Elementry Review

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
Image Segmentation

Source: https://i2.wp.com/cbse.myindialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/062019_2034_Refractiono2.jpg?zoom=2.25&w=1170

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

Time Domain Vs Frequency
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
Image Segmentation

Source: https://www.ifm.com/responsive/original/fourbythree/content/gallery/us/microsites/rtm/time-domain.png?v=-927235315

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

Time Domain Vs Frequency
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
Image Segmentation

Source: https://steemitimages.com/DQmZPvxjW5aHawnxU9UrHinVJKD4rTBQ6UKDwbcQZY5aoQc/image.png

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

Time Domain Vs Frequency
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
Image Segmentation

https://www.ifm.com/responsive/original/fourbythree/content/gallery/us/microsites/rtm/frequency-spectrum.svg?v=1047710746

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

Time Domain Vs Frequency
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
o A time domain analysis Image
is an Segmentation
analysis of physical signals (mathematical
functions), or time series of economic or environmental data, in reference to
time.
o A time-domain graph can show how a signal changes with time.
o An oscilloscope is a tool commonly used to see real-world signals in the
time domain.

----------------------------------------------------------------

o A Frequency domain is an analysis of signals or mathematical functions,

in reference to frequency, instead of time.
o A frequency-domain graph will show how much of the signal lies within
each given frequency band over a range of frequencies.
o Spectrum of frequency components is the frequency-domain depiction of
the signal.
o A spectrum analyzer are commonly used when visualizing electronic
signals in frequency domain.
Source: https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-time-domain-analysis-vs-frequency-domain-analysis-a-guide-and-comparison

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Elementry Review Lecture-13

Signals & Systems

MT - 252
Lecture # 13: Fourier Series Representation
Dr. Hafiz Zia Ur Rehman
hafizzia@mail.au.edu.pk

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Air University, Islamabad
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Fourier Series Representation (Introduction)

❑ The representation and analysis of LTI systems through the convolution

sum as developed in last Chapter (2) is based on representing signals as
linear combinations of shifted impulses. The starting point for our
discussion in the last chapter was the development of a representation of
signals as linear combinations of a set of basic signals, i.e.
➢ Unit Impulse
➢ Unit Step
❑ The following two chapters (3-4), we explore an alternative
representation for signals and LTI systems.
❑ For this alternative representation we use complex exponentials.
The resulting representations are known as the
➢ Fourier Series (Both for Continuous-time and Discrete-time )
➢ Fourier Transform (Both for Continuous-time and Discrete-time )
7
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Fourier Series Representation (Introduction)

❑ In this chapter, the focus will be on the representation of continuous-time

and discrete-time periodic signals that referred to as the Fourier series.
❑ Together, these representations provide one of the most powerful and
important sets of tools and insights for
➢ analyzing,
➢ designing, and
➢ understanding signals and LTI systems.
❑ Specifically, we will see that
➢ If the input to an LTI system is expressed as a linear combination of
periodic complex exponentials or sinusoids, the output can also be
expressed in this form, with coefficients that are related in a
straightforward way to those of the input.

8
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Response of LTI systems to Complex Exponentials

❑ In the study of LTI systems, signals can be represented as linear combinations

of basic signals that possess the following two properties:
➢ The set of basic signals can be used to construct a broad and useful class of
signals.
➢ The response of an LTI system to each signal should be simple enough in
structure with a convenient representation for the response of the system to any
signal.
❑ The importance of complex exponentials in the study of LTI systems stems from
the fact that
➢ The response of an LTI system to a complex exponential input is the same
complex exponential with only a change in amplitude, i.e.,
Continuous Time: e st → H ( s ) e st
Discrete Time: z n → H ( z ) z z
➢ where the complex amplitude factor H(s) or H(z) will in general be a function of
the complex variable s or z. 9
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

10

Response of LTI systems to Complex Exponentials

❑ Eigenfunction & Eigenvalue:

➢ A signal for which the system output is a (possibly complex) constant times
the input is referred to as an Eigenfunction of the system, and the amplitude
factor is referred to as the system’s Eigenvalue.
❑ Let x ( t ) = e st


y (t ) =  x ( ) h ( t −  ) d or y ( t ) =
−
 h ( ) x ( t −  ) d
−

x (t − ) = e (
s t − )
y (t ) = h ( ) e (
s t − )

