
silty in valley sides and coarse grained in
the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas
 Dampara

Figure 5.8 : Wildlife Reserves

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 49

2022-23
 • People’s management is essential for ecological restoration. With people
being made the decision-makers by the Madhya Pradesh government, 2.9
million hectares or about 1 per cent of India’s land area, are being greened
across the state through watershed management.

Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report,1999 Centre of Science and Environment (CSE),
New Delhi

EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore?
(a) Renewable (c) Flow
(b) Biotic (d) Non-renewable
(ii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation
(b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing
(iii) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a) Punjab (c) Haryana
(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand
(iv) In which of the following states black soil is predominantly found?
(a) Jammu and Kashmir (c) Rajasthan
(b) Maharashtra (d) Jharkhand

12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
2 . A nswer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three
main features of this type of soil.
(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
(iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples.

3. A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not
increased much since 1960-61?
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of
resources?

PROJECT/ACTIVITY
1 . Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality.
2. Have a discussion in the class – how to conserve various resources used in
your school.
3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style?
4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.

S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J

Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N

P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F

S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L

O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D

T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W

B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R

L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L

A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C

C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H

K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W

(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.
(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.
(v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.
(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 13

2022-23

Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
in the world of Lepchas
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate
myself to you
Let me gather your music from the
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests,
the insects and the animals
Let me gather your music from the sweet
breeze and offer it to you
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
West Bengal
We share this planet with millions of other
living beings, starting from micro-organisms
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees,
elephants and blue whales. This entire
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. We humans along with all living
organisms form a complex web of ecological
system in which we are only a part and
very much dependent on this system for
our own existence. For example, the plants,
animals and micro-organisms re-create the
quality of the air we breathe, the water we
drink and the soil that produces our food
without which we cannot survive. Forests
play a key role in the ecological system as
these are also the primary producers on
which all other living beings depend.
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated
species, diverse in form and function but
closely integrated in a system through
multiple network of interdependencies.
2022-23
Flora and Fauna in India
If you look around, you will be able to find
that there are some animals and plants which
are unique in your area. In fact, India is
one of the world’s richest countries in terms
of its vast array of biological diversity. This
is possibly twice or thrice the number yet
to be discovered. You have already studied
in detail about the extent and variety of
forest and wildlife resources in India. You
may have realised the importance of
these resources in our daily life. These
diverse flora and fauna are so well
integrated in our daily life that we take
these for granted. But, lately, they are
under great stress mainy due to insensitivity
to our environment.
Find out stories prevalent in your region
which are about the harmonious relationship
between human beings and nature.
Some estimates suggest that at least
10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora
and 20 per cent of its mammals are on
the threatened list. Many of these would
now be categorised as ‘critical’, that is on
the verge of extinction like the cheetah,
pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest
spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca
insignis (a wild variety of mahua) and
h u b b a r d i a h e p t a n e u r o n, ( a s p e c i e s o f
grass). In fact, no one can say how many
species may have already been lost. Today,
we only talk of the larger and more visible
animals and plants that have become
extinct but what about smaller animals
like insects and plants?

Vanishing Forests
The dimensions of deforestation in India are
staggering. The forest and tree cover in the
country is estimated at 807276 sq km which
is 24.56 per cent of the total geographical area
(dense forest 12.4 per cent; open forest 9.26
per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent).
According to the State of Forest Report
(2019), the dense forest cover has increased
by 3,976 sq km since 2017. However, this
apparent increase in the forest cover is due
to conservation measures, management
interventions and plantation, etc., by
different agencies.
Fig. 2.1
L et us now understand the different
categories of existing plants and animal
species. Based on the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (I U CN ), we can classify as
follows –
Normal Species: Species whose population
levels are considered to be normal for
their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine,
rodents, etc.
Endangered Species: These are species
which are in danger of extinction. The
survival of such species is difficult if the
negative factors that have led to a decline
in their population continue to operate. The
examples of such species are black buck,
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in
Manipur), etc.
2022-23
Vulnerable Species: These are species
whose population has declined to levels from
where it is likely to move into the endangered
category in the near future if the negative
factors continue to operate. The examples
of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic
elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
Rare Species: Species with small
population may move into the endangered
or vulnerable category if the negative factors
affecting them continue to operate. The
examples of such species are the Himalayan
brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox
and hornbill, etc.
Endemic Species: These are species which
are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples of such species are the
A ndaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, A ndaman
wild pig, mithun in A runachal Pradesh.
Extinct Species: These are species which
are not found after searches of known or
likely areas where they may occur. A species
may be extinct from a local area, region,
country, continent or the entire earth.
Examples of such species are the Asiatic
cheetah, pink head duck.
Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?
The world’s fastest land mammal, the
cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and
specialised member of the cat family and
can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. The
cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Its
distinguishing marks are the long teardrop-
shaped lines on each side of the nose from
the corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior to
the 20th century, cheetahs were widely
distributed throughout Africa and Asia.
Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct
due to a decline of available habitat and
prey. The species was declared extinct in
India long back in 1952.
What are the negative factors that cause such
fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?
If you look around, you will be able to
find out how we have transformed nature into
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
 6
POPULATION

C
an you imagine a world without human
beings? Who would have utilised
the resources and created social and
cultural environment? The people are
important to develop the economy and the
society. The people make and use resources
and are themselves resources with varying
quality. Coal is but a piece of rock, until people
were able to invent technology to obtain it and
make it ‘resource’. Natural events, like a flood
or a Tsunami, becomes a ‘disaster’ only when
they affect a crowded village or a town.
Hence, population is the pivotal element in
social studies. It is the point of reference from
which all other elements are observed and from
which they derive significance and meaning.
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all
meaningful only in relation to human beings.
Their numbers, distribution, growth and
characteristics or qualities provide the basic
background for understanding and
appreciating all aspects of the environment.
Human beings are producers and
consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it
is important to know how many people are
there in a country, where do they live, how and
why their numbers are increasing and what
are their characteristics. The census of India
provides us with information regarding the
population of our country.
We are primarily concerned with three
major questions about population:
(i) Population size and distribution: How
many people are there and where are they
located?
(ii) Population growth and processes of
population change: How has the
population grown and changed through
time?
(iii) Characteristics or qualities of the
population: What are their age, sex
composition, literacy levels, occupational
structure and health conditions?
POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
India’s Population Size and Distribution
by Numbers
India’s population as on March 2011 stood at
1,210.6 million, which account for 17.5 per cent
of the world’s population. These 1.21 billion
people are unevenly distributed over our
country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km,
which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s
area (Figure 6.1).
The 2011 Census data reveal that Uttar
Pradesh with a population size of 199 million
is the most populous state of India. Uttar

Census
A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. In India, the first census was held in the year
1872. The first complete census, however, was taken in the year 1881. Since then, censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year.
The Indian Census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data. Have you
ever seen a census report? Check in your library if it has one.

2022-23
 Many foresters and environmentalists hold
the view that the greatest degrading factors
behind the depletion of forest resources are
grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though,
there may be some substance in their
argument, yet, the fact remains that a
substantial part of the fuel-fodder demand is
met by lopping rather than by felling entire
trees. The forest ecosystems are repositories
of some of the country’s most valuable forest
products, minerals and other resources that
meet the demands of the rapidly expanding
industrial-urban economy. These protected
areas, thus mean different things to different
people, and therein lies the fertile ground
for conflicts.
The Himalayan Yew in trouble
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is
a medicinal plant found in various parts of
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is
extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and
roots of this tree, and it has been successfully
Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a
nursery at Mukhali near Silent Valley
Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Fig. 2.3
2022-23
used to treat some cancers – the drug is now
the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the
world. The species is under great threat due
to over-exploitation. In the last one decade,
thousands of yew trees have dried up in
various parts of Himachal Pradesh and
Arunachal Pradesh.
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching,
over-exploitation, environmental pollution,
poisoning and forest fires are factors, which
have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity.
Other important causes of environmental
destruction are unequal access, inequitable
consumption of resources and differential
sharing of responsibility for environmental
well-being. Over-population in third world
countries is often cited as the cause of
environmental degradation. However, an
average American consumes 40 times more
resources than an average Somalian. Similarly,
the richest five per cent of Indian society
probably cause more ecological damage
because of the amount they consume than
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17
the poorest 25 per cent. The former shares
minimum responsibilities for environmental
well-being. The question is: who is consuming
what, from where and how much?
Do you know that over half of India’s
natural forests are gone, one-third of its
wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its
surface water bodies polluted, 40 per
cent of its mangroves wiped out, and
with continued hunting and trade of wild
animals and commercially valuable
plants, thousands of plant and animal
species are heading towards extinction?
Have you noticed any activity which leads
to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write
a note on it and suggest some measures to
prevent it.
The destruction of forests and wildlife is
not just a biological issue. The biological loss
is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural
diversity. Such losses have increasingly
marginalised and impoverished many
indigenous and other forest-dependent
communities, who directly depend on various
components of the forest and wildlife for food,
drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
Within the poor, women are affected more
than men. In many societies, women bear
the major responsibility of collection of fuel,
fodder, water and other basic subsistence
needs. As these resources are depleted, the
drudgery of women increases and sometimes
they have to walk for more than 10 km to
collect these resources. This causes serious
health problems for women and negligence
of home and children because of the increased
hours of work, which often has serious social
implications. The indirect impact of
degradation such as severe drought or
deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the
poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a
direct outcome of environmental destruction.
Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the
quality of life and environment in the
18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to
sound forest and wildlife conservation
strategies.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in
India
Conservation in the background of rapid
decline in wildlife population and forestry has
become essential. But why do we need to
conserve our forests and wildlife?
Conservation preserves the ecological diversity
and our life support systems – water, air and
soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of
plants and animals for better growth of species
and breeding. For example, in agriculture,
we are still dependent on traditional crop
varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent
on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
demanded a national wildlife protection
programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act was implemented in 1972, with various
provisions for protecting habitats. A n all-
India list of protected species was also
published. The thrust of the programme was
towards protecting the remaining population
of certain endangered species by banning
hunting, giving legal protection to their
habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
Subsequently, central and many state
governments established national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries about which you have
already studied. The central government also
announced several projects for protecting
specific animals, which were gravely
threatened, including the tiger, the one-
horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or
hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh
water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the
Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most
recently, the Indian elephant, black buck
(chinkara), the great Indian bustard
(godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have
been given full or partial legal protection
against hunting and trade throughout India.
Project Tiger
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in
the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities
realised that the tiger population had
 Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century. The major
threats to tiger population are numerous,
such as poaching for trade, shrinking
habitat, depletion of prey base species,
growing human population, etc. The trade
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
traditional medicines, especially in the
Asian countries left the tiger population on
the verge of extinction. Since India and
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds
of the surviving tiger population in the
world, these two nations became prime
targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger”, one of the well-
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
was launched in 1973. Tiger conservation
has been viewed not only as an effort to
save an endangered species, but with
equal importance as a means of
preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude.
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand,
Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya
Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in
Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are
some of the tiger reserves of India.
The conservation projects are now
focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few
of its components. There is now a more
intensive search for different conservation
measures. Increasingly, even insects are
2022-23
beginning to find a place in conservation
planning. In the notification under Wildlife
Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred
butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly
have been added to the list of protected
species. In 1991, for the first time plants were
also added to the list, starting with six species.
Collect more information on the wildlife
sanctuaries and national parks of India and
cite their locations on the map of India.
Types and Distribution of Forest and
Wildlife Resources
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest
and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to
manage, control and regulate them. In India,
much of its forest and wildlife resources are
either owned or managed by the government
through the Forest Department or other
government departments. These are classified
under the following categories.
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
total forest land has been declared
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
regarded as the most valuable as far as
the conservation of forest and wildlife
resources are concerned.
(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of
the total forest area is protected forest, as
declared by the Forest Department. This
forest land are protected from any further
depletion.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 19
 Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?
(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
forests and wastelands belonging to
both government and private individuals
and communities.
Reserved and protected forests are also
referred to as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing
timber and other forest produce, and for
protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
Jammu and Kashmir, A ndhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and Maharashtra have large
percentages of reserved forests of its total forest
area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan
have a bulk of it under protected forests. All
North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have
a very high percentage of their forests as
unclassed forests managed by local
communities.
20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Community and Conservation
Conservation strategies are not new in our
country. We often ignore that in India, forests
are also home to some of the traditional
communities. In some areas of India, local
communities are struggling to conserve these
habitats along with government officials,
recognising that only this will secure their
own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger
Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought
against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection
Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are
protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting
government involvement. The inhabitants of
five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan
have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the
Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their
own set of rules and regulations which do
not allow hunting, and are protecting the
wildlife against any outside encroachments.
 Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse
and rare species
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief
based on the premise that all creations of
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs
have preserved several virgin forests in
pristine form called Sacred Groves (the
forests of God and Goddesses). These
patches of forest or parts of large forests have
been left untouched by the local people and
any interference with them is banned.
Certain societies revere a particular tree
which they have preserved from time
immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of
Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees
during weddings. To many of us, peepal and
banyan trees are considered sacred.
Indian society comprises several
cultures, each with its own set of traditional
methods of conserving nature and its
creations. Sacred qualities are often
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants
and animals which are closely protected. You
will find troops of macaques and langurs
around many temples. They are fed daily
and treated as a part of temple devotees. In
and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,
herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
peacocks can be seen as an integral part of
the community and nobody harms them.
Write a short essay on any practices which
you may have observed and practised in
your everyday lives that conserve and protect
the environment around you.
“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and
makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
2022-23
The famous Chipko movement in the
Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas but has also
shown that community afforestation with
indigenous species can be enormously
successful. Attempts to revive the traditional
conservation methods or developing new
methods of ecological farming are now
widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like
the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
Navdanya have shown that adequate levels
of diversified crop production without the use
of synthetic chemicals are possible and
economically viable.
In India joint forest management (JFM)
programme furnishes a good example for
involving local communities in the
management and restoration of degraded
forests. The programme has been in formal
existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha
passed the first resolution for joint forest
management. JFM depends on the formation
of local (village) institutions that undertake
protection activities mostly on degraded forest
land managed by the forest department. In
return, the members of these communities
are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-
timber forest produces and share in the timber
harvested by ‘successful protection’.
The clear lesson from the dynamics of
both environmental destruction and
reconstruction in India is that local
communities everywhere have to be involved
in some kind of natural resource
management. But there is still a long way to
go before local communities are at the centre-
stage in decision-making. Accept only those
economic or developmental activities, that are
people centric, environment-friendly and
economically rewarding.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 21
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora
and fauna?
(a) Agricultural expansion.
(b) Large scale developmental projects.
(c) Grazing and fuel wood collection.
(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.
(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries

2 . Match the following animals with their category of existence.

