e8 J je 08, ‘pais se os ‘bout gue, em assum ili ifting of Continents ang le Plate Tectonics =" evit \ the‘ WEGENER’S CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (Professor Alfred Wegener was a German scholar who put forward his theory of drifting ih ; of continents in 1912 and revised it in 1924)Wegener was primarily a ort rist who A was interested to study the global climatic changes in the past.(fle foul drashe':limatic changes in the geological history ofthe earth, He proclaimed that climatic changes on such of a lage scale could be possible only by drifting of the continents fie Os impgessed bythe Ly “ig saw fit” ofthe eastern and westem coastlines of the Atlaptie oceaifie Seer that So the bulge of Brazil would fit in the Gulf. of Guinea)ind thebeats American coastline sould a Closely ft in the indentations ofthe coast of Scandinavia and Western Euro imi the bulge of Ethiopia and "age on the East Coast of Aftica fits in the coasgline of Westem ——&¢ India and PakistarhYaus alia can easily fit itself in the Bay of Benga outstanding A Similarities in the coastlines, specially that of the Atlantic ocean, were called “jig-saw-fit’ - by Wegener) s Gonsidering the above facts, Wegener supposed that sev : Were closely agg, veral continental landmasses upper Carboniferous period Wegener. Pangaea was surrounded by a vast Part of Pangaea comprised of North America, n 88 ‘Laurasia’. Similarly, the southern Part of Pangaea ; erica, Africa, Peninsular India, Australia and Antarctica and wag Gondwanaland’ * Both Laurasia and Gondwi i analand were separated by 4nd shallow sea known as Tethys Sea, —s i Furope and Asia and was know: Comprised of South Am, known as a narrowdrifting ist who limatic n such by the d that asi fy the stern sses iod. ast ca, 1ea as yw pairTing OF CONTINENTS ANDO iar TECTONICS 3B) ~~ ener assumed that some part of Pangaea drifted westward, srorwards. This process started in the Upper Carbonife i! 39° other part weet drifted ea i ro 1-300 million years 260 Laurasia and Gondwanaland came nearer to eave ‘Age about 250 ae d drifting towards the north-east. The size of Tethys ha and pe came smaller. India st jeposition in Tethys Sea suff ia i deposition in Tethys Sea suffered folding and : rey olding and Himalayas and qipe were formed lion years ago in the mid Jura: i About 180 mi age, Atlantic Ocean bey ide ; ne cean beca m wi Apart westward drift of the Americas. The westward drift ofthe Ameen gated in due inkling of their western edge and Rockies and Andes were fom i ocusnane speumed a shape somewhat similar to the present shape in the Pliestacene Apabout 50-60 cene Age about 50” million years 480. ‘three stages of continental drift is upper carboniferous (300 million (60 million years) and Early Quaternary (1 million years), as suggested by veer a ener are s in Fig. 6.1 EVIDENCE OF MOVEMENT OF CONTINENTS Wegener collected several evidences in support of his continental drift theory. Some of the outstanding evidences are listed below: it ], Mountain Belt. The ancient mountain belt 470 to 350 million years old, was created by a continuous belt of geological activity. These mountains are now separated by the Atlantic Ocean. 2. Fossils. Wegener tried to explain the drifting of continents on the basis of distribution of fossils. For example, fossils of the plant Glassopteris and animals Mesosurus and Tyserosayrus have been found in the carboniferous rock’ of India, Australia, Sout Africa, ica, Falkland Islands, Antarctica, etc. These are widely separated areas and such South Ameri a distribution can only be explained by accepting the concept of continental drift. are gold deposits within river alluvium in the Ghana coast of Africa but there are no source rocks in that region. However, across 9000 km wide ‘Atlantic Ocean, there are gold bearing veins in Belen Sau Brazil (South America) but there are no gold deposits within alluvium in the adjacent coastal belt. Occurrence of such stunning similarities in distant lands gives credence to the continental drift theory. This shows that Africa and South America were parts of Pangaea and drifted apart at a later stage. This is explained by placing ‘Africa and South America together (Fig 6.2). The goid beating sediments were transported down the slope in Brazil and deposited in the belt Which is today the Ghana coast. 