NIGERIAN ARMY UNIVERSITY BIU

GST 112

LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
- The course is aimed at developing students‟ ability to reason correctly and
argue with conviction.
- It is targeted at developing students‟ to be able to defend an argument
against charges such as biasness, lack of supporting evidence or
incompleteness. It enables a reader to access the evidence in what you
are reading and identify spurious or illogical reasoning.
- Thinking critically will also help one to create strong arguments in his/her
own capacity. This means one can be able to present justify any claims
made based on the evidence evaluated.
- It will also shape the student thinking in analyzing, evaluating, comparing
and contrasting what is learned.
ATTENDANCE: students‟ can only be qualified to me in to final examination if
he/she attained 75% lecture, attendance and contribution in the class will be
given due consideration.
MAIN EXAMS: the final examination will be graded on 60% which will cover all
the area treated.
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT: The C.A will be 40% and it will be both splitted
into two or time may move around and contribution in class discussion may
attract same part of the C.A
COURSE LECTURER: Dr. Ahmed Wali (GSM-08036054637,
wahdoho1963@yahoo.com)
Course outline:
1. The concept of logic
2. Logical thinking
3. Reasoning process in logic
 Syllogism
 Premise
 Conclusion
4. Types of premise
 True premise
 False premise
5. Fallacies
 Formal fallacies
 Informal fallacies

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 6. Typologies of fallacies
 Composition fallacies
 Equivocation
 Causal slippery
7. Fallacies of relevance
 Ad dominium
 Genetic
 Appeal to authority
8. Critical thinking
 Serendipity
 Intuition
 Intellectual honesty
9. Types of discourse
 Scientific
 Literacy
 Political
 Economic
 Religious
10. Argument and Reasoning
 Deductive argument
 Inductive argument
 Generalization
 Validity and soundness of arguments
Recommended Books of Reading
- Van Cleare, M.J (2018). Introduction to logic and critical thinking.
https//creative cammons.org/Licenses/by/4.0/.
- Nenerye, E.P (2003). Introduction to logic and philosophy. Omeou
prosperity publishers.
- Tharle‟ss R. (1990) straight and crooked thinking. London pan Books.
- Nwaiwu, O.C (2003). “Logic and Logical thinking” in Attah, N.O (ed).
General studies for Nigerian Polytechnics Jos, LECAPS.
- Dudley-Evans, T. (1985). Wulling Laboratory Reports. Victoria, Nelson.
- Toulmin, S.E Reike, R.D and Janik,m A. (1984). An introduction to
Reasoning. New York, Macmillan Publishers.
1. The concept of Logic:
Logic has been variously defined by different scholars. According to Copi
(1972), he defines logic as the study of the methods and principles used in
distinguishing good (correct) from bad (incorrect) reasoning. While Nancy,
L. (1990) sees logic as the science that appraises reasoning as correct

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 and incorrect. Similarly, Kahane (1968) perceived logic to mean an attempt
to distinguish between correct (valid) and incorrect (invalid) arguments.
Etymologically, logic derives from Greek Word Logos, means the study,
word or discourse. It is a science of good or bad reasoning.
Therefore, one can conclude that logic is the study of the criteria of
differentiating correct from incorrect arguments.
2. Logical Thinking:
Logical thinking means arguments based on reasoning, not feelings, where
one make use of his head supported by facts not hearts or sentimental
assumption. This is a situation where sentiments are kept to the barest
level.
In the academic circle, people are expected to reason logically at all times-
particularly when handling academic discourse. Sources of information
must be reliable and analysis must not be ambiguous and misleading.
Arguments should not be loose or underdeveloped without substance, but
rather it should be sound and convincing. Logical thinking is purcipally
concerned with question of truth, and it maintains that truth of a statement
depends on the previously acknowledged Truth. e.g
Man is mortal
Therefore, Usman is a man and is mortal
The premise truth here is that man is mortal and based on every man is
mortal which is deduced from experience of happenings around us.
3. The Reasoning Process in Logic:
The process involved in Logic and critical thinking involves the following:
 Syllogism: to a Logician, syllogism is an argument that contains at
least three propositions, who of which are called the premises, and the
other conclusion. Proposition are indicative or declarative sentences
that assert or deny relationship between classes. Therefore,
categorical syllogisms are arguments composed entirely of categorical
statements, and every categorical syllogism contains exactly three
terms:
All men are mortal
Johnson is a man
Therefore, Johnson is mortal
Categorical syllogism has a standard form. It contains some terms
proper to it such as middle term, major and the minor term. The middle
term of a categorical syllogism is the term that occurs once in each
premise, the major term is the predicate of the conclusion while the minor
term is the subjects‟ term of the conclusion.

