Vorlesung Kapitel 3.de - en

K chapter 3
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics
introduction
• Descriptive = descriptive statistics

• Examination and description of the data material using tables, graphics and key figures
• Population
• Total of all possible data of certain objects (e.g. number of articles in a warehouse, body size of all RWTH
students) or total of all measured values of repeatedly carried out measurements regarding a specific
object (e.g. length of the precast concrete part)
• finite population: The total number of results / values is finite (e.g. number of items in the
warehouse)
• infinite population: The total number of results / characteristics is infinite (e.g. measured values for
the length of the precast concrete part)
• sample
• Representative portion of observations from the population describing it (population)
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 2

features
To describe the data (e.g. a sample) these are sorted according to their Features disassem
• features
• Quantitative characteristics: The characteristics of the data are real numbers Example:
body size, number of students
• discreet quantitative characteristics: the set of values is finite or countable (e.g. number of
students at RWTH)
• steady quantitative characteristics: the set of values is infinite, since every number (in an interval)
can occur (e.g. body size)
• Rank characteristics: The data can be classified according to a ranking. Example
(football): first half, second half, extra time
• Qualitative characteristics: Descriptive characteristics (usually in words) Example
(gender): male, female

introduction
• To display the characteristic values, these are used in

Scales assigned
• Ratio scales: metric scale with an absolute zero point
• suitable for quantitative characteristics (length, size, weight etc.)
• Addition / subtraction and multiplication / division allowed
• Interval scales: metric scale without absolute zero
• suitable for quantitative characteristics (e.g. temperature scale)
• Multiplication does not make sense, differences and ratios of differences are allowed
• Ordinal scales: Characteristic arrangement in a sequence (ranking)

• suitable for rank characteristics (e.g. income: low <medium <high)
• Elementary arithmetic operation does not make sense
• Nominal scales: unordered feature arrangement in categories

• suitable for qualitative characteristics (e.g. gender: male, female)
• Elementary arithmetic operations and size comparisons of the scale values do not make sense
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 4th

frequency
• There is one Observation list ( Original list) with n Characteristic values x i

of a feature X in front:
• with the expression of the feature x • j = 1,2, ..., m) is the absolute frequency
j(
h (x • j)
the number of characteristic values that have the respective characteristic value
• h (x • j) • n • Example 3.2
j•1
• By dividing the respective absolute frequency by the total number n of the characteristic values
results in the relative frequency f (x •
j)
m
h (x • j)
f (x •)j • With 0 • f (x • j) • 1 and • (j fx •) • 1
n j•1
• The assignment x • j • f (x • j) ( j • 1.2, •• m) becomes Frequency distribution called

frequency
• Cumulative frequencies
• The frequency of the characteristic expression above or below certain values on the scale can be
determined by the Cumulative frequency ( only for quantitative and rank characteristics). For this purpose,
the characteristic values of a characteristic are X to be sorted according to size
x1• • x • 2 • • • x • m
With
k
• The absolute cumulative frequency is then H (x • k) • • h (x • j) • • h (x • j); k • 1,2, ..., m

x j• xk j•1
• The relative cumulative frequency arises to F (x • k) • • f (x • j) • • f (x • j)

x j• xk j•1
1 • •
With F (x • • Hk) (x • k);
F (x •)k • ( x F. k • 1 ), ( k • 1.2, •• m • 1) ; F (x m ) • 1
n

Example "dice game"
feature X = Sum of the total when rolling the dice with a real dice Characteristic values:
x •j Checklist
1
x1• • Totals 1
2
x 2• • Totals 2
• 3
4th
x 6th
•
• Totals 6th
5
6th
• Example 3.3 • Frequency table

frequency
• Distribution functions
• From the relative cumulative frequency, the empirical distribution function of the feature X if derived
from any real number x a value can be assigned:
F (x) • • f (x •
j)
x j• xk
• The value F (x) indicates the proportion of observation units whose characteristic
values are not greater than x are.
• Important properties
• The function F. grows monotonously
• For discreet quantitative characteristics is the function F. a Staircase function
• For steady quantitative characteristics results for F. a Polygon function

Distribution function
• Empirical distribution function "dice game" • discreet
1,000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
F (x)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
1 2 3 4th 5 6th

Distribution function
• Empirical distribution function "fuel consumption" • steadily
F (x)
Route [miles]
(Source: http://www.mhsg.de)