4. Palaeoclimatic Unity. Palae the geological past. (Thick glacial deposits 3. Geological Matching. There of climate of some period in ‘of Permo-carboniferous age are exposed at Uruguay and Brazil in South America, Africa, South India, South Australia and Tasmania The uniformity in the nature of sediment indicates that these Sn ey ae together in the geological past and experie ditions (Fig. 6.3) Jroday .o-climate refers to the study jt in nced similar climatic colnary (1 million years) Hs according to Alfred Wegener 1s¢ GEOGRAPHY, nese cour widely SeP oceans. 1 climatic 2 tropical. 5.Co waters W geologice the view continet conditio 6. Ps given a formed haemat tenden This pr change magne the co time Critic W Ojec deseysourH AMERICA Position of Africa and South Africa explaining the gold deposits these counties are drifted apart and are widely separated from each other by large a \ oceans. They are situated in various FIG. 6.3. Map showing the distribution of Permo- climatic zones varying from temperate to Carponierous Glacietions of Gondwene: land withthe continents reassembled tropical. 5. Corals. Coral is a minute reef building marine polyp which thrives well in warm waters with temperature above 20°C. It lives between latitudes 30°N and 30°S. The geological occurrence of corals away from the belt of 30°N and 30°S latitudes strengthens the view that these continents were nearer to the equator in the geological past. The continents have moved northwards and are experiencing cold and torrid climatic conditions today 6. Polar Wandering. Polaeomagnetism (earth's magnetism in the geological past) has given a strong evidence that the present day continents of the earth were united and formed parts of Pangaea. The magnetically susceptible minerals such as magnetite, haematite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite in lava/magma and unconsolidated sediments have the tendency to align themselves parallel to the earth's magnetic field prevailing at that time. This property is retained in the rocks as permanent magnetism. There has been periodic change in the position of magnetic pole that is recorded in rocks by way of permanent i. / magnetism, This is known as polar wandering. The polar wandering clearly shows that / the continents have frequently moved and changed directions of their motion from time to ( time. Criticism Wegener's theory of continental drift has been criticised on several accounts and many _. objections have been raised against this theory. Some major objections are briefly described below18 GEOGRAPHY, 1, Flaws in Ji South America and, «claimed by Wegener. If we bring eave a gap of about 15°. cd drift. F-B. Taylo, ard and equatorwar 1 ae rans (1919) found evidence of , america toward the Centre Of the itis not as complete a it, Jig-saw- : ae Jy other, their coasts ‘Africa close to eae lated west Ww. poles. J stwards from Vegener postu 2. Direction of Drift. Wegene! . deduced an outward radial drift from ‘. general drift eastwards, southwards and no advocated by Wegener are no, as causing dit, Two forces ane a 2. Inadequacy af fore can ge scale. The tidal force involved by Wegene adequate enough 0 caused for causing westward drift would need to be 10,000 millio mes as powerful as it is a i P ift would need to be 10,000 mi pres It had Sei it would stop the earth’s rotation completely in a y sie 7 Wvitetional force causing equatorward drift has been found to by ifferential gravitation: Similarly, the inadequate, 4. Nature of Sial and Sima. mn heavier liquid sima, It is very strange that sima said oct oni) became so rigid atthe time of mountain formation that sial striking against it rose in the form of a mountain. Ifwe take sima rigid, the continents cannot float in itand ifwe take itas weak and mobile the mountains cannot be formed. ‘Wegener treated continents as lighter solid stal which float (whom Wegener regarded so weak that 5. The Problem of Glossopteries. Wegener treated the distribution of Glossopteries flora ofthe carboniferous age on both sides of the atlantic ocean as a convincing proof of continental