IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, MOST GRACIOUS, MOST MERCIFUL

Signals & Systems

MT - 252
Lecture # 1: Introduction

Dr. Hafiz Zia Ur Rehman

hafizzia@mail.au.edu.pk

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Air University, Islamabad
 What is Signal?
◼ A signal is a function of one or more independent variable
that typically carries some type of information about the
state or behavior of a physical system.
◼ It is a measured quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable.
◼ The information in a signal is contained in a pattern of
variations of some form.
◼ Audio/speech, ECG*, EEG**, etc.

*Electrocardiogram,
**Electroencephalogram 3
What is Signal?
** The information in a signal is contained in a pattern of
variations of some form.

Retarding Force

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 Information in a signal
In all cases the information in a
signal is contained in a pattern of
variations of some form.
Retarding Force

First Case: The patterns of variations

over time in the source and capacitor
voltage.

Second Case: The variations over

time of the applied force and resulting
automobile velocity are signals.

Third Case: The signal represents

acoustic pressure variations as a
function of time for the spoken words
"should we"

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What is Signal?

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 What is Signal?
◼ Signals are omnipresent in science and engineering. Examples
include:
- Electrical signals
- Mechanical signals
- Biomedical signals
- Finance
◼ By extension, any series of measurements of a physical
quantity can be considered a signal (temperature
measurements for instance).

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 Information in a signal

For monochromatic picture, it is the

pattern of variations in brightness across
the image.
Mathematically, brightness as a functions
of two spatial variables.

*Image courtesy of MATLAB

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 Signal characterization:
◼ The most convenient mathematical representation of a signal
is via the concept of a function, say x(t).
In this notation:
◼ x represents the dependent variable (e.g., voltage, pressure, etc.).

◼ t the represents the independent variable (e.g., time, space, etc.).

◼ Depending on the nature of the independent and dependent

variables, different types of signals can be recognized.
◼ Distinctions can also be made at the model level,
◼ For example:
◼ whether x[n] is deterministic or random in nature.
◼ ....... 9
 Types of Signal

Nature of Dependent/Independent Variable

• - Analogue (Continuous time signal): x(t)

- Discrete Time Signal: x[n]
- Digital Signal

Number of Independent Variable

• -One Dimensional (1-D)
-Two Dimensional (2-D)
-Multidimensional

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 Types of Signal

1-D

2-D

3-D
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 Types of Signal
◼ Continuous-Time (CT): It is defined for all time t: x(t); (-∞, ∞)
Example: Voltage, Current, Speech signal, etc.
◼ Discrete-Time (DT) signal: It is defined only at discrete instants of
time:
x  n  = x ( nT )
◼ Example: Daily stock market price, Daily average temperature etc.

Figure: (a) Continuous Time (b) Discrete Time 12

 Types of Signal
◼ Notation of Continuous and Discrete time Signals
◼ Continuous-Time (CT):
➢ The symbol ‘t’ to denote the CT independent variable.
➢ Parentheses ‘( . )’ used for independent variables ‘t’
➢ Example:- 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒕 + 𝟑(𝒕 − 𝟏) + 𝟏
➢ A CT signal is called Function.
◼ Discrete-Time (DT) signal:
➢ The symbol ‘n’ to denote the DT independent variable.
➢ Brackets ‘[ . ]’ utilized for independent variable
➢ Example:- 𝒚[𝒏] = 𝟑[𝒏] + 𝟓[𝒏 − 𝟏]
➢ A DT signal is called sequence.
◼ Although strictly speaking , a sequence is a special case of a function
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(where the domain of the function is the integers.)
Types of Signal
Continuous Signal

Discrete Signal

Digital Signal

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 Types of Signal
◼ Continuous to Discrete time Signal
◼ We can convert a continuous signal into a discrete-time signal by
‘Sampling’.