Classes
• Class formation
• In the case of extensive data material (especially in the case of quantitative characteristics), it is advisable
to divide the characteristic values between the largest and smallest value into classes or intervals that
meet at their edges
• The further calculations then always refer to the class (no longer the individual value), represented by
the Mid-class
• Further class parameters
• Upper (n) and lower (n) class limit or class edge: minimum and maximum characteristic
values within the class
• Class width: Difference between the upper and lower class limit
• Classification mostly by right-open intervals (from ... to below ...),

e.g. a • x i ( j) • b
• Select class margins in such a way that, if possible, no characteristic value lies on the margin

Class example "European Football Championship 2012"
game Goal minute
1 17th
1 51
2 15th
2 24
2 52
2 79
2 82
3 3
3 6th
3 53
4th 37
4th 57
5 72
6th 45
7th 24
8th 72
9 24
9 36
9 41
9 87
9 80
... ...
• Example of the European Football Cham

Classes
• Class frequencies
• Analogous to unclassified data, absolute and relative class frequencies
be calculated
x i ( j) : Characteristic value x i in the jth grade ( j = 1,2, ..., m )
m : Class number
x •j : Mid-class
• x •j : Class breadth • Example 3.4

x •j • • x • y/ 2 : Class margins
h (x • j) : absolute class frequency
f (x • j) • h (x • j) / n : relative class frequency
n• • h (x •
j)
: Total number of characteristic values x i

Example 3.4
Concrete compressive strength x • j[ N / mm 2] of 90 test cubes
Original list: x j • • 39.4 42.2 39.1 30.6 39.5 33.5 45.2 31.8 41.8 34.0 30.3 41.7 • 36.3 •
j • 1.2, •• 90 • n • 90
Number of classes: m • 5 • log n • 5 • log 90 • 9.77 • 10
Span: R. • x Max • x min • 45.2 • 30.3 • 14.9

R.
Class width: • x • • 1.49 • • x • 1.5 ( rounded based on accuracy)
m
Middle of the range of values: ( x Max • x min) / 2 • 75.5 / 2 • 37.75
Left and Right Margins: 37.75 • 5 • 1.5 • 30.25 • x j • 45.25

Graphical representation
• Diagrams
• Scatter plot
• Pie and pie charts
(Source: RWTH
Aachen,
Table of figures 2011)

• Diagrams ( Continuation)
• bar chart
(Source: RWTH
Aachen,
Table of figures 2011)
• Bar graph
(Source: Statistics in
Geodesy,
Geographic information and
Construction)

• Polygon diagram
(Source: RWTH
Aachen,
Numbers table
2011)

• Histogram (absolute frequency and cumulative frequency): goals of the European Football Championship 2012
histogram histogram
18th 100.00% 50 100.00%
16 90.00% 45 90.00%
80.00% 40 80.00%
14th
70.00% 35 70.00%
12th
60.00% 30th 60.00%

10
frequency
frequency
50.00% 25th 50.00%

8th frequency frequency
40.00% 20th 40.00%
Cumulative% Cumulative%
6th
30.00% 15th 30.00%
4th
20.00% 10 20.00%
2 10.00% 5 10.00%
0 0.00% 0 0.00%
0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75 76-90 and 0 - 45 46 - 90 and
greater greater
class class
• The same data basis, but different classifications

• Stem-leaf diagram
16 17th 22nd 23 23 60 0
24 25th 26th 26th 27 50 0 0 0 1 5 8
28 29 29 30th 31
40 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 9
31 32 32 33 34
34 35 36 37 37 30 0 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 20 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9
38 39 40 41 42 9
42 43 43 44 45
10 6 7
45 49 50 50 50
51 55 58 60
Tribes leaves

Parameters of a sample
• Parameters of a sample
• In addition to the graphical representation, other
Parameters or. parameter needed
• Location parameters • Mean values
• Dispersion parameters • Distribution of the values around the mean
• Simple arithmetic mean

• The arithmetic mean is the most important location parameter of a sample
• The simple arithmetic mean is formed by
x1• x2• • • xn• 1 •x n

i
x•
n n i•1 • Example 3.8
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 22nd

Parameters of a sample
• Properties of the arithmetic mean

• The sum of the deviations of the observed values from the arithmetic mean is 0 :
n x
n n
• x • nx • • x • n
n
• • •x • •x •0
n n
•
i•1i i i
( x i • x) • i
i
i•1 i•1 i•1 n i•1 i•1
• Example 3.8 ( Continuation)
• The Sum of the squared deviations of the observed values of any mean M. then becomes a minimum, if M.
is the arithmetic mean
n
• ( x i • x) 2 • min!
i•1