drift. But Philip Lake (1931) explained that this flora is found in Kashmir, north- western Afghanistan, north-eastern Persia and Siberia. These areas have not been mentioned by Wegener and such areas do not fit in Wegeners scheme of continental drift 6. Time of Drift. Several objections have been raised regarding the time of drift, Crities have asked: ‘What kept Pangaea intact til the hour of drifting struck ? Why did the process not become operature until that date ? Why it could not happen at a later time ? Such questions constitute a serious criticism of Wegener's presentation of his ease ‘SEA FLOOR SPREADING i is mtinad catlier the distribution of continents occurred due to the disintegration ofthese cana Fangaea and the present distribution of the continents hac taken een Yeats. The drift of the continents sil continues The ridges down emitting lava actively. These mid-oceanic ridges, re n ‘ molten rocks push upto form new crust, The away from the ridge and the ocean basin w, ns, m1 now! 1 oc : ; ‘dens. This phenomena is ki | the middle of the ocean floors have been are cracks on the floor of the ocean whe, | crust spreads Fig. 64 shows by At first the crust is upward. Then a long three schematic block both lifted and stretch narrow valley, diagrams how conti hed apart called a rift vatte : inental rupture takes place. as the lithospheric plate is arched ” appears (Block A). The widening of x0 ek oe Schen New o A. The on fay Widen continC GEOGRAPHY. egener If we by bout 15°. : d drift. FB, Tayto, ind evidence of. Ie centre oft Wegener are nop ved by Wegener wwerftl as itis ap letely in a year peen found to be sil which float ed so weak that hat sial striking s cannot float in f Glossopteries incing proof of ‘ashmir, north- ave not been inental drift. of drift. Critics id the process 1 time ? Such tisintegration nts has taken > ridges down ceanic ridges) wv crust. The ona is know? - takes place e is arche re wideniné CONTINENTS AND PLATE TECTONICS ww oF palFTING | RIFT BLOCK VAILEY MOUNTAINS ° 0 2 xm 30 0 waNTe SceaaeeseacasneatnG! eee fa Se ae ————_- continental rupture and the opening up of @ 64. Schematic block diagrams showing stages in Cor vo emphasize surface features ‘A. The crust is uplifted and stretched apart rust is uplifted and stre yw oceanic crus on fats, B. A narrow ocean i formed floored BY Te ace semen from the widens, while the passive continental marine subside 2 Continents,Isc GEOGRAPHY—~x; i mantle below. The agma rising from the MAT fas ry filed in with MAEM? Tc tley. Crustal bloc} wi Sie a e jnous landscape. As SeParation ng of te ocean basin ContlNucy ieni ay separated, ‘crack in its centre is © iy to form new 5p faul \ceal magma solidifi (Block ©). ssion of steel ww ocean apes dtl reading, along a succe' continues, a narro' formed and the continents 3° until a large ocean is form the Adanti «ving smaller a new ocean millio' . and South America. g wider by severa, ocean is gettin ee apart of a crack ‘and the Red Sea is ea Floor SP sult of Sea F ns of years in future. The ar, the Pacific Oceat E gel produce will widen 0 P ae (Ocean has separated Af Asa res centimetres a yet in the crust that widening South Atlant “ ehensive version of «ig an extended and more comprehensive version of ate tectonics is an ee hypothesis of pl a The hypothesis of P oe spreading. This is @ theory of sea-floor sprea‘ spreading, continental drift, earthquakes, volcanoes, ; a coherent manner. The hypothes! crustal structures in z by WJ. Morgan of Princton University in 196% ents are now regarded as parts of rigid plates of lithos jthospheric slabs or rigid clude both continental ing concept which ea arcs and several other mountains, 5 ofplate tectonics was first outlined phere, about 100 Drifting contin f kim thick, composed of crustal rocks and upper mantle. The rigid Ii and solid crustal layers are known as plates. Individual plates may in and oceanic crust. Strictly speaking, the plates are inert aseimic regions, bounded by narrow mobile belts which are characterised by earthquakes and volcanoes. The earth's crust is continuously experiencing movements in horizontal as well as v which results in breaking and bending of the crustal rocks. This