Animals/Plants Category of existence

Black buck Extinct

Asiatic elephant Rare
A ndaman wild pig Endangered
Himalayan brown bear Vulnerable
Pink head duck Endemic

3 . Match the following.

Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both

Protected forests
Unclassed forests
government and private individuals and
communities
forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
forest lands are protected from any further
depletion

4 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.

5 . Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.

22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
You already know that three-fourth of the
earth’s surface is covered with water, but only
a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. This
freshwater is mainly obtained from surface
run off and ground water that is continually
being renewed and recharged through the
hydrological cycle. All water moves within the
hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a
renewable resource.
You might wonder that if three-fourth of
the world is covered with water and water is
a renewable resource, then how is it that
countries and regions around the globe suffer
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in
absolute water scarcity?
2022-23
W ATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER
C ONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
Given the abundance and renewability of
water, it is difficult to imagine that we may
suffer from water scarcity. The moment we
speak of water shortages, we immediately
associate it with regions having low rainfall
or those that are drought prone. We
instantaneously visualise the deserts of
Rajasthan and women balancing many
‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting
and storing water and travelling long
distances to get water. True, the availability
of water resources varies over space and time,
mainly due to the variations in seasonal and
annual precipitation, but water scarcity in
most cases is caused by over-exploitation,
excessive use and unequal access to water
among different social groups.
Where is then water scarcity likely to
occur? As you have read in the hydrological
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly
from precipitation, surface run of f and
groundwater.
Is it possible that an area or region may
have ample water resources but is still facing
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an
outcome of large and growing population and
consequent greater demands for water, and
unequal access to it. A large population
requires more water not only for domestic
use but also to produce more food. Hence, to
facilitate higher food-grain production, water
resources are being over-exploited to expand
irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer
of water. Now it is needed to revolutionise the
agriculture through developing drought
resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
You may have seen in many television
advertisements that most farmers have their

Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:

After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disruted traffic.

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

the snow in a devastated village.

Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity

24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
own wells and tube-wells in their farms for
irrigation to increase their produce. But have
you ever wondered what this could result in?
That it may lead to falling groundwater levels,
adversely affecting water availability and food
security of the people.
Post-independent India witnessed
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation,
creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large
industrial houses are as commonplace as the
industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational
Corporations). The ever-increasing number of
industries has made matters worse by exerting
pressure on existing freshwater resources.
Industries, apart from being heavy users of
water, also require power to run them. Much
of this energy comes from hydroelectric power.
Today, in India hydroeclectric power
contributes approximately 22 per cent of the
total electricity produced. Moreover,
multiplying urban centres with large and
dense populations and urban lifestyles have
not only added to water and energy
requirements but have further aggravated the
problem. If you look into the housing societies
or colonies in the cities, you would find that
most of these have their own groundwater
pumping devices to meet their water needs.
Not surprisingly, we find that fragile water
resources are being over-exploited and have
caused their depletion in several of these cities.
So far we have focused on the quantitative
aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider
another situation where water is sufficiently
available to meet the needs of the people, but,
the area still suffers from water scarcity. This
scarcity may be due to bad quality of water.
Lately, there has been a growing concern that
even if there is ample water to meet the needs
of the people, much of it may be polluted by
domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,
pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture,
thus, making it hazardous for human use.
Government of India has accorded highest
priority to improve the quality of life and
enhance ease of living of people especially those
living in rual areas by announcing the Jal
Jeevan Mission (JJM). The Goal of JJM is to
enable every rural household get assured
supply of potable piped water at a service level
of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on
2022-23
long-term basis by ensuring functionality of
the tap water connections. (Source: Economic
Survey 2020–21, p.357)
India’s rivers, especially the smaller ones,
have all turned into toxic streams. And even
the big ones like the Ganga and Yamuna
are far from being pure. The assault on
India’s rivers – from population growth,
agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and
industrialisation – is enormous and growing
by the day….. This entire life stands
threatened.
Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report, CSE, 1999.
You may have already realised that the need
of the hour is to conserve and manage our
water resources, to safeguard ourselves from
health hazards, to ensure food security,
continuation of our livelihoods and productive
activities and also to prevent degradation of our
natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and
mismanagement of water resources will
impoverish this resource and cause ecological
crisis that may have profound impact on
our lives.
From your everyday experiences, write a short
proposal on how you can conserve water.
M U L T I -P U R P O S E R I V E R PR O J E C T S AND
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
But, how do we conserve and manage water?
Archaeological and historical records show
that from ancient times we have been
constructing sophisticated hydraulic
structures like dams built of stone rubble,
reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals
for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have
continued this tradition in modern India by
building dams in most of our river basins.
Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India
• In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura
near Allahabad had sophisticated water
harvesting system channelling the flood
water of the river Ganga.
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya,
dams, lakes and irrigation systems were
extensively built.
WATER RESOURCES 25
 • Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works
have also been found in Kalinga,
(Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra
Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur
(Maharashtra), etc.
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the
largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas,
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for
supplying water to Siri Fort area.
Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997.
Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam
What are dams and how do they help us
in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and
rainwater that could be used later to irrigate
agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not
just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
water supply for domestic and industrial
uses, flood control, recreation, inland
navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are
now referred to as multi-purpose projects
where the many uses of the impounded water
are integrated with one another. For example,
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra –
Nangal project water is being used both for
hydel power production and irrigation.
Similarly, the Hirakud project in the
Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of
water with flood control.
Multi-purpose projects, launched after
Independence with their integrated water
resources management approach, were thought
of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
development and progress, overcoming the
26 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
“Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure. Most dams have a section called a
spillway or weir over which or through which
it is intended that water will flow either
intermittently or continuously. Dams are
classified according to structure, intended
purpose or height. Based on structure and
the materials used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
dams, with several subtypes. According to
the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.
handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru
proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of
modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the
village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy.
Find out more about any one traditional
method of building dams and irrigation works.
We have sown the crops in Asar
We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra
Floods have swollen the Damodar
The sailing boats cannot sail
Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet
Reduce the floods a little
Bhadu will come a year later
Let the boats sail on your surface
(This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar
valley region narrates the troubles faced by
people owing to the flooding of Damodar river
known as the river of sorrow.)
In recent years, multi-purpose projects
and large dams have come under great
scrutiny and opposition for a variety of
reasons. Regulating and damming of rivers
affect their natural flow causing poor sediment
flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom
of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it
dif ficult for aquatic fauna to migrate,
especially for spawning. The reservoirs that
are created on the floodplains also submerge
the existing vegetation and soil leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
Multi-purpose projects and large dams
have also been the cause of many new
environmental movements like the ‘Narmada
Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’
etc. Resistance to these projects has primarily
been due to the large-scale displacement of
local communities. Local people often had to
give up their land, livelihood and their meagre
access and control over resources for the
greater good of the nation. So, if the local
people are not benefiting from such projects
then who is benefited? Perhaps, the
landowners and large farmers, industrialists
and few urban centres. Take the case of the
landless in a village – does he really gain from
such a project?
Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save
Narmada Movement is a Non Governmental
Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal
people, farmers, environmentalists and
human rights activists against the Sardar
Sarovar Dam being built across the
Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally
focused on the environmental issues related
to trees that would be submerged under the
dam water. Recently it has re-focused the
aim to enable poor citizens, especially
the oustees (displaced people) to get
full rehabilitation facilities from
the government.
People felt that their suffering would not
be in vain… accepted the trauma of
displacement believing in the promise of
irrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So,
often the survivors of Rihand told us that they
accepted their sufferings as sacrifice for the
sake of their nation. But now, after thirty bitter
years of being adrift, their livelihood having
even being more precarious, they keep
asking: “Are we the only ones chosen to
make sacrifices for the nation?”
2022-23
Source: S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of
the River. Tribal conflicts over development in
Narmada valley, A. Baviskar, 1995.
Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over
the Narmada River in Gujarat. This is one
of the largest water resource projects of
India covering four states—Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the
requirement of water in drought-prone and
desert areas of Gujarat (9,490 villages and
173 towns) and Rajasthan (124 villages).
Source: http://www.sardarsarovardam.org/
project.aspx
Irrigation has also changed the cropping
pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
to water intensive and commercial crops. This
has great ecological consequences like
salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it
has transformed the social landscape i.e.
increasing the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor. As we can
see, the dams did create conflicts between
people wanting different uses and benefits
from the same water resources. In Gujarat,
the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated
and almost caused a riot over the higher
priority given to water supply in urban areas,
particularly during droughts. Inter-state water
disputes are also becoming common with
regard to sharing the costs and benefits of
the multi-purpose project.
Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari
dispute is due to the objections raised by
K arnataka and A ndhra Pradesh
governments? It is regarding the diversion
of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra
government for a multipurpose project. This
would reduce downstream flow in their
states with adverse consequences for
agriculture and industry.
Make a list of inter-state water disputes.
WATER RESOURCES 27
 India: Major Rivers and Dams

28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 Most of the objections to the projects arose
due to their failure to achieve the purposes
for which they were built. Ironically, the dams
that were constructed to control floods have
triggered floods due to sedimentation in the
reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly
been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the
time of excessive rainfall. You may have seen
or read how the release of water from dams
during heavy rains aggravated the flood
situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006.
The floods have not only devastated life and
property but also caused extensive soil
erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the
flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural
fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of
land degradation. It was also observed that
the multi-purpose projects induced
earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and
pests and pollution resulting from excessive
use of water.
Collect information about flood prone areas of the country
2022-23
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Many thought that given the disadvantages
and rising resistance against the multi-
purpose projects, water harvesting system was
a viable alternative, both socio-economically
and environmentally. In ancient India, along
with the sophisticated hydraulic structures,
there existed an extraordinary tradition of
water-harvesting system. People had in-depth
knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types
and developed wide ranging techniques to
harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water
and flood water in keeping with the local
ecological conditions and their water needs.
In hill and mountainous regions, people built
diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of
the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly
practised to store drinking water, particularly
in Rajasthan. In the flood plains of Bengal,
people developed inundation channels to
WATER RESOURCES 29
irrigate their fields. In arid and semi-arid
regions, agricultural fields were converted into
rain fed storage structures that allowed the
water to stand and moisten the soil like the
‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other
parts of Rajasthan.
(a) Recharge through Hand Pump
(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell
• Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe
• Filtered using sand and bricks
• Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage
• Excess water from the sump is taken to the well
• Water from the well recharges the underground
• Take water from the well (later)
Fig 3.3: Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
30 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Fig. 3.4
In the semi-arid and arid regions of
Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi
a n d B a r m e r, a l m o s t a l l t h e h o u s e s
traditionally had underground tanks or
tankas for storing drinking water. The tanks
could be as large as a big room; one
household in Phalodi had a tank that was
6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
metres wide. The tankas were part of the
well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting
system and were built inside the main house
or the courtyard. They were connected to
the sloping roofs of the houses through a
pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops would
travel down the pipe and was stored in these
underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain
was usually not collected as this would
clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater
from the subsequent showers was then
collected.
The rainwater can be stored in the
tankas till the next rainfall making it an
extremely reliable source of drinking water
when all other sources are dried up,
NPP 2000 and Adolescents
NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the
major section of the population that need
greater attention. Besides nutritional
requirements, the policy puts greater
emphasis on other important needs of
adolescent including protection from
unwanted pregnancies and sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs). It called for
programmes that aim towards encouraging
delayed marriage and child-bearing,
education of adolescents about the risks of
unprotected sex, making contraceptive
services accessible and affordable, providing
food supplements, nutritional services, and
strengthening legal measures to prevent child
marriage.
People are the nation’s most valuable
resource. A well-educated healthy population
provides potential power.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Migrations change the number, distribution and composition of the
population in
(a) the area of departure (c) both the area of departure and arrival
(b) the area of arrival (d) none of the above
(ii) A large proportion of children in a population is a result of
(a) high birth rates (c) high death rates
(b) high life expectancies (d) more married couples
(iii) The magnitude of population growth refers to
(a) the total population of an area
(b) the number of persons added each year
(c) the rate at which the population increases
(d) the number of females per thousand males
(iv) According to the Census, a “literate” person is one who
(a) can read and write his/her name
(b) can read and write any language
(c) is 7 years old and can read and write any language with understanding
(d) knows the 3 ‘R’s (reading, writing, arithmetic)
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Why is the rate of population growth in India declining since 1981?
(ii) Discuss the major components of population growth.
(iii) Define age structure, death rate and birth rate.
(iv) How is migration a determinant factor of population change?
3. Distinguish between population growth and population change.
4. What is the relation between occupational structure and development?
5. What are the advantages of having a healthy population?
6. What are the significant features of the National Population Policy 2000?

