Outline

I. Theoretical background

I.1. The brief history of logotherapy

I.2. Logotherapy in practice

1.3. Definitions regarding self-acceptance

I.4. Comparison of self-assessment between female and male athletes

I.5. The relationship between logotherapy and self-evaluation

II. Research question, hypothesis generation, data collection

II. 1. Research question

II.2. Hypothesis

II.3. Data collection

III. Sample

IV. Measurement

V. Analysis, results

VI. Discussion, summary

VII. Limitations of the research, outlook

VIII. Bibliography

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Abstract

In professional sports environment, the degree of self-esteem experienced by men and women is well
distinguishable (Guillet et al., 2006). Indeed, women are more likely to have problems with realistic
perceptions of personal sacrifice and work than the opposite sex (Sallay et al., 2014; Kling, 1999). In
line with this, the professional questionnaire focused on the degree of discrepancy between men and
women in professional sport. A unique method combining logotherapy and sport was used to explore
the difference. The Value and Meaning in Sport Inventory aims to shed light on the existential
experiences of playing sport. In addition to the 78 items on sport, demographic data questions were
used to support the sample design. Data extracted from 1,021 individuals using the snowball method
were used for the analysis. A two-sample (independent) t-test on the relevant items -26, 27 and 51-
showed no significant difference in the scores of men and women. The results run with the Jasp
statistical program (Jasp team, 2023) therefore did not show an exact match with the literature
summary. However, due to the method used, no far-reaching conclusions can be drawn, and further
measurements are needed to provide a solid refutation of the hypotheses. Nevertheless, the results
have highlighted the importance of further measurement and supportive action on athletes' self-
evaluation.

Keywords: logotherapy, self-assessment, ÉÉSP, sport

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Literature review

I. Theoretical background

This research is entitled to the differences between male and female professional athletes in terms of
self-acceptance. Many studies have previously shed a light on the topic, stating that women tend to
have less self-acceptance and confidence in professional sport than men (Crocker et al., 2006, Crocker
et al., 2006). With the help of logotherapy, the following study aims to shed a light on the importance
of improving women’s conditions regarding sports.

I.1. The brief history of logotherapy

Logotherapy is a psychotherapeutic method associated with the psychiatrist Victor Frankl and was
based on the author's experiences in concentration camps from 1943 to 1945. According to Frankl's
way of thinking, the key to survival for prisoners was to find meaning in their lives (Frankl, 1967). He
distinguished 3 different coping strategies: revenge, survival for others and the devouring of creation.
After survival, emphasizing the importance of logotherapy became the aim of Victor Frankl’s life
(Yalom, 2020). There were other honorable mentions of logotherapy in the past as well, but Frankl
was the psychiatrist who helped the method to emerge from its previously less-known position. The
patient's attitude to death plays a significant role in his process, since progress towards the sublime
goal can only be achieved after the patient has moved beyond the idea of death. According to Yalom
(2020), although the movement had existed before, it was Frankl who really broadened the awareness
of the method. Not only he, but also existentialists such as Rollo May and Otto Rank, among others,
were trained in Frankl's technique.

Frankl's method can therefore also be linked to existentialism. According to the existentialist
conception, it is not inborn in man to find meaning in his life, and he must devote special energy to
finding it. If one fails to discover the meaning of life, then one's lifetime will be wasted, wasted time.
The psychopathologies of this school of thought are based on the blame game that the individual is
unwilling to commit to his or her chosen purpose in life. There is also a perceived spiritual overtone to
the method, rooted in a meta-thinking beyond earthly life (Yalom 2020).

I.2. Logotherapy in practice

Since its invention, logotherapy has come to an outstanding position. Hence its differences from
psychoanalysis, the two leading methods managed to develop next to each other throughout the recent
decades. Logotherapy workshops are considered quite popular among middle-aged therapists, mostly
because of its distinction from older, traditional methods (KSH, 2020). Logotherapy focuses on
embracing the potential life goals of the patient by offering group or individual sessions. Each session

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runs for approximately 1 hour and consists of empathic listening (therapist) and ventilation (client). It
is important to state that logotherapy effectively translates existentialist therapeutic ideas into practice
(Reker, 1994). It can help in difficult issues in one’s life by sensitizing to values through the method
(Lukas, 2011). It can also be used in supervision and group therapy processes with great results. As in
all therapeutic processes, it is essential to create an atmosphere of trust and to clarify the operational
framework. However, there are still differences between Freudian psychotherapy and logotherapy. In
logotherapy, life goals are emphasized most, compared to childhood trauma and past experiences (with
Freud).