Location parameters
• Arithmetic mean of frequencies

• Come m Feature values for which each feature value x • j
can occur several times, with the help of the frequencies a species weighted arithmetic mean can be
calculated as a position parameter
• It results from the absolute or relative frequencies for the occurrence of the
characteristic values
x•
h (x 1• ) • x •1 • h (x • 2) • x • 2 • • • h (x •) • xm • m • • 1h (x
m
•
j) • x• j
n n j•1
x • f (x • 1) • x •1 • f (x • 2) • x • 2 • • • f (x • m) • x •m • • f (x • j) • x• j
j•1
• The frequencies h (x • and f (x •i) are thus the

i)
(absolute or relative) Weights for everyone • Example 3.6

Characteristic expression

Example 3.6
Concrete compressive strength x • j[ N / mm 2] of 90 test cubes

Location parameters
• Median
• Central value of a series of observations, ie the median x shares one ordered
M.
series of observations
( x ( 1) • x ( 2) • ... • x ( n) ) in two equal parts
• If n odd is:
x M. • x ( n • 1) / 2
• If n the median is the arithmetic mean of the two mean values
x M.• •x
1
n• x • • Example 3.8 ( Continuation)
/2 ( n / 2) • 1
2
• If there are no outliers in the data, the median and the arithmetic mean are roughly the same ( • Median
for troubleshooting)
• In contrast to the arithmetic mean, the median is insensitive to outliers (= robust)
• Of the Breaking point is 50%, ie theoretically a maximum of half of the data can be outliers

Location parameters
• Median of classified feature values

• In the case of classified feature values, the median usually falls into one class. The calculation is therefore
carried out using linear interpolation within the median class
(Class with the relative cumulative frequency F (x j) = 0.5 )
0.5 • F (x k •• x / 2)
x M. • x k••• x / 2 • • x ••
f (x k)
xk : Middle class of the median class
• x : Width of the median class
x k •• x / 2 : lower class limit of the median class
f (x k) : relative frequency of the median class
F. • x k •• x / 2 • : relative cumulative frequency at the lower limit of the median class

Example: median of classified data
income absolute relative relative

from ... to Frequency Frequency Sum frequency
[EUR] h (x • j) f (x • j) F (x • j)
0 - 900 3541 0.0963 0.0963
900 - 1250 4566 0.1241 0.2204
1250 - 1500 3204 0.0871 0.3075
1500 - 2000 5969 0.1623 0.4698
2000 - 2500 4967 0.1350 0.6048

• Example 3.7
2500 - 3500 7043 0.1915 0.7963
3500 - 5000 4780 0.1300 0.9263
5000 - 17500 2711 0.0737 1
36781 1.0000

income
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
F (x • j) 0.6
0.5
0.4
Cut out next slide
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
1
900
2
1250
3
1500
4th
2000 x 2500 5 6th
3500
7th
5000
8th
17500
k
Univ.-Prof. Dr-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 29

F (x • j)
0.5 • F (x ••k x / 2)
x M. • x k••• x / 2 • • x ••
f (x k)
• x
F (x) = 0.5
f (x k)
0.5
F. • xk• • x / 2 • 0.5 • F. • x k •• x / 2 •
2000 2500 x
x M. x k
x k •• x / 2 x k •• x / 2
Univ.-Prof. Dr-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 30th
Dispersion parameters
• Measures of dispersion
• Describe the spread of the characteristic values (e.g. the distance between the characteristic values and the center)
• span
• Scatter range in which all characteristic values of an observation series are located
R. • x Max • x min
• The scattering behavior of the values in between is not taken into account
• Quantiles and quartiles

• Quantile = measure of position that divides the sorted characteristic values into (two) parts
• Quartiles = quantiles, which the (sorted) data in four equal parts subdivide
• First or lower quartile ( Q1 = Q 0.25 ), middle quartile (= median) ( Q2 = Q 0.5 ), third or upper quartile ( Q3 = Q 0.75 )
• The range of variation between Q1 and Q3 becomes Interquartile range and is less sensitive to outliers

Quartiles & box plots
lower Q1 Q2 ( Median) Q3 upper

border border
…… . …… . …… . ……
span
Interquartile range
lower
lower upper upper
border
Quartile ( Q1 ) Quartile ( Q3 ) border
Median ( Q2 )
0 1 2 3 4th 5 6th 7th 8th 9 10 11 12th 13 14 15th 16

Skew of a distribution
• Symmetrical distribution
• Distribution of the characteristic values symmetrically in relation to the arithmetic mean
• Deviations from the mean of the same amount in terms of amount occur just as often with positive as
with negative signs
• Relative and absolute frequencies of values that are the same upwards and downwards from the mean
are equally large
• Median and arithmetic mean match. Symmetry can be seen
• graphically in the box plot
• Skewed distribution
• Distribution rises sharply to the left and falls flat to the right • right skew
• The arithmetic mean is greater than the median
• Distribution rises flat on the left and drops steeply on the right • left skewed
• The arithmetic mean is smaller than the median

