Psychology testing history

Psychological testing is the process of assessing human behavior, abilities, and personality traits using
standardized tests that are designed to be objective, reliable, and valid measures of psychological
constructs. It has been used for a variety of purposes over the years, including screening for mental
illness, evaluating job applicants, and measuring intelligence. The history of psychological testing is a
fascinating one, with roots dating back to ancient China and Greece. This essay will explore the history of
psychological testing, from its earliest beginnings to modern-day applications.

Ancient Beginnings

The history of psychological testing can be traced back to ancient China and Greece. In China, the earliest
recorded use of psychological tests dates back to around 2200 BCE when the Chinese emperor had his
officials examined every third year to determine their fitness for office. Such testing was modified and
refined over the centuries until written exams were introduced in the Han dynasty (202 b.c.– a.d. 200).
Five topics were tested: civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography.

In Greece, interest in physiognomy developed in the fourth century, when the Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384–322 b.c.) published a short treatise based on the premise that the soul and the body “sympathize”
with each other. Essentially, Aristotle argued that changes in a person’s soul (inner character) could
impact the appearance of the body, and vice versa. The relationship between the two allowed the astute
observer to infer personality characteristics from individual appearance. Aristotle catalogued a vast array
of traits that could be discerned from features of hair, forehead, eyebrows, eyes, nose, lips, and so on.

Physiognomy remained popular for centuries and laid the foundation for a more specialized form of
pseudosciecne known as phrenology. It involves using measurements of the human skull to determine
personality traits, talents, and mental ability.

The founder of phrenology was a German physician named Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828). Gall believed
that the brain was the organ of the mind and that different mental functions were localized in different
parts of the brain. He proposed that the shape and size of the skull could reveal the size and shape of these
specific brain regions, and hence, a person's personality and character. Gall conducted many experiments
and observations on human skulls and brains to support his theories. He also examined the skulls of
famous people to see if he could identify the traits they were known for. Gall believed that the study of
phrenology could be used to improve education, mental health, and even criminal justice.

Early Modern Era

The early modern era saw the development of psychological testing as a more formalized process. For the
first time in history, psychologists departed from the wholly subjective and introspective methods that had
been so fruitlessly pursued in the preceding centuries. Human abilities were instead tested in laboratories.
Researchers used objective procedures that were capable of replication. Pioneers such as Wundt, Galton,
Cattell, and Wissler showed that exposing the mind to scientific scrutiny and measurement was possible.
This was a fateful change in the axiomatic assumptions of psychology, which has stayed with us to the
current day.

Galton

One of the earliest pioneers in psychological testing was Francis Galton, who is credited with developing
the first standardised tests of intelligence in the late 1800s. In the course of his efforts to explore and
quantify individual differences between people, Galton became an extremely influential contributor to the
field of measurement. Galton aspired to classify people “according to their natural gifts” (and to ascertain
their “deviation from an average” (p. 11). Galton contributed to the development of many contemporary
tools of psychological testing, including questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories.

Galton’s initial work on heredity was done with sweet peas, partly because there tended to be fewer
variations among the peas in a single pod. In this work, Galton pioneered the use of a statistical concept
central to psychological experimentation and testing: the coefficient of correlation. From heredity in peas,
Galton’s interest turned to heredity in humans and various ways of measuring aspects of people and their
abilities. At an exhibition in London in 1884, Galton displayed his Anthropometric Laboratory where, you
could be measured on variables such as height (standing), height (sitting), arm span, weight, breathing
capacity, strength of pull, strength of squeeze, swiftness of blow, keenness of sight, memory of form,
discrimination of color, and steadiness of hand. Through his own efforts and his urging of educational
institutions to keep anthropometric records on their students, Galton excited widespread interest in the
measurement of psychology-related variables.

His two most influential works remain to be Hereditary Genius (1869), an empirical analysis purporting
to prove that genetic factors were overwhelmingly important for the attainment of eminence, and Inquiries
into Human Faculty and Its Development (1883), a disparate series of essays that emphasized individual
differences in mental faculties

Wilhelm Wundt

Assessment was also an important activity at the first experimental psychology laboratory, founded at the
University of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Max Wundt. Wundt and his students tried to formulate a
general description of human abilities with respect to variables such as reaction time, perception, and
attention span. In contrast to Galton, Wundt focused on questions relating to how people were similar, not
different. In fact, individual differences were viewed by Wundt as a frustrating source of error in
experimentation. Wundt attempted to control all extraneous variables in an effort to reduce error to a
minimum.
When he was measuring mental process, at least as early as 1862, he experimented with his thought
meter. This device was a calibrated pendulum with needles sticking off from each side. The pendulum
would swing back and forth, striking bells with the needles. The observer’s task was to take note of the
position of the pendulum when the bells sounded. Of course, Wundt could adjust the needles beforehand
and thereby know the precise position of the pendulum when each bell was struck. He believed that the
difference between the observed pendulum position and the actual position would provide a means of
determining the swiftness of thought of the observer. This gave an empirical analysis that sought to
explain individual differences instead of trying to explain them away.