−
d


y (t ) = e st
 h ( ) e s d  H ( s ) e st .
−

where H(s) is called Eigen Function and is a complex constant whose value depends on ‘s’.
The constant H(s) for a specific value of ‘s’ is then the Eigenvalue associated with the
eigenfunction 𝒆𝒔𝒕 .
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Response of LTI systems to Complex Exponentials

❑ Eigenfunction & Eigenvalue:

❑ In an exactly parallel manner, we can show that complex exponential sequences
are eigenfunctions of discrete-time LTI systems.
❑ Let x  n = z n
 
y  n =  x  k  h  n − k  , y  n =  h  k  x n − k 
− −


y  n =  h  k  z n−k
,  x  n − k  = z n−k
−


y  n = z n
 h k  z −k
 H z zn.
−

where 𝐻 𝑧 is called Eigen Function and is a complex constant whose value depends on ‘𝑧’.
The constant 𝐻 𝑧 for a specific value of ‘s’ is then the Eigenvalue associated with the
eigenfunction 𝒛𝒏 . 11
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Decomposition of General Signals in terms of Eigenfunction

❑ Let 𝑥 𝑡 correspond to a linear combination of three complex exponentials, i.e.,

x ( t ) = a1e s1t + a2e s2t + a3e s3t

❑ From the eigenfunction property, the response to each separately is
a1e s1t → a1 H ( s1 ) e s1t
a2 e s2t → a2 H ( s2 ) e s2t
a3e s3t → a3 H ( s3 ) e s3t
❑ From the superposition property, the response to the sum is the sum of the
responses, so that

y ( t ) = a1 H ( s1 ) e s1t + a2 H ( s2 ) e s2t + a3 H ( s3 ) e s3t

12
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Decomposition of General Signals in terms of Eigenfunction

❑ Specifically, if the input to a continuous-time LTI system is represented as a

linear combination of complex exponentials, that is, if

x ( t ) =  ak e sk t
k
❑ Then, the output will be
y ( t ) =  ak H ( sk ) e sk t
k
❑ In an exactly analogous manner, if the input to a discrete-time LTI system is
represented as a linear combination of complex exponentials, that is, if

x  n  =  ak zkn
k
❑ Then, the output will be
y  n  =  ak H ( zk ) zkn
k 13
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Decomposition of General Signals in terms of Eigenfunction

❑ In other words, for both continuous time and discrete time,

➢ If the input to an LTI system is represented as a linear combination of
complex exponentials, then the output can also be represented as a linear
combination of the same complex exponential signals, i.e.,

x ( t ) =  ak e sk t or x  n  =  ak zkn
k k

❑ Each coefficient in this representation of the output is obtained as the product of

the corresponding coefficient 𝒂k of the input and the system's eigenvalue 𝐻 𝑠𝑘
or 𝐻 𝑧𝑘 associated with the eigenfunction or respectively.

y ( t ) =  ak H ( sk ) e sk t or y  n  =  ak H ( zk ) zkn
k k

14
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials

❑ Periodic Signal
➢ A signal is periodic if, for some positive value of T

x (t ) = x (t + T ) , for all t.
➢ Two basic periodic signals (already studied)

1) Sinusoidal signal x ( t ) = cos (0t )

1) Exponential signal x ( t ) = e0t

➢ Both signals are periodic with fundamental frequency 𝝎° and

fundamental period:
2
T0 =
0 15
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials

❑ An associated signal that is harmonically related complex exponentials are:

k ( t ) = e jk t ,0
k = 0, 1, 2,
 2 
jk  t
k ( t ) = e  T0 
.
❑ Each of these signals has a fundamental frequency that is a multiple of 𝜔0 and is
periodic with period T (although for 𝑘 ≥ 2, the fundamental period of 𝝓𝒌 (𝒕) is a
fraction of T.
❑ Thus, a linear combination of harmonically related complex exponentials of the
form +
x (t ) = 
k =−
ak e jk0t ,
 2 
+ jk  t
x (t ) = ae
k =−
k
 T0 
.
16
 Elementry Review Lecture-13

Fourier series representation of CT periodic signals

❑ Thus, a linear combination of harmonically related complex exponentials of the

form +
x (t ) = ae
k =−
k
jk0t
,
 2 
+ jk  t
x (t ) = ae
k =−
k
 T0 
.

