You have observed mental and physical changes in a family member who recently

started taking some unknown pills. She appears to be energetic and cheerful as well
as having a reduced appetite combine with weight loss. Give your opinion on the
MOST likely drug that she is consuming. Justify your answer by elaborating on the
drug's pharmacological actions and the adverse effects if she continues to take the
pills on a long-term basis.

A drug can be defined as a natural or synthetic substance that is used to produce

physiological or psychological effects in humans or other higher order animals. Narcotic
drugs on the other hand are known as analgesic meaning they relieve pain by a depressing
action on the central nervous system. This may affect the function of blood pressure, pulse
rate and breathing rate. Given the symptoms you described, one possibility could be the use
of stimulant drugs such as amphetamines or prescription medications like methylphenidate
(commonly known as Ritalin) or dextroamphetamine (commonly known as Adderall). These
drugs are classified as stimulants as sometimes it is known as “uppers” or “speed”.

These drugs are commonly prescribed for conditions like attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) or narcolepsy. Pharmacologically, stimulant drugs like amphetamines work
by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, primarily dopamine and norepinephrine,
in the brain. This leads to increased alertness, improved focus, elevated mood, and reduced
appetite. Based on the schedules of classification, amphetamine is classified in schedule II
which is drugs that have high potential for abuse and have medical use with severe
restriction. The pharmacological action for stimulant drugs such as in this case,
amphetamines, being taken in oral dosage give effects such as wakefulness, alertness,
decrease fatigue. Besides that, amphetamines also diminish the awareness of fatigue as a
person may push exertion to the point of severe damage or even death. They also stimulate
the respiratory center, especially when respiration is depressed by centrally acting drugs
such as barbiturates. Amphetamine can reverse the marked sedation and behavioral
retardation resulting from reserpine-like drugs and can also depress appetite by their action
on the lateral hypothalamus rather than an effect on metabolic rate.

As for the mechanism of action for amphetamines, it releases monoamines at synapses in

the brain and spinal cord besides inhibiting neuronal uptake of monoamine. They are a direct
agonist of DA and 5-HT receptors and also antagonist at certain adrenoreceptors.
Amphetamines may inhibit monoamine oxidase. Moving onto the long term adverse effects,
amphetamines affect the CNS by causing euphoria, dizziness, tremor, irritability, insomnia,
hyperthermia and coma. They also induce cardiac stimulation cardiac stimulation leads to
headache, palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, anginal pain. Amphetamines also additionally
cause weight loss, psychotic reactions which are often misdiagnosed as schizophrenia and
causes addiction that includes psychic dependence, tolerance and physical dependence.

All in all, the regular usage of narcotic drugs may lead to physical dependence. It's essential
to seek medical advice to determine the exact cause of her symptoms and to receive
appropriate treatment. A healthcare professional will be able to provide accurate diagnosis
and guidance based on her specific situation.

Modern man are always looking for ways to reduce stress, anxiety and induce sleep.
Describe the function of Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) in reaction to its role with
anxiolytic and stimulant drugs. A diagram may be included to assist in your
explanation
Humans have always sought ways to induce sleep, relieve stress and anxiety in order for
them to carry out a normal lifestyle. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that plays a crucial role in regulating neuronal
excitability. It functions to reduce the activity of nerve cells, thereby promoting relaxation,
reducing anxiety, and inducing sleep also reduce neuronal excitability by inhibiting nerve
transmission. When GABA binds to its receptors on neurons, it facilitates GABAA, causing a
decrease in neuronal firing and activity. This will cause channels to open and influx of Cl -
ions which is known as hyperpolarization. This inhibition helps to balance the excitatory
signals in the brain and maintain a state of calmness and tranquility. Anxiolytic drugs, such
as benzodiazepines, enhance the function of GABA in the brain.

BZD was introduced in 1960 and is still widely used until today. It is an anxiolytic which
works to reduce anxiety. It also has many other properties like sedative, anticonvulsant,
amnestic, and also relaxant. Usually, BZDs are taken orally as it is well absorbed and known
to have peak plasma concentration around an hour. It facilitates GABA induced neuron
inhibition at GABAA receptors in many CNS areas. BZD is a complete agonist dependably
aid GABA binding increasing the affinity of GABA for its receptors or directly activating the
receptor while. This amplifies the inhibitory effects of GABA, leading to a reduction in anxiety
and relaxation of the individual.