process of breaking and bending of the rocks of the entire lithosphere including the crust is called tectonic activity. The study of these activities and the structures they produce is known as tectonics. The whole mechanism of evolution nature and motion of plates and the resultant reactions is called plate tectonics. In broad outline, the modern view of plate tectonics conside earth's lithosphere to be divided into blocks or segments that are drifting in various | directions with respect to one another just as a slab of butter moves over the surfa warm skillet tical direction rs the eofa Movements of Plates. Lithospheric plates are not stationery ‘moving in different directions y, rather they keep on of movement varies from 2 to 20 in three distinct ways. The closer to each other from diffe plates move away from e: the plates move parallel to each lithospheric plates of the earth, at different rates. Their rate em. per year. Movements of plates take place in which the plates move divergence in which the first is convergence tent directions. The second is ‘ach other, The third is parallel in which other. Fig. 6.5 shows @ simplified scheme of the Followin: of the plates ¥ 1. Conve from opposit other are cal known as €0 the denser 0 subduced due to hea at n angl The zone o} The n continei been form: Plate. Mosi also forme Contin collision p; area due fold moun M this wayPRY, WW. The Ip down, paration several Fa erack The sion of a-floor other ilined rat 100 nental led by arth’s ction g and tivity s, The ons is rs the rious e ofa p on to 20 NTS AND PLATE TECTONICS orconrine sutxtuctlon Mic-oconni = on ‘Wye i : y | 3. a ys A See PNA Foves : NL Fein a toll Oceanic —\\ 22° plato” convergence \ Metting ac Sana daa hig nar ne pa oo indaries or Margins g three plate boundaries are piate Bou! Follow he plates with rel recognised on the basis of direction of movement Jation to each other. ch boundaries come into being when two pl Joser to each other. The plates which move towards each and the boundaries between two converging plates are plate collides with continental plate, ates moving 1. converging Boundaries. rom opposite directions come cl uher ae called converging plates verging boundaries. When an oceanic d below the lighter continental plate. The overrun Pla he plate is melted, Melting also takes place mally dip Inown as com ive denser oceanic plate is forc subduced or thrust into the mantle dueto heat created by pressure of rocks atan angle of 45° and melting of the subduced he zone of subduction is called Benioff zone se to the surface fi and part of th from above. The plates of subduction nom plate takes place at a depth of over 100 km 1 Benioff plane. forming volcanic mountains along the has formed. The Peru-Chile trench b tal are The molten rock (magma) ri continental edge (Fig. 6.6). Alternately been formed by collision of the Nazca Oce plat. Most of the earthquakes occur in subduction zone © also ‘formed by subduction of plates. a trench may be anic plate and the South American continel and island ar ea trenches they do not subduet but collide In up of continental margin gence of plates n formed ‘As such, and threshing is type of conver ad the Alps have Continental plates have uniform density: 1 by folding erging plate the Himalayas a0 Collision = n process, crust area is reduced adue to compressional force of conv fold mou ine tttains and earthquakes are forms T this way, ss, In thiCONTINENTS ANE {sc QEOGRAPHYy gah ical am Maral fo" plates 4902 ajacent Pl {one another rally Pa 20002 Fault such as San ee ia (US. a “ahiforni ait 1 along which fault ies a sundatie or the plates t ponent overne" jansform boundd ithospht nt plates Fig. 6.8. shown in FIG; eric Plates o minor plat MevrIne jon of voleanio mountains 6.68. ee of plats ard ate 7G. 6. Convergence opiates and formal ? Maj 5.Burasian Pla jor plates. 