I.2.2. Self-assessment theories

According to Abraham Maslow, self-evaluation is part of the inner core of the personality, which can
develop as a result of the difficulties and challenges that are faced (Maslow, 1970, cited by
Gyöngyösiné, 2007). He published his ideas on this at the same time as he developed the hierarchy of
needs, as a complement to it. In Carl Rogers's interpretation, good self-esteem is already established at
the same time as the development of the self. Self-esteem is formed by unconditional and conditional
external reinforcements. For example, family acceptance from birth serves as unconditional positive
evaluation, and praise from the class teacher after good school performance as conditional (Smith and
Rogers, 1977, cited by Gyöngyösiné, 2007). In addition to this, the individual needs acceptance not
only from others but also from himself (self-acceptance need), and it is along the acceptance that the
self-esteem can develop. These ideas are echoed in both existential psychotherapy and logotherapy.

1.3. Definitions regarding self-acceptance

For better understanding, self-acceptance, self-evaluation and self- regulation should be individually
defined. Self-acceptance is the ability to process our own capabilities and live with them effectively.
Self-evaluation is simply the ability to examine oneself to find out how much progress have been
made. Successful self-regulation could be defined as the willingness to invest effort toward important
goals even when failure seems possible (Crocker et al., 2006). No differences regarding age were
found to gender self-definition or gender self-acceptance (Hoffman, 2006).

I.4. Comparison of self-assessment between female and male athletes

Young female athletes have shown a positive effect between their high performance and their self-
esteem. These women were less likely to experience body shame, fear of failure and anxiety associated
with physical symptoms, leading to more productive performance (Mosewich et al., 2011). It could be
interpreted that female athletes can be just as effective with their training as their male competitors if
the mental circumstances will be improved. According to Colker and Widom (1980), high levels of
commitment do not, but a sense of masculinity or femininity is associated with higher self-esteem. On
average, men's self-esteem is higher than women's (Sallay et al., 2014, Kling, 1999). For university

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students, sport had a positive effect on students' mental well-being regardless of gender (Snedden et
al., 2019).

I.5. The relationship between logotherapy and self-evaluation

Several studies emphasize the beneficial effects of logotherapy tools on self-evaluation (Amani,
Ahmadi and Hamidi, 2018; Golshan, Zargham Hajebi & Sobhi Gharamaleki, 2019). This role is also
reflected in international research, for example, in a study on Arab university girls, the self-evaluation
scores of the subjects increased as a result of the effects of logotherapy sessions on self-evaluation
(Amani, Ahmadi and Hamidi, 2018). These students filled in a clinical test for emotional sickness,
which was later used for examining self-accepting feelings, too. Another european study showed
similar results with secondary schools’ students, stating self-worth was significantly higher regarding
boys than girls (Pacesova, 2019). The participants of the experiment attended short sessions of
logotherapy, and all their test points increased (both male and female). In another study from the Far
East, logotherapy again had a positive effect on self-esteem for women with physical disabilities
(Golshan, Zargham Hajebi & Sobhi Gharamaleki, 2019). There was also a reduction in depressive
symptoms and participants became more sensitive to their internal processes. In addition, a difference
in gender self-evaluation was found in a Korean study as a result of logotherapy group sessions; men's
scores improved at a higher rate than women's (Kim and Choi, 2021).

Overall, the use of logotherapy therefore has a positive effect on self-evaluation, and it may be
worthwhile to include athletes in the Value and Meaning in Sport Inventory (ÉÉSP) or the Rosenberg
Self-Evaluation Scale, for example, and assess them. Although the ÉÉSP does not allow for
performance-based scoring, it is still worth comparing the scores obtained on a gender basis. In
addition to this, it is important to highlight that there is little literature linking sport and logotherapy,
so it would be particularly important to examine the effectiveness of the method from this perspective
(Asagba, 2013).