The specific sites and action for BZD is cerebral cortex and hippocampus which cause
mental confusion and amnesia, Amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex & insula alleviate the anxiety,
agitation and fear. Spinal cord, cerebellum and brain stem on the other hand will cause
muscle relaxation or anxiolytics. Ventral tegmentum and nucleus accumbens help in
rewarding behavioural effects such as depending or abuse. BZDs are primarily used for
anxiety relief which usually a psychological relief leads to physiological relief, sedative which
causes hypnotic effect for insomnia. This will also cause an amnestic or memory impairment
effect before and during surgery and also muscle relaxants which direct physiological relief
or indirect with psychological relief. However BDZ and alcohol is highly toxic and may be
fatal for individuals.

Based on this particular situation, if you continue taking without proper dosage it may cause
sleep pattern disturbance where daytime destination or night time rebound insomnia. This
may be related to long or short action of the drug reaction. It is also important to know that
taking this kind of drug may cause impaired motor abilities especially during driving.

Stimulant drugs, on the other hand, have an opposite effect on GABA activity. They primarily
target excitatory neurotransmitters like dopamine or norepinephrine, increasing their release
or inhibiting their reuptake. By enhancing excitatory signals, stimulant drugs promote
alertness, arousal, and increased energy levels. This increase in excitatory activity can
indirectly affect GABA function, reducing its inhibitory effects. It is always important to
consult healthcare professionals for accurate information and advice regarding specific
drugs and their effects on GABA function.

All in all, taking BZD may cause several side effects and toxicity. Usually dose related effects
of intended actions like sedation, drowsiness, ataxia, lethargy, mental confusion, amnesia,
onset/extension of dementia. High dosage of BZD also may cause mental dysfunction.
Therefore, it is important to get proper medical advice and prescription.

Mr Matthews is a casual whiskey drinker, whereby he will have the occasional drink
during celebrations and to relax after work. During a work trip which required him to
take a two hour flight, he noticed a faster physiological reaction than normal to the
two glasses of whiskey that he had on the flight. Based on the situation above,
explain the reason for Mr Matthews inebriation reaction in relation to the stages of
alcohol intoxication.

Mr. Matthews' faster physiological reaction to the two glasses of whiskey during his work trip
can be explained by considering the stages of alcohol intoxication. Alcohol intoxication
occurs in various stages as the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) rises. The stages can be
summarized as follows:

1. Absorption: When alcohol is consumed, it is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream

through the walls of the stomach and small intestine. The rate of absorption can be
influenced by factors such as the presence of food in the stomach and the individual's
metabolism. In Mr. Matthews' case, the two-hour flight might have led to a quicker
absorption of alcohol due to the decreased movement and reduced metabolism associated
with being seated for an extended period.

2. Euphoria: As the BAC rises, individuals often experience a sense of euphoria, relaxation,
and lowered inhibitions. This is when people may feel more sociable and experience a
temporary mood boost. Mr. Matthews may have experienced an intensified euphoric effect
due to the combination of alcohol's sedative properties and the stress-relieving environment
of being on a flight.

3. Excitement: At higher BAC levels, individuals may exhibit signs of excitement, impaired
judgement, and increased talkativeness. The stimulating effects of alcohol may become
more pronounced, leading to heightened physiological reactions. It's possible that Mr.
Matthews experienced this stage more rapidly than usual, resulting in a quicker and stronger
response to the whiskey he consumed.

4. Confusion: As the BAC continues to rise, confusion, disorientation, and impaired motor
coordination become more apparent. Mr. Matthews may not have reached this stage, as he
only had two glasses of whiskey during the flight. However, it is essential to recognize that
alcohol affects individuals differently, and factors such as tolerance, body weight, and
hydration levels can influence the progression of intoxication.

5. Stupor and Coma: At very high BAC levels, individuals can experience a state of stupor or
even slip into a coma. It is crucial to monitor alcohol consumption and be aware of the signs
of alcohol poisoning, seeking medical attention if necessary. However, in Mr. Matthews'
case, it seems he did not reach this stage based on the information provided.