POPULATION 61

2022-23
 B AMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream
and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent.
About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system,
gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally
reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.

Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs

on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.

Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert Picture 4: If the pipes pass a road,
water to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again they are taken high above the land.
made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of
water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.

Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.

Fig 3.7

1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.

2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.

32 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering from water scarcity’ or ‘not suffering from water scarcity’.
(a) Region with high annual rainfall.
(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.
(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer from
water scarcity.
(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.
(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite them
correctly.
(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c) In Gujarat, the Sabarmati basin farmers were not agitated when higher
priority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during
droughts.
(d) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the Indira
Gandhi Canal.

2 . A nswer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.

3 . A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods are being carried out to conserve and store water.

WATER RESOURCES 33

2022-23
India is an agriculturally important country. through natural processes; land productivity
Two-thirds of its population is engaged in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary does not use fertilisers or other modern
activity, which produces most of the food that inputs. It is known by different names in
we consume. Besides food grains, it also different parts of the country.
produces raw material for various industries.
Can you name some such types of farmings?
Can you name some industries based on
It is jhumming in north-eastern states like
agricultural raw material?
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Moreover, some agricultural products like Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district
tea, coffee, spices, etc. are also exported. of Chhattishgarh, and in A ndaman and
Nicobar Islands.
TYPES OF FARMING
Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
our country. Over these years, cultivation America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in
methods have changed significantly depending Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
upon the characteristics of physical in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
environment, technological know-how and In India, this primitive form of cultivation
socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
subsistence to commercial type. At present, Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
in different parts of India, the following ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
farming systems are practised. ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Primitive Subsistence Farming Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
This type of farming is still practised in few ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
pockets of India. Primitive subsistence
agriculture is practised on small patches of
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/
community labour. This type of farming
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of
the soil and suitability of other environmental
conditions to the crops grown.
It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Farmers clear a patch of land and produce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their
family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil Fig. 4.1

2022-23
 Rinjha lived with her family in a small village Plantation is also a type of commercial
at the outskirts of Diphu in Assam. She enjoys farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
watching her family members clearing, is grown on a large area. The plantation has
slashing and burning a patch of land for an interface of agriculture and industry.
cultivation. She often helps them in irrigating Plantations cover large tracts of land, using
the fields with water running through a capital intensive inputs, with the help of
bamboo canal from the nearby spring. She migrant labourers. All the produce is used
loves the surroundings and wants to stay as raw material in respective industries.
here as long as she can, but this little girl
In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,
has no idea about the declining fertility of
banana, etc., are important plantation crops.
the soil and her family’s search for fresh a
Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in
patch of land in the next season.
K arnataka are some of the important
plantation crops grown in these states. Since
Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s the production is mainly for market, a well-
family is engaged in? developed network of transport and
Can you enlist some crops which are grown communication connecting the plantation
in such farming? areas, processing industries and markets
plays an important role in the development
Intensive Subsistence Farming of plantations.
This type of farming is practised in areas of
high population pressure on land. It is labour-
intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used
for obtaining higher production.
Can you name some of the states of India
where such farming is practised?
Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading
to the division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size
uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in Fig. 4.2: Banana plantation in Southern
the absence of alternative source of livelihood. part of India
Thus, there is enormous pressure on
agricultural land.

Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming
is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical
fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order
to obtain higher productivity. The degree of
commercialisation of agriculture varies from
one region to another. For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but
in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
Can you give some more examples of crops
which may be commercial in one region and
may provide subsistence in another region? Fig. 4.3: Bamboo plantation in North-east

A GRICULTURE 35

2022-23
C ROPPING PATTERN watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber,
vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
You have studied the physical diversities and
almost a year to grow.
plurality of cultures in India. These are also
reflected in agricultural practices and Major Crops
cropping patterns in the country. Various
A variety of food and non food crops are
types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and
grown in dif ferent parts of the country
fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute depending upon the variations in soil, climate
some of the important crops grown in the and cultivation practices. Major crops grown
country. India has three cropping seasons in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,
— rabi, kharif and zaid. coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October etc.
to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of
crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and the people in India. Our country is the second
mustard. Though, these crops are grown in largest producer of rice in the world after
large parts of India, states from the north China. It is a kharif crop which requires high
and north-western parts such as Punjab, temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are of less rainfall, it grows with the help of
important for the production of wheat and irrigation.
other rabi crops. Availability of precipitation
during winter months due to the western
temperate cyclones helps in the success of
these crops. However, the success of the green
revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the above-
mentioned rabi crops.
K harif crops are grown with the onset of
monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October.
Important crops grown during this season
are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean. Some of the most important rice- Fig. 4.4 (a): Rice Cultivation
growing regions are Assam, West Bengal,
coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast)
along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently,
paddy has also become an important crop of
Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy
are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman
and Boro.
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of
Fig. 4.4 (b): Rice is ready to be harvested in the
the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are
field
36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
India: Distribution of Rice

AGRICULTURE 37

2022-23
 List of Rationalised Content in Textbooks

968 – Contemporary India-I

Chapter Page No. Dropped Topics/Chapter

Jet streams, western cyclonic

Chapter 4: 28, 29, 30, disturbances, The Indian Monsoon, the
Climate 31, 36 onset of the monsoon and withdrawal and
related Figs 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.6

Chapter  5:
Factors affecting the diversity of flora and
Natural
42–44 fauna
Vegetation
Fig 5.1 and Table 5.1
and Wildlife

Pointers regarding three major questions

Chapter 6: 53, 58, 59, about population, age composition, sex
Population 60, 61 ratio, literacy rates, occupational structure,
health, NPP 2000 and adolescents
India: Distribution of Wheat

AGRICULTURE 39

2022-23
Pulses: India is the largest producer as well
as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian
diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are
tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and
gram. Can you distinguish which of these
pulses are grown in the kharif season and
which are grown in the rabi season? Pulses
need less moisture and survive even in dry
conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
crops except arhar help in restoring soil
fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation
with other crops. Major pulse producing states
in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a
subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and
humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to
27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm.
and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the
regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a
variety of soils and needs manual labour from
Fig. 4.8: Sugarcane Cultivation
Fig. 4.9: Groundnut, sunflower and mustard are ready to be harvested in the field
40 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
sowing to harvesting. India is the second
largest producer of sugarcane only after
Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur
(jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major
sugarcane-producing states are Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar,
Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds: In 2018 India was the second
largest producer of groundnut in the world
after China. In rapeseed production India was
third largest producer in the world after
Canada and China in 2018. Different oil seeds
are grown covering approximately 12 per cent
of the total cropped area of the country. Main
oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut,
mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean,
castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and
sunflower. Most of these are edible and used
as cooking mediums. However, some of these
are also used as raw material in the
production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts
for about half of the major oilseeds produced in
the country. Gujarat was the largest producer
of groundnut followed by Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu in 2019–20. Linseed and mustard are rabi
crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and
rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown
both as rabi and kharif crop.
Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of
plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially by
the British. Today, most of the tea plantations
are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows
well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
endowed with deep and fertile well-drained
soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea
bushes require warm and moist frost-free
climate all through the
year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over the
year ensure continuous
growth of tender leaves.
Tea is a labour-intensive
industry. It requires
abundant, cheap and
skilled labour. Tea is
processed within
the tea garden to restore Fig. 4.10: Tea Cultivation Fig. 4.11: Tea-leaves Harvesting
its freshness. Major tea-
producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling Horticulture Crops: In 2018, India was the
and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil second largest producer of fruits and
Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal vegetables in the world after China. India is a
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
states in the country. In 2018 India was the Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,
second largest producer of tea after China. oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
Coffee: Indian coffee is known in the world for (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
its good quality. The Arabica variety initially Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava
brought from Yemen is produced in the of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
country. This variety is in great demand all over Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh,
the world. Initially its cultivation was Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir
today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. the world over.

Fig. 4.12: Apricots, apple and pomegranate

Fig. 4.13: Cultivation of vegetables – peas, cauliflower, tomato and brinjal

Source: Pocket book of agricultural statistics, 2020, Govt. of India. Directorate of Economics and Statistics.

A GRICULTURE 41

2022-23
 India is an important producer of pea,
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal
and potato.
Non-Food Crops
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under
special conditions, it is also grown in tropical
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and
humid climate with rainfall of more than 200
cm. and temperature above 25°C.
Rubber is an important industrial raw
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar
islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
List the items which are made of rubber and
are used by us.
Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural
silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.
The first three are derived from the crops grown
in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of
the silkworms fed on green leaves specially
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the
production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
Cotton: India is believed to be the original home
of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main
raw materials for cotton textile industry. In
2017, India was second largest producer of
cotton after China. Cotton grows well in drier
parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
plateau. It requires high temperature, light
rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and
bright sun-shine for its growth. It is a kharif
crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
Major cotton-producing states are–
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Fig. 4.14: Cotton Cultivation
42 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows
well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood
plains where soils are renewed every year. High
temperature is required during the time of
growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and
Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.
It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes,
yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its
high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres
and packing materials, particularly the nylon.
Technological and Institutional Reforms
It was mentioned in the previous pages that
agriculture has been practised in India for
thousands of years. Sustained uses of land
without compatible techno-institutional
changes have hindered the pace of agricultural
development. Inspite of development of sources
of irrigation most of the farmers in large parts
of the country still depend upon monsoon and
natural fertility in order to carry on their
agriculture. For a growing population, this
poses a serious challenge. Agriculture which
provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent
of its population, needs some serious technical
and institutional reforms. Thus, collectivisation,
consolidation of holdings, cooperation and
abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority
to bring about institutional reforms in the
country after Independence. ‘Land reform’ was
the main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The
right of inheritance had already lead to
fragmentation of land holdings necessitating
consolidation of holdings.
The laws of land reforms were enacted but
the implementation was lacking or lukewarm.
The Government of India embarked upon
introducing agricultural reforms to improve
Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Green Revolution based on the use of
package technology and the White Revolution
(Operation Flood) were some of the strategies
initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture.
But, this too led to the concentration of
development in few selected areas. Therefore,
in the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land
development programme was initiated, which
included both institutional and technical
 Fig. 4.15: Modern technological equipments used in agriculture
reforms. Provision for crop insurance against
drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease,
establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative
societies and banks for providing loan facilities
to the farmers at lower rates of interest were
some important steps in this direction.
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other
schemes introduced by the Government of India
for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, special
weather bulletins and agricultural programmes
for farmers were introduced on the radio and
television. The government also announces
minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check
the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.
Collect information about agriculture,
horticulture, agricultural schemes, etc. from
Farmers’ Portal website https://farmer.
gov.in/FarmerHome.aspx. Discuss about the
benefits of the information available on
the portal.
Bhoodan – Gramdan
Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as
his spiritual heir. He also participated in
Satyagraha as one of the foremost
satyagrahis. He was one of the votaries of
Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya. After
Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave
undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s
message covered almost the entire country.
2022-23
Once, when he was delivering a lecture at
Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor
landless villagers demanded some land for
their economic well-being. Vinoba Bhave
could not promise it to them immediately but
assured them to talk to the Government of
India regarding provision of land for them if
they undertook cooperative farming.
Suddenly, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood
up and offered 80 acres of land to be
distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
This act was known as ‘Bhoodan’. Later he
travelled and introduced his ideas widely all
over India. Some zamindars, owners of
many villages offered to distribute some
villages among the landless. It was known
as Gramdan. However, many land-owners
chose to provide some part of their land to
the poor farmers due to the fear of land
ceiling act. This Bhoodan- Gramdan
movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also
known as the Blood-less Revolution.
Contribution of agriculture to the national
economy, employment and output
Agriculture has been the backbone of the
Indian economy though its share in the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a
declining trend from 1951 onwards; According
to census of India 2011 about 54.6 per cent of
the total work force was engaged in agriculture
and allied sector activities which makes more
than half of the Indian Population dependent
on agriculture for sustenance.
A GRICULTURE 43
 The declining share of agriculture in the
GDP is a matter of serious concern because
any decline and stagnation in agriculture will
lead to a decline in other spheres of the
economy having wider implications for society.
Considering the importance of agriculture
in India, the Government of India made
concerted efforts to modernise agriculture.
Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), agricultural universities,
veterinary services and animal breeding centres,
horticulture development, research and
development in the field of meteorology and
weather forecast, etc. were given priority for
improving Indian agriculture. Apart from this,
improving the rural infrastructure was also
considered essential for the same. In order to
strenghten and support agricultural sector,
several intiatives have been taken by
Government of India under The Atma Nirbhar
Bharat Abhiyan. (Source: Economic Survey
2020–21, II Vol., p.231). Collect information
about these and discuss in the classroom.
Find out why an Indian farmer does not want
his son to become a farmer.
From the Table 4.1, it is clear that though
the GDP growth rate is increasing over the
years, it is not generating sufficient
employment opportunities in the country. The
growth rate in agriculture has been
decelerating which is an alarming situation.
Today, Indian farmers are facing a big
challenge from international competition and
reduction in the public investment in
Table 4.1: India: Growth Rate of GDP and
Major Sectors (in %)
Sector 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15
Agriculture 1.5 4.2 -0.2*
Industry 3.6 5.0 7.0*
Services 8.1 7.8 9.8*
Total 5.6 6.6 7.4
Source: Economic Survey of various years,
Ministry of Finance, Government of India
Note: *Data pertaining to Gross Value Added (GVA).
44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
agriculture sector. Subsidy on fertilisers is
decreased leading to increase in the cost of
production. Moreover, reduction in import
duties on agricultural products have proved
detrimental to agriculture in the country.
Farmers are withdrawing their investment from
agriculture causing a downfall in the
employment in agriculture.
When farmers have been facing so many
problems and land under agriculture is
decreasing, can we think of alternative
employment opportunities in the agriculture
sector?
Why are farmers committing suicides in
several states of the country?
Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture
Globalisation is not a new phenomenon. It
was there at the time of colonisation. In the
nineteenth century when European traders
came to India, at that time too, Indian spices
were exported to different countries of the
world and farmers of south India were
encouraged to grow these crops. Till today
it is one of the important items of export from
India.
During the British period cotton belts of
India attracted the British and ultimately
cotton was exported to Britain as a raw material
for their textile industries. Cotton textile
industry in Manchester and Liverpool
flourished due to the availability of good
quality cotton from India. You have read about
the Champaran movement which started in
1917 in Bihar. This was started because
farmers of that region were forced to grow
indigo on their land because it was necessary
for the textile industries which were located in
Britain. They were unable to grow foodgrains
to sustain their families.
Under globalisation, particularly after
1990, the farmers in India have been exposed
to new challenges. Despite being an important
producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee,
jute and spices our agricultural products are
not able to compete with the developed
 Organise a debate on food security of India, its need and efforts.
countries because of the highly subsidised
agriculture in those countries.
Fig. 4.16: Tissue culture of teak clones
Today, Indian agriculture finds itself at the
crossroads. To make agriculture successful and
profitable, proper thrust should be given to
the improvement of the condition of marginal
and small farmers. The green revolution
promised much. But today it’s under
2022-23
controversies. It is being alleged that it has
caused land degradation due to overuse of
chemicals, drying aquifers and vanishing
biodiversity. The keyword today is “gene
revolution”, which includes genetic
engineering.
Genetic engineering is recognised as a
powerful supplement in inventing new
hybrid varieties of seeds.
Can you name any gene modified seed used
vastly in India?
Infact organic farming is much in vogue
today because it is practised without factory
made chemicals such as fertilisers and
pesticides. Hence, it does not af fect
environment in a negative manner.
A GRICULTURE 45