1. Africa plates which are moving away from, Saale some other 2 Divergent Boundaries. There are cach osher These plates are called diverging plates and give rise to diverging boundarie, Be ios: of the diverging boundaries are along the mid oceanic ridges. It is generally B characterised by continuous upwelling of molten lava from within the earth (Fig. 6.7). long 1. Arab Juan de Minor plates 5, Cocos plate, 6. «. scotia plate. Fig. 6.9 ‘ction of movement i the mid-oceane dg, eapecily in Attantc Ocean, new ocean Hor is formed duet depostion of ected molten materia, This i known as sea-loor spreading. Hence the divergent margin ils own as construction margin as new cus is formed aa eens covers about 20 per cen | oceanic crust. No plate 0 km bene | | from about Almost all the tect reason that the plate | geographers. i ‘Mo oceaNie | connienr RIDGE CONTINENT Indian Plate. The ridges and plateaus. ‘I Plateau, Chagos-Mald two hot spots. The 1 consumed the sea { Lakshadweep ridge fi Eocene period (Abo Spreading faster at es Consequent to { ——________ Indian py CTE ee ory tov late and EuYea oF CONTHENTE AND PLATE TECTONIC Mn sor Margin or Conservative Margin ran cent platen may allp Trp Gh two aajncent mt “J spony past one ane any a : er tform fault atch as San Anaoas af a ies au atornin (U.S.A. The Rn tgs ong eh seh NA utente plates kes ple b = SS mnt ransom boundaries, Sh Ni (Mester pane characterised by ((UL SLE Tmts ma Mons earthquakes, A transform i= se runes cr hes A FIG 6. Traefom Boundary formed by mation o poundaty eee tcont plats A and B along transfor faut bea pate ang, the transform riage mi aattisshown i Fi 6 poste areotone Main ~ Lithospherie Plates of the World, La Pichan (1968) divided the earth into six major paves and nine minor plates. These areas under Major plates . Atican plate, 2. American plate, 3. Antarctica plate, 4 Australian plate, 5. Eurasian plate and 6. Pacific plate. , 2. Bismark plate, 3. Caribbean plate, 4. Carolina plate, te, 7. Nazca or East Pacific plate, 8. Philippines plate and ne of the important plates along with their rate and Minor plates. 1. Arabian plate 5.7). Alyy 5, Cocos plate, 6, Juan de puca pl late. Fig, 6.9 shows so Formed dy, 9. Scotia pl Cading. Hence jy direction of movern« nt in ems per year largest. It is almost entirely composed of oceanic crust and the other plates have both continental and +. The thickness of the plates varies ee The Pacific Plate is the covers about 20 per cent of the earth's surface. nic crust. No plate has entirely continental cr ns to about 150 km beneath the continents. from about 70 km beneath the oce: activities take place along the plate boundaries. This is the ave become the focus of attention of geologists and Almost all the tectonic reason that the plate boundaries hi geographers. conti Indian Ocean floor has varied topographic features including basins, wo of the ocean ridges namely Ninety-e Indian Plate. The A ridges and plateaus. +t ridge and the Mascarene Plateau, Chagos-Maldw and ridge are supposed to be volcanic tracts of two hot spots. The northward p Lakshadweep isl extension of Ninety-east ridge ended in trench which e north of the Indian continental mass. The Chagos- with south-east Indian ridge during an ridge has been OF MOVEMENT | mm Sued the sea floor to th Lakshadweep ridge linked the ancient Carlsberg ridge Eocene period (About 50 million years ago). The mid Indian Oce: spreading faster at estimated speed of 14-20 cm per year. st Indian Ocean ridge, the collision between ng rise to the BF —_Consequent to the Carlsberg-south- Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate took place north of the Indian Plate givin‘oF CONTINENTS AND PLATE TE ecco jed that the a oot hat he one eB eon ne ah wen” of Seas =o 5 ROTORS) weg ed cl at Pe pS hs ott sible Pee at continental drifting LIMP Woolen ne cro vem Saale fe on F) itty te Oe thenosphere have allowe Sats 2 ne me i tectonic theory also soh Se emanrn NN es wen Wie Go wy No. Grammy ns Se Gee MA NOY GoCRey rable postulated by ¥ The P# ested two forces viz, tidal rte Seat, Although the exad eontine jists believe that c¢ forcoiney geologists . jay HOM asphenomena. Unequal cause OF Ny his in turn may set in ated th ‘ inking rock (be ridge) and si «The lithospheric plate (Fig. 6 panne e Late (2 cea” cor woven pr ae en indian and Bua Java, The suture between Indian 8 Him putea vives. been along the Indus and the Brahm Causes of Plate Movement. The g th century was the difficulty displace Sima just ssa thicl of continental di atest obstruction to acceptance