It's important to note that individual reactions to alcohol can vary based on numerous
factors, including tolerance, metabolism, and overall health. Furthermore, consuming alcohol
in-flight may have different effects due to changes in cabin pressure and the body's
physiological response to altitude. Understanding one's limits and consuming alcohol
responsibly is always advisable to ensure personal safety and well-being.

As a forensic science analyst, you were invited to a give a short lecture on the
science behind breathalysers to chemistry major undergraduate students draft your
lecture about breathalysers and how it works to detect if a person is under the
influence of alcohol

Ladies and gentlemen,

Welcome to today's lecture on the science behind breathalysers and their role in detecting
alcohol intoxication. As chemistry majors, you understand the importance of precise
measurements and the principles of chemical analysis. Breathalyzers, also known as breath
alcohol testers, are devices designed to estimate the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of
an individual by analysing their breath sample. Let's delve into the science behind this
fascinating technology.

Breath Ethanol Testing primarily relies on a technique called infrared spectroscopy. This
technique takes advantage of the fact that different molecules absorb and transmit infrared
light at specific wavelengths. In the case of alcohol, particularly ethanol, it exhibits distinct
absorption characteristics in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Henry's
Law provides the basis for estimating the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream by
measuring the amount of alcohol in exhaled breath. The 2100:1 ratio is used to estimate the
amount of ethanol in the whole blood by measurement of the amount of ethanol in an
expired breath sample

The breathalyzer contains a breath sampling system, a chamber, and an infrared detector.
When a person blows into the device, their breath enters the chamber. Inside, there is an
infrared light source that emits a beam of infrared light across the chamber. On the opposite
side of the chamber, there is an infrared detector that measures the intensity of the light
beam after it passes through the breath sample. Before analyzing the breath, the device
calibrates itself using ambient air to establish a baseline measurement. Once the breath
sample is introduced, the alcohol molecules in the breath interact with the infrared light.
Ethanol specifically absorbs infrared light at characteristic wavelengths. The detector
measures the decrease in intensity of the light beam caused by the absorption of ethanol
molecules.

In a breath test, one must calculate how much ethanol is measured from expired air samples
in the blood. In order to do this, it is crucial to take into account the volume of blood from
which the ethanol originated. Firstly, the ethanol concentration in the expired alveolar air is
directly proportional to the ethanol concentration in the blood. This assumption can be made
based on Henry’s Law which states that at constant temperature, the concentration of gas
dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its concentration in the air directly above the liquid. On
the other hand, the exhaled alveolar air is in equilibrium with the blood. In this case of
ethanol, the ratio of concentrations of ethanol in blood to expired alveolar air has achieved a
constant value which is 2100:1. This relationship is called the blood-to breath ratio or
partition ration

The breathalyzer compares the intensity of the blood to breath ratio which can vary between
1500:1 And 3000:1. The ratio varies among individuals according to age, gender, genetic
makeup and state of intoxication within a given individual at different times and among
measuring devices. The 2100:1 ratio is a standard conversion factor in determining BAC for
the breath ethanol testing. It is actually an average based on comparisons of blood and
breath samples collected from many individuals using several types of measuring devices.
However, it's worth mentioning that breathalyzers have some limitations. They assume a
specific relationship between breath alcohol and blood alcohol, which may vary from person
to person. Additionally, certain substances, like mouthwash or breath fresheners containing
alcohol, can interfere with the readings and potentially result in false positives. It's crucial to
understand that breathalyzers provide an initial indication of alcohol impairment but are not
conclusive evidence. For legal purposes, blood tests are generally considered more
accurate and are often used to confirm the breathalyzer results.

In conclusion, breathalyzers employ infrared spectroscopy to estimate blood alcohol

concentration by analyzing the breath sample. Through the measurement of infrared light
absorption, these devices provide a convenient and non-invasive method for screening
individuals suspected of alcohol intoxication. While they have their limitations, breathalyzers
play a crucial role in maintaining road safety and enforcing alcohol-related laws.

Thank you for your attention, and I hope this lecture has provided you with valuable insights
into the science behind breathalyzers.