James Cattell

James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944), one of Wundt’s students at Leipzig, completed a doctoral
dissertation that dealt with individual differences—specifically, individual differences in reaction time.
After receiving his doctoral degree from Leipzig, Cattell returned to the United States, teaching at Bryn
Mawr and then at the University of Pennsylvania before leaving for Europe to teach at Cambridge. At
Cambridge, Cattell came in contact with Galton. Inspired by his interaction, Cattell arranged for a
two-year fellowship at Cambridge so that he could continue the study of individual differences. Cattell
opened his own research laboratory and developed a series of tests that were mainly extensions and
additions to Galton’s battery. Cattell (1890) invented the term mental test in his famous paper entitled
“Mental Tests and Measurements.”

Alfred Binet

The unifying theme of Binet’s research was the examination of individual differences and similarities in
cognition. Binet studied a range of populations, including children, mental hospital patients, and
professional artists. His research topics were also wide ranging, including studies of consciousness,
sensation, creativity, language development, memory development, and mental fatigue.

Binet’s most influential contributions to the field of psychology were in the area of intelligence testing. In
contrast to his contemporaries who supported the measurement of physical features or a single factor as
an assessment of intelligence, Binet supported a functional, multidimensional view of intelligence that
emphasised reasoning and comprehension. Because of his unique approach to studying intelligence, the
Paris school system asked Binet to develop a test that could be used to identify children who would
benefit from special education classes. In 1905 Binet and his collaborator, Théodore Simon, responded to
this request by creating the first intelligence test, the Binet-Simon Scale. The Binet-Simon scale was and
is hugely popular around the world, mainly because of the vast literature it has fostered, as well as its
relative ease of administration. It provided a standardized method for measuring intelligence, which
allowed researchers to compare individuals and groups of people.
In 1908, Binet and Simon published a revision of the 1905 scale. In the earlier scale, more than half the
items had been designed for the very retarded, yet the major diagnostic decisions involved older children
and those with borderline intellect. To remedy this imbalance, most of the very simple items were
dropped and new items were added at the higher end of the scale. The 1908 scale had 58 problems or
tests, almost double the number from 1905.

The major innovation of the 1908 scale was the introduction of the concept of mental level. The tests had
been standardized on about 300 normal children between the ages of 3 and 13 years. This allowed Binet
and Simon to order the tests according to the age level at which they were typically passed. Whichever
items were passed by 80 to 90 percent of the 3-year-olds were placed in the 3-year level, and similarly on
up to age 13.

In his writings, Binet emphasized strongly that the child’s exact mental level should not be taken too
seriously as an absolute measure of intelligence. Nonetheless, the idea of deriving a mental level was a
monumental development that was to influence the character of intelligence testing throughout the
twentieth century. Within months, what Binet called mental level was being translated as mental age. And
testers everywhere, including Binet himself, were comparing a child’s mental age with the child’s
chronological age

In 1911, a third revision of the Binet-Simon scales appeared. Each age level now had exactly five tests.
The scale was also extended into the adult range. And with some reluctance, Binet introduced new
scoring methods that allowed for one-fifth of a year for each subtest passed beyond the basal level.

Lewis Terman

In 1916, Lewis Terman later revised the scale and standardized the test with subjects drawn from an
American sample. This test became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and is still widely
used today. Among the many changes that led to the unquestioned prestige of the Stanford-Binet was the
use of the now familiar IQ for expressing test results. The number of items was increased to 90, and the
new scale was suitable for those with mental retardation, children, and both normal and “superior” adults.
In addition, the Stanford-Binet had clear and well-organized instructions for administration and scoring.

David Wechsler

In 1939, David Wechsler,a clinical psychologist at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, introduced a test
designed to measure adult intelligence. For Wechsler, intelligence was “the aggregate or global capacity
of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment”.
Originally christened the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, the test was subsequently revised and
renamed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The WAIS has been revised s everal times since
then, and versions of Wechsler’s test have been published that extend the age range of testtakers from
young children through senior adulthood. These tests will be discussed in greater detail in the chapters
that deal with the assessment of intelligence.