Fig. 4.17 Problems associated with heavy pesticide
use are widely recognised in developed and
developing countries
A few economists think that Indian farmers
have a bleak future if they continue growing
foodgrains on the holdings that grow smaller
and smaller as the population rises. India’s
rural population is about 833 million (2011)
which depends upon 250 million
(approximate) hectares of agricultural land,
an average of less than half a hectare per
person.
Indian farmers should diversify their
cropping pattern from cereals to high-value
crops. This will increase incomes and
reduce environmental degradation
simultaneously. Because fruits, medicinal
herbs, flowers, vegetables, bio-diesel crops
like jatropha and jojoba need much less
irrigation than rice or sugarcane. India’s
diverse climate can be harnessed to grow a
wide range of high-value crops.

Change in cropping pattern for example from cereals to high-value crops will mean that India
will have to import food. During 1960’s this would have been seen as a disaster. But if India
imports cereals while exporting high-value commodities, it will be following successful economies
like Italy, Israel and Chile. These countries exports farm products (fruits, olives, speciality seeds
and wine) and import cereals. Are we ready to take this risk? Debate the issue.

EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single
crop is grown on a large area?
(a) Shifting Agriculture
(b) Plantation Agriculture
(c) Horticulture
(d) Intensive Agriculture
(ii) Which one of the following is a rabi crop?
(a) Rice (c) Millets
(b) Gram (d) Cotton
(iii) Which one of the following is a leguminous crop?
(a) Pulses (c) Millets
(b) Jawar (d) Sesamum

2 . A nswer the following questions in 30 words.

(i) Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions
required for its growth.
(ii) Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced.

46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 (iii) Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the government in the
interest of farmers.
(iv) The land under cultivation has got reduced day by day. Can you imagine its consequences?

3. A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in agricultural
production.
(ii) Describe the impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture.
(iii) Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice.

PROJECT WORK
1 . Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.
2 . On an outline map of India show wheat producing areas.

ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.

A Z M X N C B V N X A H D Q
S D E W S R J D Q J Z V R E
D K H A R I F G W F M R F W
F N L R G C H H R S B S V T
G B C W H E A T Y A C H B R
H R T K A S S E P H X A N W
J I E S J O W A R J Z H D T
K C L A E G A C O F F E E Y
L T E F Y M T A T S S R G I
P D E J O U Y V E J G F A U
O U M H Q S U D I T S W S P
U O A C O T T O N E A H F O
Y O L F L U S R Q Q D T W I
T M U A H R G Y K T R A B F
E A K D G D Q H S U O I W H
W Q Z C X V B N M K J A S L

1 . The two staple food crops of India.

2 . This is the summer cropping season of India.
3 . Pulses like arhar, moong, gram, urad contain…
4 . It is a coarse grain.
5 . The two important beverages in India are…
6 . One of the four major fibers grown on black soils.
A GRICULTURE 47

2022-23
Acknowledgements

The National Council of Educational Research and Training

acknowledges the support of individuals and organisations as listed
below for providing various photographs and other materials such as
articles used in this textbook — Shveta Uppal, NCERT, New Delhi for
Fig. 1.11, 2.4, 4.3, 4.10, 4.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Kalyan Banerjee, NCERT,
New Delhi for Fig. 7.9; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
for Fig. 2.2 (Endangered : the Nicobar megapode), 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
4.1, 5.14; CCSHAU, Hisar for Fig. 4.4(a), 4.13, 4.16; Directorate of
Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, I.A.R.I. Campus, New Pusa, New
Delhi for Fig. 4.2, 4.4(b), 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 (Groundnut and Mustard),
4.12 (Apple and Pomegranate), 4.15, 4.18; Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India for Fig. 2.2, 2.3, 4.17, 5.10, 6.11; Ministry
of Coal, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.11(a) and (b); Ministry of Mines, Govt. of
India for Fig. 5.3, 5.5, 5.8; Department of Road Transport and Highways,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.2, 7.10; Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises,
Govt. of India for Fig. 5.12, 6.6, 6.9, 6.10, 6.12; Department of Shipping,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8; Kurukshetra magazine for collage on page 24; The
Times of India for collage on page 20, 24, 29, 26, 57, 91; The Hindu for
collage on page 20; Hindustan for collage on page 91; NCERT, Social
Science, Part-II, Textbook for Class-VIII for Fig. 1.12, 2.1, 3.2.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook.
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities for her
valuable support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.
Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for
going through the textbook and for giving useful suggestions.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
Ishwar Singh, DTP Operator; Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; Dinesh Kumar,
Computer Incharge, who have helped in giving a final shape to this book.
The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.

The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this textbook
1. © Government of India, Copyright 2006
2. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the
publisher.
3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

2022-23
 You have already learnt about rocks.
Rocks are combinations of homogenous
substances called minerals. Some rocks, for
instance limestone, consist of a single mineral
only, but majority of the rock consist of several
minerals in varying proportions. Although,
over 2000 minerals have been identified, only
a few are abundantly found in most of the
rocks.
A particular mineral that will be formed
from a certain combination of elements
depends upon the physical and chemical
conditions under which the material forms.
This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that
a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use
these properties to classify the minerals.
Study of Minerals by Geographers
and Geologists
Geographers study minerals as part of the
earth’s crust for a better understanding of
landforms. The distribution of mineral
resources and associated economic activities
are of interest to geographers. A geologist,
however, is interested in the formation of
minerals, their age and physical and
chemical composition.
However, for general and commercial
purposes minerals can be classified as under.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS
Where are these minerals found?
Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The
term ore is used to describe an accumulation
of any mineral mixed with other elements.
The mineral content of the ore must be in
Fig. 5.1
2022-23
sufficient concentration to make its extraction
commercially viable. The type of formation or
structure in which they are found determines
the relative ease with which mineral ores may
be mined. This also determines the cost of
extraction. It is, therefore, important for us
to understand the main types of formations
in which minerals occur.
Minerals generally occur in these forms:
(i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks
minerals may occur in the cracks,
crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
occurrences are called veins and the
larger are called lodes. In most cases,
they are formed when minerals in liquid/
molten and gaseous forms are forced
upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as
they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin,
copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained
from veins and lodes.
(ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals
occur in beds or layers. They have been
formed as a result of deposition,
accumulation and concentration in
horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of
iron ore have been concentrated as a result
of long periods under great heat and
pressure. Another group of sedimentary
minerals include gypsum, potash salt and
sodium salt. These are formed as a result
of evaporation especially in arid regions.
(iii) A nother mode of formation involves the
decomposition of surface rocks, and the
removal of soluble constituents, leaving
a residual mass of weathered
material containing ores. Bauxite is
formed this way.
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 49
(iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial
deposits in sands of valley floors and the
base of hills. These deposits are called
‘placer deposits’ and generally contain
minerals, which are not corroded by water.
Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most
important among such minerals.
(v) The ocean waters contain vast quantities
of minerals, but most of these are too widely
diffused to be of economic significance.
However, common salt, magnesium and
bromine are largely derived from ocean
waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in
manganese nodules.
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most
of the minerals in India are nationalised
and their extraction is possible only after
obtaining due permission from the
government? But in most of the tribal
areas of the north-east India, minerals are
owned by individuals or communities. In
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal,
iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal
mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done
by family member in the form of a long
narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’
mining. The National Green Tribunal has
declared such activities illegal and
recommended that these should be
stopped forthwith.
Dig a little deeper: What is the difference
between an open pit mine, a quarry and an
underground mine with shafts?
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and
varied mineral resources. However, these are
unevenly distributed. Broadly speaking,
peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves
of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other
non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on
the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula,
in Gujarat and Assam have most of the
petroleum deposits. Rajasthan with the rock
systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many
50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains
of north India are almost devoid of economic
minerals. These variations exist largely because
of the differences in the geological structure,
processes and time involved in the formation
of minerals.
Let us now study the distribution of a few
major minerals in India. Always remember that
the concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease
of extraction and closeness to the market play
an important role in affecting the economic
viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand,
a choice has to be made between a number of
possible options. When this is done a mineral
‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine.
Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three-
fourths of the total value of the production of
metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
for the development of metallurgical industries.
India exports substantial quantities of ferrous
minerals after meeting her internal demands.
Iron Ore
Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone
of industrial development. India is endowed
with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India
is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is
the finest iron ore with a very high content of
iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
industry. Hematite ore is the most important
industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
used, but has a slightly lower iron content than
magnetite. (50-60 per cent). In 2018–19 almost
entire production of iron ore (97%) accrued
from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and
Jharkhand. The remaining production (3%)
was from other states.
Kudre in Kannada means horse. The
highest peak in the western ghats of
Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.
The Bailadila hills look like the hump of
an ox, and hence its name.
 Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
very high quality, yet they are efficiently
exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese
alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required
to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder,
insecticides and paints.

Andhra Others
Pradesh 2%
10%
Fig. 5.2: Iron ore mine
Karnataka
The major iron ore belts in India are: 12%

• Odisha-Jharkhand belt: In Odisha high Madhya

grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar
mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum
district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is
mined in Gua and Noamundi.
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high
grade hematites are found in the famous
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district
of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills
comprise of 14 deposits of super high
grade hematite iron ore. It has the best
physical properties needed for steel
making. Iron ore from these mines is
exported to Japan and South Korea via
Vishakhapatnam port.
• Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-
Tumakuru belt in Karnataka has large
reserves of iron ore. The Kudremukh mines
located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka
are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh
deposits are known to be one of the largest
in the world. The ore is transported as
slurry through a pipeline to a port near
Mangaluru.
• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state
of Goa and Ratnagiri district of
Pradesh
33%
Odisha
16%
Maharashtra
27%
Fig. 5.3: Production of Manganese showing
state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
Dig a little deeper: Superimpose the maps
showing distribution of iron ore, manganese,
coal and iron and steel industry. Do you see
any correlation. Why?
Non-Ferrous Minerals
India’s reserves and production of non-
ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
However, these minerals, which include
copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a
vital role in a number of metallurgical,
engineering and electrical industries. Let us
study the distribution of copper and
bauxite.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 51

2022-23
 India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica

52 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
Copper Madhya
Pradesh
India is critically deficient in the reserve and Maharashtra
3%
Others
6% 1%
production of copper. Being malleable, ductile
and a good conductor, copper is mainly used Chhattisgarh
6%
in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
Gujarat
9%

Odisha
65%
Jharkhand
10%

Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite showing state-wise

Fig. 5.4: Copper mines at Malanjkhand share in per cent, 2018–19

industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Odisha was the largest bauxite producing
Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and state in India in 2016-17. Panchpatmali
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading deposits in Koraput district are the most
producers of copper. important bauxite deposits in the state.
Bauxite
Though, several ores
contain aluminium, it
is from bauxite, a
clay-like substance
that alumina and
later aluminium is
obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed
by the decomposition
of a wide variety of
rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.
Aluminium is an
important metal
because it combines
the strength of metals
such as iron, with
extreme lightness
and also with good
conductivity and
great malleability.
India’s bauxite
deposits are mainly Fig.5.6: Bauxite Mine
found in the
Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the Dig a little deeper: Locate the mines of
plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni. Bauxite on the physical map of India.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 53

2022-23

After the discovery of aluminium
Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and
hooks on his clothes made of aluminium
and served food to his more illustrious
guests in aluminium utensils and the
less honourable ones were served in gold
and silver utensils. Thirty years after this
incident aluminium bowls were most
common with the beggars in Paris.
Rock Minerals
Limestone is found in association with rocks
composed of calcium carbonates or calcium
and magnesium carbonates. It is found in
sedimentary rocks of most geological
formations. Limestone is the basic raw
material for the cement industry and
essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace.
Dig a little deeper: Study the maps to explain
why Chota Nagpur is a storehouse of minerals.