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 Syllogism therefore is a termed argument with conclusion arising
from it.
The premises: The premises are equally categorical statements in
standard form such as “All P are Q, “No P are Q” or some “P are
Q”. The premise is that which contain the major term e.g All men are
mortal, and the minor premise is that containing the minor term e.g
Johnson is a man.
Conclusion: this is the final Judgement in the argument. It is a final
position taken after studying the premises, and is accompanied by
words such as “therefore” and “So” etc. the conclusion in the example
above is therefore, Johnson is a man and is mortal.
4. Types of premises:
This is either of the two propositions which conclusion is drawn – True or
False
 True premise: this is an idea that defines the basis of reasoning line
that has an acceptable conclusion e.g
Human being give birth to human being
Mariam is a human being
Therefore, Mariam can give birth to human being.
In this case, the major premise, minor premise and conclusion are all
based on truth.
 False premise: this is an idea that is form on the basis of arguments
that is unacceptable in its conclusion e.g
Black men are stronger than white men
Ibrahim is Black
Therefore, Ibrahim is stronger than smith
The major premise is therefore false, though the minor could be line
based on the major, but the conclusion based on the two premises is
unacceptable. Hence, it is a false premise.
5. Logical fallacies:
A fallacy is simply a mistake in reasoning. It is an error which one is
deceived into accepting the conclusion of an argument. Some fallacies are
formal while some are informal.
 Formal fallacy: this is simply an argument whose form is invalid. These
are arguments that are valid in virtue of their form, not their content. It is
a form that will automatically he invalid, regardless of the meaning of
the sentence. Two formal fallacies take the form of denying antecedent
and affirming consequent. e.g
if Kant was a deontologist, then he was a non-consequentialist,

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 Kant was not a deontologist,
Therefore, Kant was not a non-consequentialist.
Thus,, this argument is invalid even if we don't know what "Kant" or
"deontologist" or "non-consequentialist” means. ('Kant' was a famous German
philosopher from the early 1800s, where as "deontology" and non-
consequentialist are terms that came from ethical theory or theories of
punishment. this will be identified as formal fallacy even if we don't really
understand the meaning of the sentences in the argument.
 Informal fallacy: are those which cannot be identified without
understanding the concepts involved in the argument e.g
If tores are brilling then tores are slitting
Tores are slitting
Therefore, tores are brilling.
6. Typologies of informal fallacies:
There are quite a number of typologies of informal fallacies, but for our
purpose the following are considered:
 Composition fallacy: in this topology, one argues that since each part
of the whole has a certain features, it follows that the whole has that
same feature. However, you cannot generally identify any argument
that moves from statement about parts to statement about whole
committing the composition fallacy because whether not there is a
fallacy depends on what feature we are attributing to the parts and
wholes. e.g
Nigerian girls in Italy are hallofs.
Therefore all Nigerian girls in Italy are hallofs.
 Equivocation: fallacy of equivocation refers to a situation where same
word is used in two different senses; as such identifying the fallacy of
equivocation requires that we draw on our understanding of the
meaning of words and of our understanding of the world. e.g
Children are a headache
Aspirin will make headaches go
Therefore, aspirin will make children go away.
In the first premise, "headache" is used figuratively, whereas in the
second premise, it is used literally. The argument is only successful if
the meaning of "headache" is the same in both premises.
 Causal slippery slope fallacy: this is committed when one event is
said to lead to some other (usually disafrouse) event via a chain of
intermediary events. These types of fallacies are usually made up of a

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 series of conjunction of probabilistic conditional statements that link the
first event to the last event. e.g
If you use DSTV, you will probably go to crime channel,
If your DSTV is on chrime channel, you will probably get angry,
When you get angry, you will probably hit the table,
When you hit the table, your young child will imitate you,
When he imitates you, he may be expelled from school,
When he is expelled from school, he may join bad friends,
When he joins bad friends, he may end up marrying bad girl,
If he marry bad girl, you will probably have a grandson that is rude,
Therefore, if you use DSTV you will probably have a grandson that is
rude.
7. Meaning and origin of philosophy
The term philosophy comes from the Greek word (Philo-Sophia) meaning
“home of wisdom” roughly explained as search for wisdom or knowledge.
 This implies that philosophy is concerned with gaining knowledge of the
world and the things within it.
 According to Flato, philosophy is simply the acquisition of knowledge.
 George Berkley‟s defined it as study of wisdom and truth.
 Francis Bacon sees it as reflection of nature.
 Jacques Maritain perceived it as science by which the natural light of
reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things.
 Kudivig Wilfgenstein maintains that philosophy is not a theory but an
activity.
8. Branches of philosophy
Philosophy is a field of study that includes derives Sub-fields put for our
purpose, it is limited to fine. Thus;
 Aesthetic – Judgement of sentiment or taste of beauty, taste,
entertaining.
 Epistemology – Nature and scope of knowledge.
 Ethics – Arising from habits.
 Logic – Criteria for the evaluation of arguments.
 Metaphysics – Explaining the nature of the world.
9. Metaphysics: the study of Nature or Reality.
 The term metaphysics is derived from Greek words (Meta) „after‟ and
(Physics) „nature‟.
 It is concerned with explaining the nature of the world.
 It is the study of being or reality.