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 Representation of DT Signal
◼ There are several alternative ways of describing the sample values
of a DT signal. Some of the most common are:
◼ Sequence Representation

where the bar (or sometime an up-arrow ) on top of symbol 1 indicates

origin of time (i.e. n = 0).
◼ Graphical Representation

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 Representation of DT Signal
◼ There are several alternative ways of describing the sample values
of a DT signal. Some of the most common are:
◼ Functional or Explicit mathematical expression:

◼ Recursive approach:

◼ Tabular Representation
𝑛 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝒙[𝒏] -4 1 2 1 2 17
 Review: Complex Numbers
◼ A complex number z can be represented in
◼ Cartesian form as
z = x + jy,
◼ Or in polar form as
z = re j .
◼ Euler’s Formula

e j = cos ( ) + j sin ( ) .
◼ Using Euler’s formula, the relation between 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑟, and 𝜃 is given by
  r = x2 + y 2
 x = r cos ( ) 
 and  −1  y 
 y = r sin ( )  = tan  
  x 18
 Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Gonzalez & Woods
Example:1 www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om

➢ Convert the following complex numbers form Cartesian form to polar

Chapter 10
form Image Segmentation

(a) 1+ 2 j  r = x2 + y 2

(b) 1 − j  −1  y 
 = tan  
Solution:  x
(a)
r= (1) + ( 2 )  5,
2 2

2
 = tan −1    63.64
1  

➢ Therefore,

j 63.64( 180

)
1 + 2 j = 5e

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Gonzalez & Woods
Example:1 www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om

➢ Convert the following complex numbers form Cartesian form to polar

Chapter 10
form Image Segmentation

(a) 1+ 2 j  r = x2 + y 2

(b) 1 − j  −1  y 
 = tan  
Solution:  x
(b)
r= (1) + ( −1)  2,
2 2

 −1 
 = tan −1 
  −45 or 135
 1 
➢ Therefore,
j ( −45 180

) − j ( 4 )
1 − j = 2e  2e
Or
j (135180

) j ( 34 )
1 − j = 2e  2e

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Gonzalez & Woods
Example:2 www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om

➢ Calculate the value of 𝑗 𝑗 . Chapter 10 r = ( 0 )2 + (1)2  1,

Image Segmentation 
 
−1  1 
Solution: ( j)
j
= (0 + j )
j
 = tan    90 or
 0 2

 j
 j2  −
(0 + j ) =  e   e 2  0.2078
j

 
Example:3 Convert the following complex numbers form polar form to
Cartesian form

− j ( 6 )
(a ) 3e
− j ( 23 )
(b) 7e

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Gonzalez & Woods
Example:3 Convert the following complex numbers form polar form to
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om

Cartesian form Chapter 10

Image Segmentation
− j ( 6 )
(a ) 3e  x = r cos ( )

− j ( 23 )  y = r sin ( )
(b) 7e

Solution:

(a)
− j ( 6 ) 3 3 3
3e = 3cos ( − 6 ) − 3 j sin ( − 6 )  − j 
2 2
(b)
− j ( 23 ) 7  21 
7e = 7 cos ( 2
3 )− 7 j sin ( 2
3 )  − − j  
2  2 

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Review on Complex Numbers
◼ Important Identities
e j = cos ( ) + j sin ( ) , (1)
e − j = cos ( ) − j sin ( ) , ( 2)
◼ By adding (1) and (2)

e j + e − j Point to Ponder
cos ( ) =
2 e − + e
cos ( j ) =  cos h ( x )
2
◼ By Subtracting (1) and (2) e − e −
sin ( j ) = j  j sin h ( x )
2
e j − e − j
sin ( ) =
2j
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Assignment Questions

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 Acknowledgement
◼ The slides are prepared based on the following textbook:
◼ Chapter # 1 (Art. 1.1), signals & systems by Alan V. Oppenheim, S.
Hamid Nawab, 2nd edition, Pearson education - prentice hall, 1996
◼ Special thanks to
◼ Dr. Muhammad Shehzad Hanif (UET Lahore)

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