II. Research question, hypothesis generation, data collection

II.1. Research question

Do male and female athletes have the same intensity of self-acceptance and self-evaluation regarding
their sport activity? Influenced by the theories detailed earlier, the present research would investigate
the differences between male and female competitive athletes' responses to self-evaluation. A
significant difference in the scores of the two genders is expected. Based on the most important studies
in this academic field, it is quite possible that female professional athletes scored lower points on the
ÉÉSP questionare than male competitors (Amani, Ahmadi and Hamidi, 2018, Golshan, Zargham
Hajebi and Sobhi Gharamaleki, 2019). There has never been any research testing the use of inventory
in this area, so there was a particular need to deconstruct the process. The examined statements of the

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inventory are: 26. I am a valuable person regardless of my achievements 27. Sometimes the feelings I
experience frighten me (e.g., shame). I am a valuable person regardless. 51. I have plenty of value
thanks to my sport.

II. 2. Hypothesis

H0: The responses of male and female professional athletes do not differ based on items 26, 27 and 51
of the inventory.

H1: Self-assessment of male and female professional athletes differ based on items 26, 27 and 51 of
the inventory. Women scored lower than men.

II.3 Data collection

Data collection took place between 29 March (Wednesday) and 13 April (Thursday) 2023. The process
was part of the research being conducted at the Károli Gáspár Reformed University. The inventory
was taken online as a google form questionnaire. In addition to the 78 questions, sociodemographic
data were asked: gender, education level, age, age at sport, sport discipline and sport level. The data
collected in this thesis was a secondary analysis of data collected globally and was used to extend
existing data.

III. Sample

Descriptive statistics: analysis of sociodemographic data, e.g. female to male ratio (see: Attachment 1).
The number of sample items to be extracted from the global data table consists of 600 individuals,
which is sufficient for the present study. Selection criteria: at least 5 years of competitive sporting
history, at least 18 years of age.

IV. Measurement instrument

Brief introduction to the Value and Meaning Inventory (ÉÉSP):

The Value and Meaning in Sport Inventory (Hungarian abbreviation: ÉÉSP) contains 78 statements
that refer to values that can be realized in the sporting environment. The theoretical framework of the
inventory is based on the logotherapy, and existential analysis developed by Viktor Frankl (Lukas,
2011) and, in close alignment with this, addresses topics such as values, the meaning of our lives, the
meaning of our actions and suffering, the meaning of our relationships, the meaning of our true selves,
freedom, responsibility, loneliness, and passing (Frankl, 2015, Lukas, 2015). The inventory was
developed by a four-person working group of sport psychologists and logotherapists (Smohai,
manuscript). As a first step in the development, 116 pieces of literature related to logotherapy and
existential analysis were selected from the sports psychology literature and the experiences of athletes,
which are considered relevant in the sports environment. In a second step, about 250 inventory items
were brainstormed from the highlighted literature excerpts, which were reduced to 80 items through

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multiple discussions. As a third step, five test interviews were conducted, during which athletes spoke
their thoughts out loud while completing the questionnaire. Based on these experiences, the items were
refined and the SSP inventory was reduced to 78 items. The instructions for the inventory are to invite
the completer to reflect from a different perspective than the usual performance theme.

The first 25 items contain experiences in sport, for which the respondent is asked to indicate on a
three-point Likert scale how often he or she has experienced it (1 = never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often),
e.g. "I have experienced that my sporting activities are not only for my own pleasure, but also for the
pleasure of others." The second block (53 items) contains statements where the respondent is asked to
indicate the degree of agreement, again on a three-point Likert scale (1 = disagree, 2 = partially agree,
3 = agree, agree), e.g. "I am a valuable person regardless of how I am doing at the moment.". The
EESP inventory is idiographic, phenomenological in nature, in which it is the thoughts, memories and
experiences that the respondent has that count, not the scores, and not the sum of the scores. Therefore,
the scores given to the inventory are not aggregated in this version of the ESSP inventory. The
responses to the items are treated separately, so the ESSP inventory does not prove to be an empirical
test. Accordingly, validity and reliability indicators are not available. The main purpose of the EESP
inventory is a kind of prospective and retrospective "logotherapy education, sensitization to meaning".
The extent to which the inventory fulfils this aim will be answered by a series of studies that are
currently being launched.

V. Analysis, results

The analyses were performed with the statistical program Ropstat (version 0.17.1) using (independent)
two-sample t-tests. 1. variable: male or female gender (qualitative). 2. variables: scores on ÉÉSP
inventory items 26, 27 and 51 (quantitative).