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 It is interested in issues such as the nature of reality, the existence of a
divine entity or entities, as well as man‟s place in the universe among
others.
 It is even used with reference to Phenomena outride physics world e.g
spirits, faith healing, occultism. etc.
 The branches of Metaphysics includes:
o Natural philosophy
o Philosophy of religion
o Ontology
o Philosophy of perception
 Natural philosophy: refers to the objective study of nature and the
physical universe. It is seen to be what is now physical or natural
science including physics, ontology etc.
 Ontology: this is the study of being or existence which describes basic
categories and relationships by defining entities and types of entities
within its frame works it seeks to study conception of reality i.e how
reality is perceived and understood by human beings. Ontologist seeks
to know what actually exist. e.g
What is existence?
Is existence a property?
Why does anything exist rather than nothing?
What is physical object?
Do souls exist? etc.
These questions require various approaches depending on person‟s
discipline approach; to the realities, it concern gathering facts, to the
empiricist, facts are not enough to satisfy our curiosity but rather
subjecting these facts to observation and evaluation. To the positivists,
they focus on the validly and appropriateness of the means through
which conclusions are drawn about phenomena while to the postune
clarinets facts are elusive and misleading, they advocate on
observational claims.
 Philosophy of religion: this refers to the study of the meaning and
justification of fundamental religion claims, particularly about the nature
and existence of God. Other philosophy of religion leaves it‟s inquiry in
two basic questions:
i. What is God?
ii. Are there any good reasons to think that God does or does not
exist?

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 When attempting the first question, it is important to give clarification
on the different conceptions of the term. Four views are generally
distinguished as follows:
a. Theism: the belief that God exists
b. Weak atheism: the lack of belief in any deity
c. Strong atheism: the belief that no deity exists
d. Agnostieism: the belief that the existence or non-existence of God
is not known or cannot be known.
While some believe God exists, other believes in the existence of
several gods and goddesses.
Monotheism: believe in existence of only one God (mainly the three
Abrahamic religions “Judaism, Christianity and Islam”).
Polytheism: believe in several deities (e.g Hinduism, Zoroastrianism
and some African Traditional religions.
 They believe in several deities, but only one is worthy of worship,
because it is powerful than others.
 Philosophically therefore, God is the deity believed to be the
supreme reality. He is the only creator and the sustainer of the
universe. Mental events, mental functions, mental properties and
consciousness and their relationship with the physical body.
 It is generally agreed that there exist some form of relationship
between what our mind stores and what we carry out as physical
actions. e.g aroma of a delicious soup may trigger a desire for food.
Several schools of thought attempt to explain the relationship
between neurons and response to act in right way. This is seen as
Dualism and Monism.
 Dualism maintains that the mind and the body exist separately,
while Monism asserts that the two are one and same substance.
 Flato and Aristotle argued that „intelligence‟ could neither be
identified nor expectance in terms of man‟s physical appearance.
 Philosophy of Perception: this is concerned with mental processes
and symbols on world internal and external frame it is often divided into
two categories, internal perceptions also known as proprioception which
informs us what happens in our bodies of hunger, tiredness etc.
external or sensory perception or exteroception which enables us to
feel the work outside our bodies of sight, hearing. etc.
 What is Aesthetics – it is derived from Greek word „aisthetike‟ meaning
the science of how things are known via the sense.
It is concerned with sensory or sensory-emotional values or
judgements of sentiment or taste. e.g what something beautiful,

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cute, entertaining, etc. it is aesthetic that attempts to give answers
to these questions.
Aesthetic Judgement: centrally, it is concern with study of which
values can be objectively applied to entities or conditions. This
depends on our ability to use our senses and discriminate. Lends
of sharpness of senses leads to different perception.
Factors in aesthetic judgement: the factors in aesthetic judgement
are senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, well desires,
preferences, values, sub-consciousness, behavior, training and
empire.
However, aesthetic judgement is seen to be largely subjective e.g
cockroaches are regarded with contempt, while others are
delicacy.
Epistemology – comes from Greek words „episteme‟ (knowledge)
and „Logos‟ (explanation) is a branch of philosophy concerned with
nature and scope of knowledge.
It is criticized on attempts to answer the following three questions;
i. What is knowledge?
ii. How do we acquire knowledge?
iii. What do we know?

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