Example: quartiles
Points per game one Basketball player

• example
Basketball player
Game points / game
1 3
2 30th
3 6th
4th 10
5 7th
6th 11
7th 10
8th 7th
9 3
10 10
11 13th
(Taken from: Statistics from head to toe)

Example: box plots
Points per game from two basketball players
Player 2
Player 1
(Source: statistics from head to toe)

Example: "precast concrete part"
Measurement at the] n • 10
x ( 1) 12,189
x ( 2) 12.817 Q 1 • 0.25 • 10 • 2.5 • x 3 • 12,818 R. • x Max • x min
12,818
• x 10 • x 1
x ( 3)
1 •x • 12,829 • 12,189 • 0.640
x ( 4) 12,820 Q 2 • x M. • •
2 n / 2 • x ( n / 2) • 1
x ( 5) 12.821
1
• •x • 12,822
x ( 6) 12,823 2 5 • x 6th •
x ( 7) 12.825 Q 3 • Q 1 • 12.825 • 12,818 • 0.007

Q 3 • 0.75 • 10 • 7.5 • x 8th • 12.825
x ( 8th) 12.825
x ( 9) 12,827
x•
• xi• 127.594
• 12.759
x ( 10) 12,829
n 10
∑ 127.594

• Mean absolute deviation

• All values of the observation series are taken into account as mean distance from median
n x • x M.
• i•1i
d• • Example 3.8 ( Continuation)
n
• with classified data d• • n x i • x • f • x i M.•

i•1
• Variance & standard deviation

• Most common measure of dispersion in statistics as mean square deviation of all
characteristic values from known Average •
1n
s2• •• x i • • • ( empirical variance)
2
n i•1
s • s2 (empirical standard deviation)

• Variance & standard deviation ( Continuation)

• Becomes from a series of observations either The arithmetic mean is estimated as well as the
standard deviation is derived corrected empirical variance or empirical standard deviation used
1 •• x i • x • • Example 3.8
n
2
s2• (corrected empirical variance)
n • 1 i•1 (Continuation)
s • s2 (corrected empirical standard deviation)
• The variance or standard deviation is THE Quality measure for assessing the quality of observations
in the sense of precision ( • see slide 23)
Scatter of the individual values

• s
smaller among each other
(= more precise), although the distance to the
setpoint is greater
• s (= less precise)!

Bivariate frequency distributions
• Two-dimensional or bivariate frequency distributions

• Two characteristics X and Y with possible different characteristics x • i( i • 1, •• m)
and y • j( j • 1, •• r) , that can appear together
• are both characteristics at n Observations observed simultaneously arise

n Observation pairs ( x k; y k) ( k • 1, •• n) With
• the absolute frequencies h (x • i; y• j)

With • h (x • i; y • j) • n
i, j
h (x i•; y •) j
• the relative frequencies f (x •;i y •) •j
n
• The totality of all combinations of the characteristic values (with the absolute and relative frequencies)
results in the two-dimensional frequency distribution, eg in the form of a two-dimensional frequency table
• The distribution of only one feature of the two-dimensional frequency table is called
Marginal distribution (= Rows or column total)

Variation parameters of bivariate distributions
• Covariance
• is a measure of the common variation of two characteristics X and Y
• describes the (linear) relationship or the dependency between two features X and Y with common
distribution
• is positive, if both features tend to be related in the same way
• is negative, when both characteristics tend to have an opposing relationship
• is null (= 0) if both features are independent of each other
1n
s XY • •• x i • • X • ( y i • • Y) (empirical covariance)
n i•1
1 •• x i • x • ( y • y) n • 1 i • 1
n
s XY • i (corrected empirical covariance)

• Variance & covariance from frequencies

• Similar to the arithmetic mean, the variance and covariance can be calculated with the help of the
absolute frequencies for characteristic values that occur several times - especially with classified
data
• 1 •x*
m
1 •m •
s
2
H( ) j• ( x *j • x) 2 • • • h (x *)j (x *)j 2 • nx 2 • (empirical variance)
n j•1 n •j•1 •
s • s2 (empirical standard deviation)
1m
r
1 •m
r
•
s xy• •• h (x •
j;
•
y k) ( • x *j • x) • ( y k
*
• y) • • •• h (x • j; y • k) x j
* *
y • nxy •
k
n j•1k•1 n• j•1k•1
•
(empirical covariance)
• analogously, the corrected empirical variance or covariance is calculated by dividing with ( n-1 ) calculated