World War I and II

In the early 1900s, psychologists began to develop tests to measure personality traits. One of the most
influential personality tests was the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), developed by
Starke Hathaway and J.C. McKinley in 1943. The MMPI was designed to assess personality and
psychopathology in clinical settings and became one of the most widely used personality tests in the
world.

During World War I, psychological testing played an important role in selecting and classifying soldiers
for military service. The Army Alpha and Army Beta tests were developed to assess recruits' literacy and
cognitive abilities, while the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet was used to assess personality and
emotional stability. These tests were instrumental in helping the military to classify recruits and assign
them to appropriate roles in the war effort.

During World War II, psychological testing was used on an even larger scale. The US military used tests
to evaluate millions of recruits, both to assess their abilities and to identify individuals who might be at
risk of psychological problems. The testing was also used to select individuals for specialized training,
such as pilots or submariners.

After World War II, psychological testing continued to evolve, and new tests were developed to measure a
wide range of psychological attributes, including intelligence, personality, and vocational interests. By the
late 1930s, approximately four thousand different psychological tests were in print, and “clinical
psychology” was synonymous with “mental testing”. World War I had brought with it not only the need to
screen the intellectual functioning of recruits but also the need to screen for recruits’ general adjustment.

A government Committee on Emotional Fitness chaired by psychologist Robert S. Woodworth was

assigned the task of developing a measure of adjustment and emotional stability that could be
administered quickly and efficiently to groups of recruits. The committee developed several experimental
versions of what were, in essence, paper-and-pencil psychiatric interviews. To disguise the true purpose of
one such test, the questionnaire was labeled as a “Personal Data Sheet.” Draftees and volunteers were
asked to indicate yes or no to a series of questions that probed for the existence of various kinds of
psychopathology. The Personal Data Sheet developed by Woodworth and his colleagues never went
beyond the experimental stages, for the treaty of peace rendered the development of this and other tests
less urgent. After the war, Woodworth developed a personality test for civilian use that was based on the
Personal Data Sheet. He called it the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory. This instrument was the fi rst
widely used self-report test of personality—a method of assessment that would soon be employed in a
long line of succeeding personality tests.

Ethical Issues

In the 1960s and 1970s, the civil rights movement brought attention to the potential biases in
psychological testing, particularly intelligence tests. Critics argued that these tests were culturally biased
and did not accurately reflect the intelligence of minorities and other disadvantaged groups. As a result,
new tests were developed that attempted to minimize cultural biases and provide more accurate
assessments of intelligence. There are some other ethical concerns surrounding psychological testing.

Informed Consent

Informed consent is a crucial ethical issue in psychological testing. Before a person is tested, they must be
informed of the purpose and nature of the test, the expected outcomes, and any potential risks or benefits
of participating. The person being tested must also be informed of their right to refuse to participate or
withdraw from the testing process at any time. Failure to obtain informed consent can result in legal and
ethical consequences, and it may cause harm to the individual being tested.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is another important ethical issue in psychological testing. Test results are sensitive
information that should be kept confidential to protect the individual's privacy. The individual being
tested must be informed of the confidentiality policy before the test and given the opportunity to ask
questions. The psychologist or tester must also ensure that the test results are stored securely to prevent
unauthorized access.

Misuse of Test Results

The misuse of test results is another ethical issue in psychological testing. The test results must be used
only for their intended purpose, which is to provide information about the individual being tested. The test
results should not be used to discriminate against the individual in employment, education, or any other
aspect of life. Additionally, the test results should not be used to stigmatize or label the individual being
tested.

Today, psychological testing continues to be an important tool in psychology and is used in a wide range
of settings, including clinical, educational, and occupational settings. New tests are constantly being
developed to assess a wide range of psychological attributes, and advances in technology have made it
possible to administer tests online and to collect and analyze large amounts of data. In conclusion,
psychological testing has a long and fascinating history, and many individuals have contributed to its
development over the years. From the early pioneers like Francis Galton and Alfred Binet to the modern
psychologists who continue to develop new tests and refine existing ones, psychological testing has
played an important role in our understanding of human behavior and psychology. As we continue to
develop new tests and refine our understanding of psychological attributes, psychological testing will
undoubtedly continue to be a valuable tool in psychology and other fields.