Non-Metallic Minerals Others

8%
Maharashtra Rajasthan
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates 4% 20%
or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These Tamil Nadu
sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be 6%
layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters
Gujarat
high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow 7%
or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric Madhya
strength, low power loss factor, insulating Pradesh
Telangana 13%
properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
8%
is one of the most indispensable minerals used
in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern Karnataka
9% Andhra
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the 11%
13%
leading producer.
In Rajasthan, the major mica producing Fig. 5.7: Production of Limestone showing
area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer
in the country.

Hazards of Mining
Have you ever wondered about the efforts the miners make in making life comfortable
for you? What are the impacts of mining on
the health of the miners and the environment?
The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by
miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary
diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs,
inundation and fires in coalmines are a
constant threat to miners.
The water sources in the region get
contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste
and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, Fig. 5.8: Air pollution due to
and increase in stream and river pollution. generation of dust in mining areas

54 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 Stricter safety regulations and
implementation of environmental laws are
essential to prevent mining from becoming a
“killer industry”.
C ONSERVATION OF MINERALS
We all appreciate the strong dependence of
industry and agriculture upon mineral
deposits and the substances manufactured
from them. The total volume of workable
mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction
i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust. We are
rapidly consuming mineral resources that
2022-23
required millions of years to be created and
concentrated. The geological processes of
mineral formation are so slow that the rates
of replenishment are infinitely small in
comparison to the present rates of
consumption. Mineral resources are,
therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich
mineral deposits are our country’s extremely
valuable but short-lived possessions.
Continued extraction of ores leads to
increasing costs as mineral extraction comes
from greater depths along with decrease
in quality.
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 55
 A concerted effort has to be made in order
to use our mineral resources in a planned
and sustainable manner. Improved
technologies need to be constantly evolved to
allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and
other substitutes are steps in conserving our
mineral resources for the future.

Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where

substitutes are being used instead of minerals.
Where are these substitutes obtained from?

Energy Resources
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed
to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel
vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy can be generated from fuel
minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas,
uranium and from electricity. Energy
resources can be classified as conventional
and non-conventional sources. Conventional
sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake,
coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional
sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal,
biogas and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle
dung cake are most common in rural India.
According to one estimate more than 70 per
cent energy requirement in rural households
is met by these two ; continuation of these is
increasingly becoming dif ficult due to
decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung
cake too is being discouraged because it
consumes most valuable manure which could
be used in agriculture.
Conventional Sources of Energy
Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly
available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial
part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used
for power generation, to supply energy to
industry as well as for domestic needs. India
is highly dependent on coal for meeting its
commercial energy requirements.
As you are already aware that coal is
formed due the compression of plant material
over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is
found in a variety of forms depending on the
degrees of compression and the depth and
Fig. 5.9 (a): A view from inside of a coal mine
Fig. 5.9 (b): A view from outside of a coal mine
time of burial. Decaying plants in swamps
produce peat. Which has a low carbon and
high moisture contents and low heating
capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
which is soft with high moisture content. The
principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil
Nadu and are used for generation of
electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
and subjected to increased temperatures is
bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal
in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high
grade bituminous coal which has a special
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
In India coal occurs in rock series of two
main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a
little over 200 million years in age and in
tertiary deposits which are only about 55
million years old. The major resources of
Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal,
are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-

56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas

Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL
(India) under “One Nation One Grid”.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 57

2022-23
Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are
important coalfields. The Godavari,
Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also
contain coal deposits.
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern
states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland.
Remember coal is a bulky material, which
loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash.
Hence, heavy industries and thermal power
stations are located on or near the coalfields.
Petroleum
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major
energy source in India after coal. It provides
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for
machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries
act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile,
fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India
are associated with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In
regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it
occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the
upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous
limestone or sandstone through which oil may
flow. The oil is prevented from rising or
sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
Petroleum is also found in fault traps
between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are
major petroleum production areas in India.
From the map locate the 3 major off shore
fields of western India. Ankeleshwar is the
most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the
oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi,
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the
important oil fields in the state.
Natural Gas
Natural Gas is found with petroleum deposits
and is released when crude oil is brought to
the surface. It can be used as a domestic and
industrial fuel. It is used as fuel in power sector
to generate electricity, for heating purpose in
industries, as raw material in chemical,
petrochemical and fertilizer industries, as
transport fuel and as cooking fuel. with the
expansion of gas infrastructure and local city
58 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
gas distribution (COD) networks, natural gas
is also emerging as a preferred transport fuel
(CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG) at homes. India’s
major gas reserves are found in the Mumbai
High and allied fields along the west coast
which are supplemented by finds in the
Cambay basin. Along the East Coast, new
reserves of natural gas have been discovered
in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
The first 1,700 KM long Hazira-Vijaipur-
Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas pipeline,
constructed by GAIL (India), linked Mumbai
High and Bassein gas fields with various
fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in
western and northen India. This artery
provided impetus to Indian gas market
development. Overall, India’s gas infrastructure
has expanded over ten times from 1,700 KM
to 18,500 KM of cross-country pipelines and
is expected to soon reach over 34, 000 KM as
Gas Grid by linking all gas sources and
consuming markets across the country
including North Eastern states.
Electricity
Electricity has such a wide range of
applications in today’s world that, its percapita
consumption is considered as an index of
development. Electricity is generated mainly in
two ways: by running water which drives hydro
turbines to generate hydro electricity; and by
burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum
and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
thermal power. Once generated the electricity
is exactly the same.
Name some river valley projects and write
the names of the dams built on these rivers.
Hydro electricity is generated by fast
flowing water, which is a renewable resource.
India has a number of multi-purpose projects
like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
producing hydroelectric power.
Thermal electricity is generated by using
coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal
power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels
for generating electricity.
Rawat Bhata

India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 59

2022-23
Collect infor mation about thermal/hydel
power plants located in your state. Show
them on the map of India.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The growing consumption of energy has
resulted in the country becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas. Rising prices of oil and gas and their
potential shortages have raised uncertainties
about the security of energy supply in future,
which in turn has serious repercussions on the Fig. 5.10: Solar operated electronic milk
testing equipment
growth of the national economy. Moreover,
increasing use of fossil fuels also causes
serious environmental problems. Hence, there Collect information about newly established
is a pressing need to use renewable energy solar power plants in India.
sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass
Wind power
and energy from waste material. These are
called non-conventional energy sources. India has great potential of wind power. The
India is blessed with an abundance of largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil
sunlight, water, wind and biomass. It has the Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from
largest programmes for the development of these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
these renewable energy resources. Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of
It is obtained by altering the structure of wind energy in the country.
atoms. When such an alteration is made, much
energy is released in the form of heat and this
is used to generate electric power. Uranium and
Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and
the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for
generating atomic or nuclear power. The
Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.
Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find
out the state in which they are located.
Solar Energy Fig. 5.11: Wind mills – Nagarcoil
India is a tropical country. It has enormous
Biogas
possibilities of tapping solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste
directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast are used to produce biogas for domestic
becoming popular in rural and remote areas. consumption in rural areas. Decomposition
Some big solar power plants are being of organic matter yields gas, which has higher
established in different parts of India which thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene,
will minimise the dependence of rural dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are
households on firewood and dung cakes, set up at municipal, cooperative and
which in turn will contribute to environmental individual levels. The plants using cattle dung
conservation and adequate supply of manure are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.
in agriculture. These provide twin benefits to the farmer in
the form of energy and improved quality of

60 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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manure. Biogas is by far the most efficient
use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of
manure and also prevents the loss of trees
and manure due to burning of fuel wood
and cow dung cakes.
Fig. 5.12: Biogas Plant
Tidal Energy
Oceanic tides can be used to generate
electricity. Floodgate dams are built across
inlets. During high tide water flows into the
inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed.
After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the
water retained by the floodgate flows back to
the sea via a pipe that carries it through a
power-generating turbine.
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf
of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast
and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of
West Bengal provide ideal conditions for
utilising tidal energy.
Geo Thermal Energy
Geo thermal energy refers to the heat and
electricity produced by using the heat from
the interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy
exists because, the Earth grows progressively
hotter with increasing depth. Where the
EXERCISES EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.
(i) Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material?
(a) coal (b) bauxite
(ii) Koderma, in Jharkhand is the leading producer of which one of the following
minerals?
(a) bauxite (b) mica
geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures
are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in
such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and
becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to
the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This
steam is used to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
There are several hundred hot springs in
India, which could be used to generate
electricity. Two experimental projects have been
set up in India to harness geothermal energy.
One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other
is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources
Energy is a basic requirement for economic
development. Every sector of the national
economy – agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic – needs inputs of
energy. The economic development plans
implemented since Independence necessarily
required increasing amounts of energy to
remain operational. As a result, consumption
of energy in all forms has been steadily rising
all over the country.
In this background, there is an urgent need
to develop a sustainable path of energy
development. Promotion of energy conservation
and increased use of renewable energy sources
are the twin planks of sustainable energy.
India is presently one of the least energy
efficient countries in the world. We have to
adopt a cautious approach for the judicious
use of our limited energy resources. For
example, as concerned citizens we can do our
bit by using public transport systems instead
of individual vehicles; switching off electricity
when not in use, using power-saving devices
and using non-conventional sources of energy.
After all, “energy saved is energy produced”.
E XERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES
(c) gold (d) zinc
(c) iron ore (d) copper
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 61
2022-23
 (iii) Minerals are deposited and accumulated in the stratas of which of the
following rocks?
(a) sedimentary rocks (c) igneous rocks
(b) metamorphic rocks (d) none of the above
(iv) Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?
(a) oil (b) uranium (c) thorium (d) coal
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
(a) ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
(b) conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
(ii) What is a mineral?
(iii) How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
(iv) Why do we need to conserve mineral resources ?
3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.
(i) Describe the distribution of coal in India.
(ii) Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?

A CTIVITY
Fill the name of the correct mineral in the crossword below:
2 1
M

2
M

4 3
M

4
T

1 5 5
T
6
o

7
y

ACROSS DOWN
1. A ferrous mineral (9) 1. Found in placer deposit (4)
2. Raw material for cement industry (9) 2. Iron ore mined in Bailadila (8)
3. Finest iron ore with magnetic properties (9) 3. Indispensable for electrical industry (4)
4. Highest quality hard coal (10) 4. Geological Age of coal found in north east
5. Aluminium is obtained from this ore (7) India (8)
6. Khetri mines are famous for this mineral (6) 5. Formed in veins and lodes (3)
7. Formed due to evaporation (6)
62 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 On the occassion of Diwali, Harish went to
a market with his parents. They purchased
shoes and clothes for him. His mother
purchased utensils, sugar, tea and diyas
(earthen lamps). Harish observed that the
shops in the market were flooded with
items for sale. He wondered how so many
items could be made in such large
quantities. His father explained that shoes,
clothes, sugar etc. are manufactured by
machines in large industries, some utensils
are manufactured in small industries, while
items like diyas are made by individual
artisans in household industry.
Do you have some ideas about these
industries?
Production of goods in large quantities after
processing from raw materials to more
valuable products is called manufacturing.
Do you know that paper is manufactured
from wood, sugar from sugarcane, iron and
steel from iron ore and aluminium from
bauxite? Do you also know that some types
of clothes are manufactured from yarn which
itself is an industrial product?
People employed in the secondary activities
manufacture the primary materials into
finished goods. The workers employed in steel
factories, car, breweries, textile industries,
bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some
people are employed in providing services. In
this chapter, we are mainly concerned with
manufacturing industries which fall in the
secondary sector.
The economic strength of a country is
measured by the development of
manufacturing industries.
2022-23
IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing sector is considered the
backbone of development in general and
economic development in particular mainly
because–
• Manufacturing industries not only help in
modernising agriculture, which forms the
backbone of our economy, they also reduce
the heavy dependence of people on
agricultural income by providing them jobs
in secondary and tertiary sectors.
• Industrial development is a precondition
for eradication of unemployment and
poverty from our country. This was the main
philosophy behind public sector industries
and joint sector ventures in India. It was
also aimed at bringing down regional
disparities by establishing industries in
tribal and backward areas.
• Export of manufactured goods expands
trade and commerce, and brings in much
needed foreign exchange.
• Countries that transform their raw
materials into a wide variety of finished
goods of higher value are prosperous.
India’s prosperity lies in increasing and
diversifying its manufacturing industries
as quickly as possible.
Agriculture and industry are not exclusive
of each other. They move hand in hand. For
instance, the agro-industries in India have
given a major boost to agriculture by raising
its productivity. They depend on the latter for
raw materials and sell their products such as
irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, machines
and tools, etc. to the farmers. Thus,
development and competitiveness of
manufacturing industry has not only are located in or near the cities. Thus,
assisted agriculturists in increasing their industrialisation and urbanisation go hand
production but also made the production in hand. Cities provide markets and also
processes very efficient. provide services such as banking,
In the present day world of globalisation, insurance, transport, labour, consultants
our industry needs to be more efficient and and financial advice, etc. to the industry.
competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not Many industries tend to come together to
enough. Our manufactured goods must be make use of the advantages offered by the
at par in quality with those in the urban centres known as agglomeration
international market. Only then, will we be economies. Gradually, a large industrial
able to compete in the international market. agglomeration takes place.
In the pre-Independence period, most
Contribution of Industry to National manufacturing units were located in places
Economy from the point of view of overseas trade
Over the last two decades, the share of such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc.
manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per Consequently, there emerged certain pockets
cent of GDP – out of a total of 27 per cent for of industrially developed urban centres
the industry which includes 10 per cent for surrounded by a huge agricultural rural
mining, quarrying, electricity and gas. hinterland.
This is much lower in comparison to
some East Asian economies, where it is 25 Industry – Market Linkage
to 35 per cent. The trend of growth rate in
manufacturing over the last decade has been
around 7 per cent per annum. The desired
growth rate over the next decade is 12 per
cent. Since 2003, manufacturing is once
again growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per
cent per annum. With appropriate policy
interventions by the government and
renewed efforts by the industry to improve
productivity, economists predict that
manufacturing can achieve its target over
the next decade. The National
Manufacturing Competitiveness Council
(NMCC) has been set up with this objective.