Descriptive statistics: male 230 (38%) and female 370 (62%). The highly represented sports in the
sample are football (114; 19%), basketball (72; 12%) and handball (54; 9%). An average participant
practices 15 hours per week in this sample. The average age range was 18-24 for participants (504;
84%; Z generation). Participants with a high school diploma were overrepresented in the sample (276;
46%), which is not surprising taking their age into consideration. 22 rows of data were sorted out
because of the missing values.

Independent samples t-tests have been conducted. The values are (as deviation homogenity was not
distorted): For item 26: 1. Levene test => F = 0,1, p <0,001; 2. Independent Samples T-test => t= 0,1,
p <0,001 3. Cohen-d => 0,05 (Mann-Whitney tests were unnecessary to execute).

For item 27: 1. Levene test => F = 0,03, p <0,001; 2. Independent Samples T-test => t= 0,5 p <0,001 3.
Cohen-d => 0,04 (Mann-Whitney tests were unnecessary to execute).

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For item 51: 1. Levene test => F = 0,2, p <0,001; 2. Independent Samples T-test => t= 0,3, p <0,001 3.
Cohen-d => 0,02 (Mann-Whitney tests were unnecessary to execute).

None of the independent sample’s t-tests showed significant difference between male and female
athletes’ scores on the designated items. The impact measures were also low, below zero.

VI. Discussion, summary

All in all, test points on inventory items 26, 27 and 51 were not proven to differ between male and
female professional athletes. Women tended to score less points on the examined scales, which can be
interpreted as experiencing less self-worth and self-acceptance. The extracted data shows minimal
similarities with the previously mentioned studies (Amani, Ahmadi and Hamidi, 2018, Golshan,
Zargham Hajebi and Sobhi Gharamaleki, 2019).

VII. Limitations of the research, outlook

The results of the research cannot be generalized to the whole population because of the sampling
method. This study only aimed to give an insight in the current state of professional female athletes’
perception of self-worth, furthermore, to provide a strong base for further examination. All in all, the
current mental state of female athletes could be positively altered by the help of proper treatment like
existential psychotherapy or logotherapy.

VII. Bibliography

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Psychological Well-Being of Female Students with Love Trauma Syndrome. Positive Psychology
Research, 4(3), 71-86.

Asagba, R. B. (2013). The importance of logotherapy in African culture: child & adolescent therapy
and e-therapy. IFE PsychologIA: An International Journal, 21(3), 254-259.

Colker, R., & Widom, C. S. (1980). Correlates of female athletic participation: Masculinity, femininity,
self-esteem, and attitudes toward women. Sex Roles, 6, 47-58.

Frankl, V. E. (1967). Logotherapy and existentialism. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research &

Practice, 4(3), 138.

Golshan, A., Zargham Hajebi, M., & Sobhi Gharamaleki, N. (2019). The effect of Logotherapy group
training on changes of depression, self-esteem and intimacy attitudes in physically disabled
women. Iranian Journal of Health Psychology, 2(2), 101-112.

Gyöngyösiné Kiss, E. (2007). Az önmegvalósítás és pozitív önértékelés szükségletei Maslow és

Rogers pszichológiájában. Gy. Kiss enikő, Oláh Attila (szerk.), Vázlatok a személyiségről. Új
Mandátum Könyvkiadó.

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Kim, C., & Choi, H. (2021). The efficacy of group logotherapy on community‐dwelling older adults with
depressive symptoms: A mixed methods study. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 57(2), 920-928.

Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: a
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Lukas, E. (2011). A logoterápia tankönyve. Kiskundorozsma: Agapé.

Maslow, A. H. (1970). New introduction: Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Journal of

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Mosewich, A. D., Kowalski, K. C., Sabiston, C. M., Sedgwick, W. A., & Tracy, J. L. (2011). Self-
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Reker, G. T. (1994). Logotheory and logotherapy: Challenges, opportunities, and some empirical
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Smith, M. D., & Rogers, C. M. (1977). Item instability on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
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Snedden, T. R., Scerpella, J., Kliethermes, S. A., Norman, R. S., Blyholder, L., Sanfilippo, J., ... &
Heiderscheit, B. (2019). Sport and physical activity level impacts health-related quality of life among
collegiate students. American Journal of Health Promotion, 33(5), 675-682.

Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and
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Yalom, I. D. (2020). Existential psychotherapy. Hachette UK.

Varga András (2000). Ropstat (0.17.1 Version) [Computer program].

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