❑ The term for 𝒌 = 0 is a constant. The terms for 𝒌 = ±1 have fundamental

frequency equal to 𝝎° and are collectively referred to as the fundamental
components or the first harmonic components.
❑ The two terms for 𝒌 = ±2 are periodic with half the period (or, equivalently,
twice the frequency) of the fundamental components and are referred to as the
second harmonic components.
❑ More generally, the components for 𝑘 = ±𝑁 are referred to as the Nth
harmonic components.
17
 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
Example-01: Consider an LTI system om for which the input 𝑥(𝑡) and output 𝑦(𝑡)
Chapter 10
are related by a time shift of 3, i.e.,
Image Segmentation

y ( t ) = x ( t − 3)
If the input to this system is the complex exponential signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 ,
determine the output in terms of complex exponential.

Solution:-
y ( t ) = x ( t − 3)
x ( t ) = e j 2t
y (t ) = e
j 2( t − 3)
x ( t − 3) = e
j 2( t − 3)

y ( t ) = e − j 6 e j 2t
y ( t ) = H ( s ) e j 2t , H ( s ) = e− j 6
y ( t ) = H ( j ) e j 2t , H ( j ) = e − j 6
© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
Example-02: Consider an LTI system om for which the input 𝑥(𝑡) and output 𝑦(𝑡)
Chapter 10
are related by a time shift of 3, i.e.,
Image Segmentation

y ( t ) = x ( t − 3)
If the input to this system is 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 4𝑡 + cos 7𝑡 , determine the output
in terms of complex exponential.

Solution:-
y ( t ) = x ( t − 3) x ( t ) = cos ( 4t ) + cos ( 7t )

y ( t ) = cos ( 4 ( t − 3) ) + cos ( 7 ( t − 3) ) x ( t − 3) = cos ( 4 ( t − 3) ) + cos ( 7 ( t − 3) )

1 j 4 t −3 1 − j 4 t −3 1 j 7 t −3 1 − j 7 t −3
y (t ) = e ( ) + e ( ) + e ( ) + e ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
y ( t ) = e j 4t e − j12 + e − j 4t e j12 + e j 7 t e − j 21 + e − j 7 t e j 21
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
y (t ) = H ( s1 ) e j 4t + H ( s2 ) e j − 4t + H ( s3 ) e j 7 t + H ( s4 ) e j −7 t
2 2 2 2

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

Time Domain Vs Frequency
www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
om
Chapter 10
Image Segmentation

Source: https://steemitimages.com/DQmZPvxjW5aHawnxU9UrHinVJKD4rTBQ6UKDwbcQZY5aoQc/image.png

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
Example-03: Consider a periodic signal
om 𝒙(𝒕), with fundamental frequency 2𝜋,
Chapter 10
that is expressed in the as
Image Segmentation
1
a0 = 1, a1 = a−1 = ,
+3 4
x (t ) = 
k =−3
ak e jk 2 t a2 = a−2 = ,
1
2
1
a3 = a−3 = .
Solution:- 3
➢ Rewriting and collecting each of the harmonic components which have the same
fundamental frequency
+3
x (t ) = a e
k =−3
k
jk 2 t

x (t ) = 1 +
4
(
1 j 2 t
e + e − j 2 t
) +
2
(
1 j 4 t
e + e − j 4 t
) +
3
(
1 j 6 t
e + e − j 6 t ) .

➢ Equivalently, using Euler's relation, 𝒙(𝒕) can be written in the form

1 2
x ( t ) = 1 + cos ( 2 t ) + cos ( 4 t ) + cos ( 6 t ) .
2 3

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Elementry Review
Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Lecture-13

Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.c
It is illustrating graphically how the signal
om 𝒙(𝒕) is built up from its harmonic
Chapter 10
components:
Image Segmentation

© 1992–2008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Elementry Review Lecture-13

References and Reading assignment

◼ The slides are prepared based on the following textbook:
◼ Chapter #3 (Art. 3.1-3.3), signals & systems by Alan V. Oppenheim, S. Hamid
Nawab, 2nd edition, Pearson education - prentice hall
◼ Reading Assignment : 3.1,3.2,3.3.1 with respective examples
◼ Special thanks to
◼ Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shehzad Hanif

23