Industrial Location
Industrial locations are complex in nature.
These are influenced by availability of raw
material, labour, capital, power and market,
etc. It is rarely possible to find all these
factors available at one place. Consequently,
manufacturing activity tends to locate at Fig. 6.1
the most appropriate place where all the
factors of industrial location are either The key to decision of the factory location
available or can be arranged at lower cost. is the least cost. Government policies and
A fter an industrial activity starts, specialised labour also influence the
urbanisation follows. Sometimes, industries location of industry.

64 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23

Fig. 6.2
Classification of Industries
List the various manufactured products you
use in your daily life such as – transistors,
electric bulbs, vegetable oil, cement,
glassware, petrol, matches, scooters,
automobiles, medicines and so on. If we
classify the various industries based on a
particular criterion then we would be
able to understand their manufacturing
better. Industries may be classified as
follows:
On the basis of source of raw materials
used:
• Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk
textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee,
edible oil.
• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement,
aluminium, machine tools,
petrochemicals.
According to their main role:
• Basic or key industries are those which
supply their products as raw materials to
manufacture other goods e.g. iron and
steel and copper smelting, aluminum
smelting.
• Consumer industries that produce goods
for direct use by consumers – sugar,
toothpaste, paper, sewing machines,
fans etc.
On the basis of capital investment:
• A small scale industry is defined with
reference to the maximum investment
2022-23
allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit
has changed over a period of time. At
present the maximum investment allowed
is rupees one crore.
On the basis of ownership:
• Public sector, owned and operated by
government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
• Private sector industries owned and
operated by individuals or a group of
individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Dabur Industries.
• Joint sector industries which are jointly run
by the state and individuals or a group of
individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly
owned by public and private sector.
• Cooperative sector industries are owned
and operated by the producers or
suppliers of raw materials, workers or
both. They pool in the resources and share
the profits or losses proportionately. Such
examples are the sugar industry in
Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material
and finished goods:
• Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Light industries that use light raw
materials and produce light goods such
as electrical goods industries.
Classify the following into two groups on the
basis of bulk and weight of raw material and
finished goods.
(i) Oil (vi) Sewing Machines
(ii) Knitting needles (vii) Shipbuilding
(iii) Brassware (viii) Electric Bulbs
(iv) Fuse wires (ix) Paint brushes
(v) Watches (x) Automobiles
Agro-based Industries
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and
edible oil, etc. industries are based on
agricultural raw materials.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 65
 Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry
Textile Industry: The textile industry
occupies unique position in the Indian
economy, because it contributes significantly
to industrial production, employment
generation and foreign exchange earnings. It
is the only industry in the country, which is
self-reliant and complete in the value chain
i.e., from raw material to the highest value
added products.
Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton
textiles were produced with hand spinning
and handloom weaving techniques. A fter
the 18 th century, power-looms came into
use. Our traditional industries suffered
a setback during the colonial period
because they could not compete with the
mill-made cloth from England.
• The first successful textile mill was
established in Mumbai in 1854.
• The two world wars were fought in Europe,
India was a British colony. There was a
demand for cloth in U.K. hence, they gave
a boost to the development of the cotton
textile industry.
In the early years, the cotton textile
industry was concentrated in the cotton
growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Availability of raw cotton, market, transport
including accessible port facilities, labour,
moist climate, etc. contributed towards its
localisation. This industry has close links
with agriculture and provides a living to
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers
engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving,
66 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
sewing. The industry by creating demands
supports many other industries, such as,
chemicals and dyes, packaging materials
and engineering works.
While spinning continues to be centralised
in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
weaving is highly decentralised to provide
scope for incorporating traditional skills and
designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
embroidery, etc. I ndia has world class
production in spinning, but weaving supplies
low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of
the high quality yarn produced in the country.
Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom
and in mills.
The handspun khadi provides large scale
employment to weavers in their homes as a
cottage industry.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on
spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
Why is it important for our country to
keep the mill sector loomage lower than
power loom and handloom?
India exports yarn to Japan. Other
importers of cotton goods from India
are U.S.A ., U.K ., Russia, France, East
European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, and A frican countries.
We have a large share in the world trade
of cotton yarn. Our spinning mills are
competitive at the global level and capable of
using all the fibres we produce. The weaving,
knitting and processing units cannot use
much of the high quality yarn that is
produced in the country. There are some large
and modern factories in these segments, but
India: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 67

2022-23
most of the production is in fragmented small
units, which cater to the local market. This
mismatch is a major drawback for the
industry. As a result, many of our spinners
export cotton yarn while apparel/garment
manufactures have to import fabric.
Suppose that yarn is sold at Rs. 85 per kg. If it
is sold as a trouser it fetches Rs 800 per kg.
Value is added at every stage from fibre to
yarn to fabric and to garment.
Why is it important for us to improve our
weaving sector instead of exporting yarn in
large quantities?
A lthough, we have made significant
increase in the production of good quality
long staple cotton, the need to import is
still felt. Power supply is erratic and
machinery needs to be upgraded in the
weaving and processing sectors in
particular. Other problems are the low
output of labour and stiff competition with
the synthetic fibre industry.
Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and
jute goods and stands at second place as an
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of the mills
are located in West Bengal, mainly along the
banks of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt.
The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in
1855 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the
jute mills remained in India but three-fourth
of the jute producing area went to
Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).
Factors responsible for their location in
the Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute
producing areas, inexpensive water
transport, supported by a good network of
railways, roadways and waterways to
facilitate movement of raw material to the
mills, abundant water for processing raw
jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and
adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and Uttar
Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban centre
provides banking, insurance and port
facilities for export of jute goods.
68 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Challenges faced by the industry include
stiff competition in the international market
from synthetic substitutes and from other
competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil,
Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. However,
the internal demand has been on the
increase due to the Government policy of
mandatory use of jute packaging. To
stimulate demand, the products need to be
diversified. The main markets are U.S.A.,
Canada, Ghana, Saudi A rabia, U.K. and
Australia. The growing global concern for
e n v i r o n m e n t f r i e n d l y, b i o d e g r a d a b l e
materials, has once again opened the
opportunity for jute products.
Sugar Industry
India stands second as a world producer of
sugar but occupies the first place in the
production of gur and khandsari. The raw
material used in this industry is bulky, and
in haulage its sucrose content reduces. The
mills are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra, K arnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana
and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills
are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry
is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to
the cooperative sector. Can you explain why
this is so?
In recent years, there is a tendency for
the mills to shift and concentrate in the
southern and western states, especially in
Maharashtra, This is because the cane
produced here has a higher sucrose content.
The cooler climate also ensures a longer
crushing season. Moreover, the cooperatives
are more successful in these states.
Major challenges include the seasonal
nature of the industry, old and inefficient
methods of production, transport delay in
reaching cane to factories and the need to
maximise the use of baggase.
Mineral-based Industries
Industries that use minerals and metals as
raw materials are called mineral-based
industries. Can you name some industries
that would fall in this category?
Iron and Steel Industry was only around 74.3 kg per annum against
The iron and steel industry is the basic the world average of 229.3 kg.
industry since all the other industries — heavy,
medium and light, depend on it for their
Table 6.1: Total production of finished
machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a
steel in India
variety of engineering goods, construction
material, defence, medical, telephonic, Year Production
scientific equipment and a variety of consumer (in million tonnes)
goods.
2015–16 106.60

2016–17 120.14
Make a list of all such goods made of steel
that you can think of. 2017–18 126.85

2018–19 101.29
Production and consumption of steel is
often regarded as the index of a country’s 2019–20 102.62
development. Iron and steel is a heavy
industry because all the raw materials as well Source: Ministry of Steel, Government of
as finished goods are heavy and bulky India, steel.gov.in/overview.steel_sector
entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore,
coking coal and lime stone are required in Why is the per capita consumption of steel
the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some so low in India?
quantities of manganese, are also required to
harden the steel. Where should the steel plants
Collect information about products of steel
be ideally located? Remember that the finished
plants in India.
products also need an efficient transport
network for their distribution to the markets
and consumers. Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric
In 2019 with 111 million tonnes of crude furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron.
steel production, India ranked 2nd among the They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as
world crude steel producers. It is the largest well. They produce mild and alloy steel of
producer of sponge iron. In 2019 per capita given specifications.
consumption of finished steel in the country

Processes of Manufacture of Steel

Fig. 6.4
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 69

2022-23
 India: Iron and Steel Plants

70 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 We also import good quality steel from
An integrated steel plant is large, handles other countries. However, the overall
everything in one complex – from putting production of steel is sufficient to meet our
together raw material to steel making, rolling domestic demand.
and shaping. Liberalisation and Foreign Dir ect
Investment have given a boost to the
Most of the public sector undertakings i n d u s t r y w i t h t h e e f f o r t s o f p r i vate
market their steel through Steel Authority of entrepreneurs. There is a need to allocate
India Ltd. (SAIL). resources for research and development to
In the 1950s China and India produced produce steel more competitively.
almost the same quantity of steel. Today, China
is the largest producer of steel. China is also
the world’s largest consumer of steel. Have you read about the Kalinganagar
Chhotanagpur plateau region has the controversy? Collect information from
maximum concentration of iron and steel different sources and discuss.
industries. It is largely, because of the relative
advantages this region has for the development
Aluminium Smelting
of this industry. These include, low cost of
iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, Aluminium smelting is the second most
cheap labour and vast growth potential in important metallurgical industry in India.
the home market. Though, India is an It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good
important iron and steel producing country conductor of heat, malleable and becomes
in the world yet, we are not able to perform strong when it is mixed with other metals. It
to our full potential largely due to: (a) High is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and
costs and limited availability of coking coal wires. It has gained popularity as a
(b) Lower productivity of labour (c) Irregular substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in
supply of energy and (d) Poor infrastructure. a number of industries.

Indi a China

1000 996
928.3
Production in Million Tonnes

900 870.9
803.8 808.4
800
700
600
500
400
300
200 111
89 95.6 101.5 106.5
100
0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year

Fig. 6.5: Crude Steel Production in India and China

Source: World Steel Association, website: www.worldsteel.org, https://steel.gov.in/overview-steel-sector