esramderstanding how continents composed of Si ts ships sail on and displace Water. At tht aie evanie crust was a thick continuation of a continental basaltic ‘of Glasgow, in 1928, Arthur Holmes Suggested id that subcrustal convection curtens entel in early 20 could possibly sail on and time i was thought tha tna lecture to the Geological Society suggester , aye possible way out of the difficulty. He ed the mechanism of thermal convection which s rise, then cool as they reach the surface ints of the currents, the rigid plates of the inva acts as driving force for mover plates, Hot current This convectional movement moves the crustal plates. Due to movemer Iithosphere, which oat’ on more mobile asthenosphere, ate in constant motion, Smal activity and often located far from any active plate bound: According to the plate | lithosphere. These centres of voleani¢ American Plate moving westv thesis of hot spotin western edge of this plate ist of subduction is responsible —FiG. 6.10. Simplified mode centres of past voleanic suggest the effect of convection currents on the i activity are called the hot spots. W. Jason Morgan proposed the hypot 1971. According to him, the source of magma in the mantle remains fixed in position wil the lithosphere plate above it moves steadily In this way, volcanoes are formed over abst submarine trench lies off the spot but then move away from the magma source and become extinct. These extinct chain of Alaska. These trenc ain that is record of the plate motion which is being forced into t volcanoes form ac Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift, Wegener's continental drift theory took on The Pacific Plate is the li new meaning in the 1960s and 1970s when plate tectonics emerged as a leading theory: crust. Around the marginsegion has ental drift ed of Sial sr. At that i basaltic ggested a curren' ement of ovement 2s of the yn. Small oundary volcanic t spot in on while ver a hot » extinct yok on 4 theory’ etl or CONTINENTS AND PLATE TECTONICS ut at the continental layer of less de a" of denae can usta tock. Geolott feel that itis ave in stich a fashion. Cf al drift involves entire lithospheric pl ’ ars cal proposed th eee ahrough & Wp yecause tigid © hat continent lates, much thicker than 1a owed the continents to be cared slong ith som opener pina cet aTe postulated by Wegener . tectonic theory nh ce sect response ponstbe forthe motion of plates not ye asthen also solves the problei Ives the problem of inadequacy of forces of drift tidal force and differential gravitational force responsible ng al wing of on foot edn ferns a Tock mete motion between the zone of rising mante rock (id i that horizontal st a sinking rock (beneath is island and mountain ars) exerts 2 draggin arcs) exerts a dragging Athospheri plate (Fig. 6.10) 0 this pl Mid-oceanic ridge ) ( ae ES eesvees es Fa to, Simplified model ofa convection system in he mantle in relation to overtying lithospheric plates South America are part of the Consequently the zone North and Mid-Atlantic Ridge. ates on the west. Th an mountain chain. A large er off the Aleutian Island che west tonic theory with respect to the neath adjoining pl -dilleran and Ande: According to the plate lect American Plate moving westwat' ae of this plate is being pushed be Rais a eee for the great Cor chin of ne lies off the South American aia’ hese trenches are the results © 18 forced into the asthanosphere aS American Plat The Pacific P me Ree Plate is the largest plate of the ind the margins of this plate is a 8r© ‘west coast and anoth + subduction of the plate lying (0 e overrides it. entirely by the oceanic 1d which is capped Pacific Belt of the Circum- worl at tectonic ringEF 1 SHORT-ANSW! eR ° ve no Bes 2 FIG. 6.1. The broakp of Pangaea is shown in ve stages. need maton Of lithospheric plates is indicated by arows , eer 's, bordered by deep trenches, Itis arthquakes as well ates of moutains or volcanic islands marked by numerous intense e tivity. This is because of the | subduction ofthe edges of the Pacitic Plate Fig. 6.11 shows the success | Pangaeainfve stage according tothe plate tectonic theory belt of crustal unrest as volcanic 3 4. Tethys sea, 8. Tid 8 al foree and e break up of |