Variation parameters of bivariate distributions
• correlation
• the size of the covariance is scale-dependent, ie it cannot depend on the size on the degree of the linear
dependence of two characteristics X and Y getting closed
• With the empirical correlation coefficient r XY the covariance is therefore normalized to the degree of linear To
describe the relationship between two characteristics
s XY • r yx (empir ical correlation coefficient)

r XY
• • 1 • r XY • • 1
sX• sY
• analogous to the covariance applies to the correlation of X and Y :
• r> 0 : positive correlation |r| interpretation
• r = 0 : no correlation 0 no correlation
0 - 0.5 weak correlation

• r <0 : negative correlation
0.5-0.8 mean correlation
• Qualitative statements on correlation can also be
0.8 - 1 strong correlation
seen in the scatter diagram
1 perfect correlation

Scatterplots of bivariate distributions
r = +1
r = +0.830
r = +0.453 r = +0.017

Scatterplots of bivariate distributions
r = -1
r = -0.876
Blood sugar
mirror
[mmol / l]
r = -0.03 (!)
but
Time after
the food [ H]

Example: physics and mathematics grade from 100 students
Student math physics

i y i* x i*
1 5 y k• y • • • •
h (x •)j
4th x •j 1 • 1 y • • 2 2y • 3 • 3 y • 4th y 54th• 5 y 6th • 6th
2 3 2
x1• • 1 2 3 4th 1 0 0 10
3 2 2
x 2• • 2 4th 10 4th 3 3 1 25th
4th 1 3
•
5 3 4th
x3• 3 4th 6th 15th 6th 3 1 35
6th 1 1 x 4th• • 4th 0 2 7th 10 1 0 20th
7th 2 4th
x 5• • 5 0 1 2 4th 0 1 8th
8th 6th 5
x •6th• 6th 0 0 1 1 0 0 2
9 5 4th
•
10 1 3 h (y k) 10 22nd 33 25th 7th 3 • • 100
... ... ...

100 4th 2

16
14th
12th
10
8th
6th
4th
6th
0
5
6th
4th
5
3 4th
2 3
2
1
• Example math & physics grade

Vorlesung Kapitel 3.de - en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vorlesung Kapitel 3.de - en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

K chapter 3

• Descriptive = descriptive statistics

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 2

body size, number of students

• Rank characteristics: The data can be classified according to a ranking. Example

(football): first half, second half, extra time

• Qualitative characteristics: Descriptive characteristics (usually in words) Example

(gender): male, female

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 3

• To display the characteristic values, these are used in

• Ordinal scales: Characteristic arrangement in a sequence (ranking)

• Nominal scales: unordered feature arrangement in categories

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 4th

• There is one Observation list ( Original list) with n Characteristic values x i

• The assignment x • j • f (x • j) ( j • 1.2, •• m) becomes Frequency distribution called

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 5

• The absolute cumulative frequency is then H (x • k) • • h (x • j) • • h (x • j); k • 1,2, ..., m

• The relative cumulative frequency arises to F (x • k) • • f (x • j) • • f (x • j)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 6th

• Example 3.3 • Frequency table

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 7th

• The function F. grows monotonously

• For discreet quantitative characteristics is the function F. a Staircase function

• For steady quantitative characteristics results for F. a Polygon function

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 9

• Empirical distribution function "dice game" • discreet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 10

• Empirical distribution function "fuel consumption" • steadily

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 11

• Further class parameters

• Classification mostly by right-open intervals (from ... to below ...),

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 12th

game Goal minute

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 13th

x i ( j) : Characteristic value x i in the jth grade ( j = 1,2, ..., m )

• x •j : Class breadth • Example 3.4

h (x • j) : absolute class frequency

f (x • j) • h (x • j) / n : relative class frequency

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 14th

Concrete compressive strength x • j[ N / mm 2] of 90 test cubes

Span: R. • x Max • x min • 45.2 • 30.3 • 14.9

Left and Right Margins: 37.75 • 5 • 1.5 • 30.25 • x j • 45.25

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 15th

• Pie and pie charts

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 17th

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 18th

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 19th

60.00% 30th 60.00%

50.00% 25th 50.00%

• The same data basis, but different classifications

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 20th

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 21

• Dispersion parameters • Distribution of the values around the mean

• Simple arithmetic mean

• The simple arithmetic mean is formed by

x1• x2• • • xn• 1 •x n

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 22nd

• Properties of the arithmetic mean

• Example 3.8 ( Continuation)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Blankenbach Applied Statistics - WS 20/21 23

• Arithmetic mean of frequencies

• The frequencies h (x • and f (x •i) are thus the