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 71

2022-23
 Aluminium smelting plants in the country
are located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala,
Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu.
Fig. 6.6: Strip coasting mill at smelter of NALCO
Bauxite, the raw material used in the
smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish
coloured rock. The flow chart given below
shows the process of manufacturing
aluminium. Regular supply of electricity
and an assured source of raw material at
minimum cost are the two prime factors
for location of the industry.
Fig. 6.7
Fig. 6.8
72 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
A factory produces aluminium saucepans with
plastic handles. It obtains aluminium from a
smelter and a plastic component from
another factory. All the manufactured
saucepans are sent to a warehouse:
1. (a) Which raw material is likely to be most
expensive to transport and why?
(b) Which raw material is likely to be
the cheapest to transport and why?
2. Do you think the cost of transporting the
finished products after packaging is likely
to be cheaper or more expensive than the
cost of transporting aluminium and
plastic? Why?
Chemical Industries
The Chemical industry in India is fast growing
and diversifying. It comprises both large and
small scale manufacturing units. Rapid
growth has been recorded in both inorganic
and organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals
include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture
fertilizers, synthetic fibres, plastics,
adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid,
alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass,
soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic
soda. These industries are widely spread
over the country.
Why do you think it is so?
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals,
which are used for manufacturing of
synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics,
dye-stuf fs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Organic chemical plants are located near
oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
The chemical industry is its own largest
c o n s u m e r. B a s i c c h e m i c a l s u n d e r g o
processing to further produce other
chemicals that are used for industrial
application, agriculture or directly for
consumer markets. Make a list of the
products you are aware of.
Fertilizer Industry
The fertilizer industry is centred around the
production of nitrogenous fertilizers
(mainly urea), phosphatic fertilizers and
ammonium phosphate (DA P) and complex
fertilizers which have a combination of
nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).
The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported
as the country does not have any reserves
of commercially usable potash or potassium
compounds in any form.
A fter the Green Revolution the industry
expanded to several other parts of the
c o u n t r y. Gu j a r a t , Ta m i l Na d u , U t t a r
Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute
towards half of the fertilizer production.
Other significant producers are A ndhra
P r a d e s h , O d i s h a , R a j a s t h a n , B i h a r,
Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa,
Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
Cement Industry
Cement is essential for construction activity
such as building houses, factories, bridges,
roads, airports, dams and for other
commercial establishments. This industry
requires bulky and heavy raw materials like
2022-23
limestone, silica and gypsum. Coal and
electric power are needed apart from rail
transportation.
Where would it be economically viable to
set up the cement manufacturing units?
The industry has strategically located
plants in Gujarat that have suitable access
to the market in the Gulf countries.
Find out where the plants are located in other
States of India. Find their names.
The first cement plant was set up in
Chennai in 1904. After Independence the
industry expanded.
Improvement in the quality has found
the produce a readily available market in
East Asia, Middle East, A frica and South
Asia apart from a large demand within the
country. This industry is doing well in terms
of production as well as export. Efforts are
being made to generate adequate domestic
demand and supply in order to sustain this
industry.
Automobile Industry
Automobiles provide vehicle for quick
transport of good services and passengers.
Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
manufactured in India at various centres.
A fter the liberalisation, the coming in of
new and contemporary models stimulated
the demand for vehicles in the market,
which led to the healthy growth of the
industry including passenger cars, two and
three-wheelers. The industry is located
around Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune,
Ch e n n a i , K o l k a t a , L u c k n o w, I n d o r e ,
Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
Information Technology and
Electronics Industry
The electronics industry covers a wide range
of products from transistor sets to television,
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 73
telephones, cellular telecom, telephone
exchange, radars, computers and many
other equipments required by the
telecommunication industry. Bengaluru has
emerged as the electronic capital of India.
Other important centres for electronic goods
are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune,
Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore.
The major industry concentration is at
B engaluru, Noida, Mumbai, Chennai,
Hyderabad and Pune. A major impact of
this industry has been on employment
generation. The continuing growth in the
hardware and software is the key to the
success of IT industry in India.
Fig. 6.9: Cable manufacturing facilities at HCL,
Rupnarainpur (West Bengal)
Industrial Pollution and Environmental
Degradation
Although industries contribute significantly
to India’s economic growth and development,
the increase in pollution of land, water, air,
noise and resulting degradation of
environment that they have caused, cannot
be overlooked. Industries are responsible for
four types of pollution: (a) Air (b) Water (c)
Land (d) Noise. The polluting industries also
include thermal power plants.
Air pollution is caused by the presence of
high proportion of undesirable gases, such
as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Air-
borne particulate materials contain both solid
and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist
and smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical
74 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and
smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels
in big and small factories that ignore pollution
norms. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous
with long-term effects. Are you aware of the
Bhopal Gas tragedy that occurred? A ir
pollution adversely affects human health,
animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere
as a whole.
Water pollution is caused by organic and
inorganic industrial wastes and affluents
discharged into rivers. The main culprits in
this regard are paper, pulp, chemical, textile
and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries
and electroplating industries that let out dyes,
detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like
lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers,
synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and
rubber, etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash,
phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are
the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot
water from factories and thermal plants is
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
What would be the effect on aquatic life?
Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear
and weapon production facilities cause
cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil
and water pollution are closely related.
Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful
chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging,
salts and garbage renders the soil useless.
Rain water percolates to the soil carrying the
pollutants to the ground and the ground
water also gets contaminated.
Noise pollution not only results in irritation
and anger, it can also cause hearing
impairment, increased heart rate and blood
pressure among other physiological effects.
Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source
of stress. Industrial and construction
activities, machinery, factory equipment,
generators, saws and pneumatic and electric
drills also make a lot of noise.
Control of Environmental Degradation
Every litre of waste water discharged by our
industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
India: Some Software Technology Parks

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 75

2022-23
freshwater. How can the industrial pollution of
fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions are-
(i) minimising use water for processing by
reusing and recycling it in two or more
successive stages
(ii) harvesting of rainwater to meet water
requirements
(iii) treating hot water and effluents before
releasing them in rivers and ponds.
Treatment of industrial effluents can be
done in three phases
(a) Primary treatment by mechanical means.
This involves screening, grinding,
flocculation and sedimentation.
(b) Secondary treatment by biological process
(c) Tertiary treatment by biological,
chemical and physical processes. This
involves recycling of wastewater.
Overdrawing of ground water reserves
by industry where there is a threat to
ground water resources also needs to be
regulated legally. Particulate matter in the
air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks
to factories with electrostatic precipitators,
fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial
separators. Smoke can be reduced by using
oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
Machinery and equipment can be used and
generators should be fitted with silencers.
Almost all machinery can be redesigned to
increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
Fig. 6.10: Sewage Treatment plant under Yamuna
action plan at Faridabad
76 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Noise absorbing material may be used apart
f r o m p e r s o n a l u s e o f e a r p l u g s and
earphones.
The challenge of sustainable development
requires integration of economic development
with environmental concerns.
NTPC shows the way
NTPC is a major power providing corporation
in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
The corporation has a proactive approach
for preserving the natural environment and
resources like water, oil and gas and fuels
in places where it is setting up power plants.
This has been possible through-
(a) Optimum utilisation of equipment
adopting latest techniques and
upgrading existing equipment.
(b) Minimising waste generation by
maximising ash utilisation.
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological
balance and addressing the question of
special purpose vehicles for afforestation.
(d) Reducing environmental pollution through
ash pond management, ash water recycling
system and liquid waste management.
(e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and on-
line database management for all its
power stations.
Fig. 6.11: Ramagundam plant
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following industries uses limestone as a raw material.
(a) A luminium (b) Cement (c) Plastic (d) Automobile
(ii) Which one of the following agencies markets steel for the public sector plants?
(a) H A IL (b) SA IL (c) TATA Steel (d) MNCC
(iii) Which one of the following industries uses bauxite as a raw material?
(a) A luminium Smelting (b) Cement (c) Paper (d) Steel
(iv) Which one of the following industries manufactures telephones, computer, etc.
(a) Steel (c) A luminium Smelting
(b) Electronic (d) Information Technology

2 . A nswer the following briefly in not more than 30 words.

(i) What is manufacturing?
(ii) Name any three physical factors for the location of the industry.
(iii) Name any three human factors for the location of an industry.
(iv) What are basic industries? Give an example.
(v) Name the important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement?

3 . Write the answers of the following questions in 120 words.

(i) How are integrated steel plants different from mini steel plants? What
problems does the industry face? What recent developments have led to a
rise in the production capacity?
(ii) How do industries pollute the environment?
(iii) Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation
by industry?

ACTIVITY
Give one word for each of the following with regard to industry. The number of
letters in each word are hinted in brackets.
(i) Used to drive machinery (5) P...........................
(ii) People who work in a factory (6) W..........................
(iii) Where the product is sold (6) M..........................
(iv) A person who sells goods (8) R...........................
(v) Thing produced (7) P...........................
(vi) To make or produce (11) M..........................
(vii) Land, Water and Air degraded (9) P...........................

PROJECT WORK
Select one agro-based and one mineral-based industry in your area.
(i) What are the raw materials they use?
(ii) What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve
transportation cost?
(iii) A re these factories following environmental norms?

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 77

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 ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.

G G G P V A R A N A S I

U O J I P G X K M Q W V

K S U G A R C A N E E N

O T T O N O Z V O P T R

A U E L U B H I L A I U

T K O C R A Q N T R L N

E I R O N S T E E L S J

E N A N O E P I T L R Y

G A N U J D R A G D T A

N T A R P O A P U E P Y

A S N A E N J D I Y S K

S M H V L I A J H S K G

1 . Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2 . The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3 . This fibre is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
4 . Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.
5 . A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.
6 . Railway diesel engines are manufactured in Uttar Pradesh at this place.

78 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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We use different materials and services in our
daily life. Some of these are available in our
immediate surroundings, while other
requirements are met by bringing things from
other places. Goods and services do not move
from supply locales to demand locales on their
own. The movement of these goods and services
from their supply locations to demand locations
necessitates the need for transport. Some people
are engaged in facilitating these movements.
These are known to be traders who make the
products come to the consumers by
transportation. Thus, the pace of development
of a country depends upon the production of
goods and services as well as their movement
over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport
are prerequisites for fast development.
Movement of these goods and services can be
over three important domains of our earth i.e. land,
water and air. Based on these, transport can also
be classified into land, water and air transport.
Fig. 7.1
For a long time, trade and transport were
restricted to a limited space. With the
development in science and technology, the
area of influence of trade and transport
expanded far and wide. Today, the world has
been converted into a large village with the help
of efficient and fast moving transport.
Transport has been able to achieve this with
2022-23
the help of equally developed communication
system. Therefore, transport, communication
and trade are complementary to each other.
Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
the world despite its vast size, diversity and
linguistic and socio-cultural plurality.
Railways, airways, waterways, newspapers,
radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have
been contributing to its socio-economic
progress in many ways. The trades from local
to international levels have added to the vitality
of its economy. It has enriched our life and
added substantially to growing amenities and
facilities for the comforts of life.
In this chapter, you will see how modern
means of transport and communication serve
as lifelines of our nation and its modern
economy. It is thus, evident that a dense and
efficient network of transport and
communication is a prerequisite for local,
national and global trade of today.
TRANSPORT
Roadways
India has second largest road networks in the
world, aggregating to about 62.16 lakh km
(2020–21). In India, roadways have preceded
railways. They still have an edge over railways
in view of the ease with which they can be built
and maintained. The growing importance of
road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is rooted
in the following reasons; (a) construction cost
of roads is much lower than that of railway
lines, (b) roads can traverse comparatively more
dissected and undulating topography, (c) roads
can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and
as such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical in
transportation of few persons and relatively
smaller amount of goods over short distances,
(e) it also provides door-to-door service, thus
the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,
(f) road transport is also used as a feeder to
other modes of transport such as they provide
a link between railway stations, air and
sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the
following six classes according to their
capacity. Look at the map of the National
Highways and find out about the significant
role played by these roads.
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
The government has launched a major
road development project linking Delhi-
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by
six-lane Super Highways. The North-
South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu
& Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil
N a d u ) , a n d E a s t - We s t C o r r i d o r
connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander
(Gujarat) are part of this project. The
major objective of these Super Highways
is to reduce the time and distance
between the mega cities of India. These
highway projects are being implemented
by the National Highway Authority of
India (NHAI).
• National Highways: National Highways
link extreme parts of the country. These
are the primary road systems and are
laid and maintained by the Central Public
Works Department (CPWD). A number of
major National Highways run in North-
South and East-West directions. The
historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called
National Highway No.1, between Delhi and
Amritsar.
80 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
Fig.7.2: Ahmedabad- Vadodara Expressway
Collect information of National Highway
numbers (old and new) from the website
morth.nic.in/national-highway-details.
• State Highways: Roads linking a state
capital with different district headquarters
are known as State Highways. These roads
are constructed and maintained by the
State Public Works Department (PWD) in
State and Union Territories.
• District Roads: These roads connect the
district headquarters with other places
of the district. These roads are maintained
by the Zila Parishad.
• Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural
areas and villages with towns, are classified
under this category. These roads received
special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
special provisions are made so that every
village in the country is linked to a major
town in the country by an all season
motorable road.
• Border Roads: Apart from these, Border
Roads Organisation a Government of India
undertaking constructs and maintains
roads in the bordering areas of the
country. This organisation was established
in 1960 for the development of the roads
of strategic importance in the northern and
north-eastern border areas. These roads
have improved accessibility in areas of
difficult terrain and have helped in the
economic development of these area.
India: National Highways

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 81

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The World’s longest Highway tunnel-Atal
Tunnel (9.02 Km) has been built by Border
Road Organisation. This tunnel connects
Manali to Lahul-Spiti valley throughout the
year. Earlier the valley was cut off for about
6 months each year owing to heavy snowfall.
The tunnel is buit with ultra-modern
specifications in the Pir Panjal range of
Himalayas at an altitude of 3000 metres
from the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
Source: http://www.bro.gov.in/pagefimg.
asp?imid=144,And PIBdelhi03October2020
Fig. 7.3: Hilly Tracts
Fig. 7.4: Traffic on north-eastern border road
(Arunachal Pradesh)
Roads can also be classified on the basis of
the type of material used for their construction
such as metalled and unmetalled roads.
Metalled roads may be made of cement,
concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore,
82 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
and narrow. However, in recent years fast
development of road network has taken place
in different parts of the country
Railways
Railways are the principal mode of
transportation for freight and passengers
in India. Railways also make it possible for
people to conduct multifarious activities
like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
along with transportation of goods over
longer distances. Apart from an important
means of transport the Indian Railways
have been a great integrating force for more
than 150 years. Railways in India bind the
economic life of the country as well as
accelerate the development of the industry
and agriculture.
The Indian Railways is the largest public
sector undertaking in the country. The first
train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
The Indian Railway is now reorganised into
16 zones.
Find out the current Railway zones and their
headquarters. Also locate the headquarters
of Railway zones on the map of India.
The distribution pattern of the Railway
network in the country has been largely
influenced by physiographic, economic and
administrative factors. The northern plains with
their vast level land, high population density
and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their growth. However,
a large number of rivers requiring construction
of bridges across their wide beds posed some
obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular
region, railway tracts are laid through low hills,
gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous
regions too are unfavourable for the construction
of railway lines due to high relief, sparse
population and lack of economic opportunities.
Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on
 Table 7.1: India: Railway Track
The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations
extending over 67,956 km.
Gauge in metres
Broad Gauge (1.676)
Metre Gauge (1.000)
Narrow Gauge (0.762 and 0.610)
Total
Source: Railway Yearbook 2019–20, Ministry of Railways, Government of India.
Website: www.indianrailways.gov.in
the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps
of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand. The
contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed
only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent
times, the development of the Konkan railway
along the west coast has facilitated the movement
of passengers and goods in this most important
economic region of India. It has also faced a
number of problem such as sinking of track in
some stretches and landslides.
Today, the railways have become more
important in our national economy than all
other means of transport put together. However,
rail transport suffers from certain problems as
well. Many passengers travel without tickets.
Thefts and damaging of railway property has
not yet stopped completely. People stop the
trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this
causes heavy damage to the railway. Think over
it, how we can help our railway in running as
per the scheduled time?
Pipelines
Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on
the transportation map of India. In the past,
these were used to transport water to cities and
industries. Now, these are used for transporting
crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas
from oil and natural gas fields to refineries,
fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.
Solids can also be transported through a
pipeline when converted into slurry. The far
inland locations of refineries like Barauni,
Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants
could be thought of only because of pipelines.
Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but
2022-23
Route (Km)
63950
2,402
1,604
67,956
subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules
out trans-shipment losses or delays.
There are three important networks of
pipeline transportation in the country.
• From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur
(Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and
Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to
Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to
Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
• From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in
Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali
(near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and
other places.
• The first 1,700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-
Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas
pipeline, linked Mumbai High and Bassein
gas fields with various ferilizer, power and
industrial complexes in western and
northern India. Overall, India’s gas pipeline
infrastructure has expanded from 1,700 km
to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines.
Waterways
Since the ancient period, India was one of the
seafaring countries. Its seamen sailed far and
near, thus, carrying and spreading Indian
commerce and culture. Waterways are the
cheapest means of transport. They are most
suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly
mode of transport. India has inland navigation
waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these
only 5685 km are navigable by mechanised
vessels. The following waterways have been
declared as the National Waterways by the
Government.
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 83
 Activity
Railway line has been extended from Banihal to Baramula in the Kashmir Valley. Locate these
two towns on the map of India.
84 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
 Deendayal Port, is a tidal port. It caters to the
convenient handling of exports and imports of
highly productive granary and industrial belt
stretching across UT of Jammu and Kashmir,
and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Fig. 7.5: Inland waterways widely used in

north-eastern states

• The Ganga river between Allahabad and

Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
• The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and
Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
• The West-Coast Canal in Kerala Fig. 7.6: Trucks being driven into the vessel at
(Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Mumbai port
Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3
Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious
• Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna
natural and well-sheltered harbour. The
rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry
Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view
stretch of canals (1078 km) – N.W. No.4
• Specified stretches of river Brahmani along to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi hub port for this region. Marmagao port (Goa)
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal is the premier iron ore exporting port of the
(588 km) – N.W. No.5 country. This port accounts for about fifty per
There are some other inland water ways cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore
on which substantial transportation takes port, located in Karnataka caters to the export
place. These are Mandavi, Zuari and of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and mines. Kochchi is the extreme south-western
backwaters of Kerala. port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a
natural harbour.
Apart from these, India’s trade with foreign
countries is carried from the ports located
along the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s
trade volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is
moved by sea.
Major Sea Ports
With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is
dotted with 12 major and 200 notified non-
majors (minor/intermediate) ports. These
major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s Fig. 7.7: Tanker discharging crude oil at New
Mangalore port
foreign trade.
Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port Moving along the east coast, you would see
developed soon after Independence to ease the extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin, in
the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour
the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan and rich hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing
after the Partition. Kandla also known as the trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 85

2022-23
even our neighbouring countries like Sri
Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions
of India. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial
ports of the country. It is ranked next to
Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and
cargo. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest
landlocked and well-protected port. This port
was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron
ore exports. Paradwip port located in Odisha,
specialises in the export of iron ore. Kolkata is
an inland riverine port. This port serves a very
large and rich hinterland of Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it
requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia
port was developed as a subsidiary port, in
order to relieve growing pressure on the
Kolkata port.
Fig. 7.8: Handling of oversize cargo at Tuticorin port
Airways
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most
comfortable and prestigious mode of
transport. It can cover very difficult terrains
Why is air travel preferred in the north-
eastern states?
Fig. 7.9
86 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense
forests and also long oceanic stretches with
great ease. Think of the north-eastern part of
the country, marked with the presence of big
rivers, dissected relief, dense forests and
frequent floods and international frontiers,
etc. in the absence of air transport. Air travel
has made access easier.
The air transport was nationalised in 1953.
Air India provides domestic and international
air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd.
provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations, to
inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the
north-eastern states and the interior parts of
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand.
Find out the names of the countries connected
by Air India.
Air travel is not within the reach of the
common people. It is only in the north-eastern
states that special provisions are made to
extend the services to the common people.
Communication
Ever since humans appeared on the earth,
they have used different means of
communication. But, the pace of change, has
been rapid in modern times. Long distance
communication is far easier without physical
movement of the communicator or receiver.
Personal communication and mass
communication including television, radio,
press, films, etc. are the major means of
communication in the country. The Indian
postal network is the largest in the world. It
handles parcels as well as personal written
communications. Cards and envelopes are
considered first-class mail and are airlifted
between stations covering both land and air.
The second-class mail includes book packets,
registered newspapers and periodicals. They
are carried by surface mail, covering land and
water transport. To facilitate quick delivery
of mails in large towns and cities, six mail
channels have been introduced recently. They
are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel,
Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
Channel and Periodical Channel.
India: Major Ports and Some International Airports

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 87

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Digital India is an umbrella programme
to prepare India for a knowledge based
transformation. The focus of Digital India
Programme is on being transformative to
realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is
on making technology central to enabling
change.
Fig.7.10 : Emergency call box on NH-8
India has one of the largest telecom
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places
more than two-thirds of the villages in India
have already been covered with Subscriber
Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In order
to strengthen the flow of information from
the grassroot to the higher level, the
government has made special provision to
extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every
village in the country. There is a uniform rate
of STD facilities all over India. It has
been made possible by integrating the
development in space technology with
communication technology.
Mass communication provides
entertainment and creates awareness among
people about various national programmes
and policies. It includes radio, television,
newspapers, magazines, books and films. All
India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety
of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people,
spread over different parts of the country.
Doordarshan, the national television channel
88 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
2022-23
of India, is one of the largest terrestrial
networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety
of programmes from entertainment,
educational to sports, etc. for people of
different age groups.
India publishes a large number of
newspapers and periodicals annually. They
are of different types depending upon their
periodicity. Newspapers are published in
about 100 languages and dialects. Did you
know that the largest number of newspapers
published in the country are in Hindi, followed
by English and Urdu? India is the largest
producer of feature films in the world. It
produces short films; video feature films and
video short films. The Central Board of Film
Certification is the authority to certify both
Indian and foreign films.
International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states
and countries is referred to as trade. The
market is the place where such exchanges
take place. Trade between two countries is
called international trade. It may take place
through sea, air or land routes. While local
trade is carried in cities, towns and villages,
state level trade is carried between two or more
states. Advancement of international trade of
a country is an index to its economic
prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the
economic barometer for a country.
As the resources are space bound, no
country can survive without international
trade. Export and import are the components
of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
the difference between its export and import.
When the value of export exceeds the value
of imports, it is called a favourable balance
of trade. On the contrary, if the value of
imports exceeds the value of exports, it is
termed as unfavourable balance of trade.
India has trade relations with all the major
trading blocks and all geographical regions
of the world. The commodities exported from
India to other countries include gems and
jewellery, chemicals and related products,
agriculture and allied products, etc.
 The commodities imported to India
include petroleum crude and products,
gems and jewellery, chemicals and related
products, base metals, electronic items,
machinery, agriculture and allied products.
India has emerged as a software giant at the
international level and it is earning large
foreign exchange through the export of
information technology.
Tourism as a Trade
Tourism in India has grown substantially over
the last three decades.
More than 15 million people are directly
engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism also
promotes national integration, provides
support to local handicrafts and cultural
pursuits. It also helps in the development of
international understanding about our
culture and heritage. Foreign tourists visit
India for heritage tourism, eco tourism,
adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical
tourism and business tourism.
There is a vast potential for development of
tourism in all parts of the country. Efforts are
being made to promote different types of
tourism for this upcoming industry.
On the map of India show important tourist
places of your State/UT and its connectivity
with other parts of the country by railways/
roadways/airways.
Discuss in the class:
• What type of tourism may be developed in
your state/UT and why?
• Which areas in your state/UT you find more
attractive for development of tourism and why?
• How tourism may be helpful for the economic
development of a region adopting sustainable
development approach?

Prepare a project on the heritage tourism in India.

*Source: Annual Report 2016–17, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 89

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 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-
west corridor?
(a) Mumbai and Nagpur (c) Mumbai and Kolkata
(b) Silchar and Porbandar (d) Nagpur and Siligudi
(ii) Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
(a) Railways (c) Pipeline
(b) Roadways (d) Waterways
(iii) Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V.J. pipeline?
(a) Madhya Pradesh (c) Gujarat
(b) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh
(iv) Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well-
protected port along the east coast?
(a) Chennai (c) Tuticorin
(b) Paradwip (d) Vishakhapatnam
(v) Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation
in India?
(a) Pipeline (c) Roadways
(b) Railways (d) Airways
(vi) Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or
more countries?
(a) Internal trade (c) External trade
(b) International trade (d) Local trade
2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) State any three merits of roadways.
(ii) Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of
transportation?
(iii) What is the significance of the border roads?
(iv) What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international
and local trade?
3 . A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.
(i) Why are the means of transportation and communication called the
lifelines of a nation and its economy?
(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade in the last
fifteen years.

QUIZ DRIVE
1 . Northern terminal of the North-south corridor.
2 . The name of National Highway No.2.
3 . The headquarter of the southern railway zone.
4 . The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.
5 . The southern terminal of the National Highway No.7.
6 . A Riverine Port.
7 . Busiest railway junction in Northern India.
90 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

2022-23
ACTIVITY
Start your search vertically, horizontally or diagonally and reach various
destinations across the country!

S H E R S H A H S U R I M A R G

A R T P R N X E L A T A D L A Y

J M M X I P O R A Y M P G H T X

Y C H E N N N A I I K M C A I M

O D C D A L M C S O T P O R C P

A P T R G S K J M J L E A N E R

R A E T A J P O R M W M A S X O

I L S B R O A D G A U G E L O T

A S N L C M E C U K Z M A A J E

L M U G H A L S A R A I B S N A

G O E T V R A Y F T O R E A J M

K Q A I P M N Y R Y A Y H L I N

Q K O L K A T A E U I T W B E A

N I T N K D E M O U R P N P J D

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 91

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 
Websites you can see
Bombay Natural History Society: http://www.bnhs.org/
Birding in India and South Asia: http://www.birding.in/
Website of Project Tiger: http://projecttiger.nic.in/
Nature Conservation Foundation: http://www.ncf-india.org/
Wildlife Conservation Society of India: http://www.wildlife.in/
Wildlife Trust of India: http://www.wildlifetrustofindia.org/
Kalpavriksh Environment Action Group: http://www.kalpavriksh.org/
Down to Earth Magazine: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/
Centre for Environment Education, India: http://www.ceeindia.org/cee/index.html
World Steel Association : http://www.worldsteel.org

2022-23
 

Steel Plants Year of Establishment Collaborating Location

Country

IISCO 1870-1913 (Private initially) (Nationalised Kulti and

in 1972) Burnpur (W.B.)
TISCO 1907 (Private ownership) Jamshedji Tata Jamshedpur
(Jharkhand)
VISL 1923 Private as MISCO Nationalised later Bhadravati
(Karnataka)
Bhilai 1959 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bhilai (M.P.)
Bokaro 1972 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bokaro
(Jharkhand)
Durgapur 1959 (Public Sector) U.K. Durgapur (W.B.)
Rourkela — (Public Sector) Germany Rourkela
(Odisha)
Vishakhapatnam — (Public Sector) — Vishakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
Salem — (Public Sector) — Salem (T. Nadu)
Vijay Nagar — Public Sector — Karnataka

2022-23
 

Anticline: A fold in sedimentary strata that resembles an arch.

Gross Domestic Product: It is a monetary measure of the value of goods and services
produced within a natural economy at a given period of time. Normally it is one year.

Gross Value Added (GVA): The GVA is estimated from GDP by adding subsidies on
production and substracting indirect taxes.

Geologist: A scientist who studies the composition, structure and history of the
earth.

Geothermal Gradient: The gradual increase in temperature with depth in the

crust. The average is 30°C per kilometer in the upper crust.

Humus: Dead and decayed organic matter adds to the fertility of the top soil.

Igneous Rocks: Rocks which have solidified from molten magma.

Manganese Nodules: A type of sediment scattered on the ocean floor, consisting

mainly of manganese and iron, and usually containing small amounts of copper,
nickel and cobalt.

Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks which were originally igneous or sedimentary, but have
changed in character and appearance.

Oil Trap: A geological structure that allows for significant amounts of oil and gas to
accumulate.

Rock: A consolidated mixture of minerals

Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks which have been deposited as beds and layers of
sediments.

2022-23
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce

content load on students. The National Education Policy 2020,
also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset.
In this background, NCERT has undertaken the exercise
to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning
Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes
have been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view

of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject
areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in
same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without
much interventions from teachers and can be learned
through children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This booklet contains information in tabular form about

subject-wise contents which have been dropped and
hence are not to be assessed.
 Table for Rationalised Content

1068 — Contemporary India-II

Chapter Page No. Dropped Topics/Chapter
Chapter 1: 2–3 Types of Resources,
Resources and 11–12 Box information
Development
From second paragraph of
Chapter 2: Forest ‘Flora and Fauna in India’
and Wildlife 14–18 to ‘The Himalayan Yew in
Resources Trouble’, box information,
Figs 2.1 and 2.2
Contribution of agriculture
to the national economy,
Chapter 4:
43–46 employment and output,
Agriculture
Impact of globalisation on
agriculture
Contribution of industry
to national economy,
paragraphs from cotton
textiles (India exports...
fibre industry), Jute
textiles (Challenges...
Chapter 6: 64–66 products), Sugar industry
Manufacturing 68–69 (Major... baggase),
Industries 71–73 Iron Steel industry (In
2019... consumer of
steel; Though... and
discuss), Cement industry
(Improvement... industry)
and Activity (pg. 72), Table
6.1, Figs 6.1, 6.2 and 6.5
Appendix 93–94 Appendix II