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Effects of different types of soil on decomposition: An experimental study

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 Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Legal Medicine
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/legalmed

Effects of different types of soil on decomposition: An experimental study q,qq

Ali Riza Tumer a,⇑, Emre Karacaoglu a, Ayten Namli b, Alper Keten c, Shima Farasat b,
Ramazan Akcan a, Osman Sert d, Aysun Balseven Odabasßi a
a
Hacettepe University, School of Medicine, Department of Forensic Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
b
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Crop Nutrition, Ankara, Turkey
c
Ankara Ataturk Education and Research Hospital, Forensic Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
d
Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Applied Biology Section, Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Decomposition, a postmortem process including autolysis and putrefaction, is affected by many factors
Received 31 August 2012 (e.g., humidity, microbial activity, soil properties). The purpose of this study was to determine the impor-
Received in revised form 26 November 2012 tance of soil type in decomposition process. Changes occurred in two intervals (3 and 6 months) were
Accepted 27 November 2012
evaluated using a total of 32 Sus scrofa limbs by burying in four different types of soil (loamy, clayey,
Available online 9 January 2013
sandy and organic). The extremities in all soils had lost weight over time; however, mass loss was greater
in loamy and organic soils in both intervals. Entomological findings were also assessed. Obtained findings
Keywords:
of soil analysis and evaluation of decomposition were compatible. In conclusion, the present study
Forensic science
Soil forensics
revealed that soil properties and textures should be taken into account in evaluation of decomposition
Decomposition and estimating postmortem interval in crime scene investigation.
Taphonomy Crown Copyright Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Soil types
Soil enzymes

1. Introduction
Decomposition, a postmortem process including autolysis and
putrefaction [1], is used for determination of postmortem interval
(PMI). Although, many studies regarding decomposition have been
performed in forensic sciences, estimation of time since death has
not been sufficiently investigated because of numerous factors
influencing putrefaction.
Until today, a number of studies have been conducted on vari-
ous factors such as body size [2], humidity [3], temperature [4],
microbiological activity [5], conditions where carcass founded
[6], soil pH and moisture [7,8] which have effects on decomposi-
tion. Additionally, chemical and biological characteristics of soil
have been investigated for estimation of PMI [1,9–11] and determi-
nation of clandestine graves’ locations [9,12] based on the fact that
soil’s biophysicochemical properties would be used as indicator of
criminal activity (e.g., the deposition of a body).
q
Financial support: Financial support was provided by Hacettepe University
Scientific Research Unit for this study.
qq
This study was partly (results of first interval) presented as an oral presentation
_
in the 9th Forensic Science Congress, 14–17 October 2010, Izmir, Turkey (National
Congress).
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Hacettepe University School of Medicine,
Department of Forensic Medicine, 06100 Sihhiye, Ankara, Turkey. Tel.: +90
3123052004.
E-mail address: alirizat@hacettepe.edu.tr (A.R. Tumer).
Soils have different textures (i.e., particles constitute the soil are
called as sand (2–0.02 mm), silt (0.02–0.002 mm) and clay
(<0.002 mm)), and biochemical compounds varying from one place
to another and twelve major textural classes are defined in several
combinations according to size of particles by United States
Department of Agriculture textural triangle [13]. It is known that
particle size of soil could affect process of decomposition.
In this context, decomposition can be completely inhibited or
decreased to the least, in soil formed by coarse-textured with
low due to diffusion of gasses through the soil matrix [5,14–16].
Differently, pseudomorph might be formed in coarse-textured
and high moisture soil because of elevation of calcium, phosphorus
and manganese [17]. On the other hand, fine-textured (clayey) soil
have lower rate of gas diffusion than the coarse-textured soil,
therefore, oxygen-CO2 exchange might not be sufficient to produce
aerobic microbes [18] and these conditions cause domination of
anaerobes which are less efficient decomposers [19]. As a result
of these, decomposition can be retarded [15,20,21] due to lack of
gas exchange; furthermore, adipocere formation can be observed
around the cadaver or internal organs [14,22,23]. However, the
information mentioned above is accepted and anticipated because
of experiments, since the effects of soil textures on decomposition
have not been apparently conducted yet.
In this study, effects of soil textures on decomposition were
investigated by using four types of soil and pigs as proxies for hu-
man cadavers. Therefore, it was aimed to determine the effects of

1344-6223/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2012.11.003
150 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156

type of soil in decomposition process and the importance of soil was from Kazan, Ankara. Before burial, the properties of the soils
type in determination of time since death. The importance of were analyzed in the Faculty of Agriculture of Ankara University
examination of chemical and biochemical properties of soil was (Table 1).
also emphasized when a buried carcass was discovered.

2.3. Experimental design and insertion

2. Materials and methods
2.1. Extremities
Extremities of Sus scrofa (1.9–4.2 kg wet weight, one aged)
which were sacrificed for an experimental research by physicians
in Gülhane Military Medical Academy were used as organic mate-
rial in this study. Thirty-two extremities derived from a total of 8
domestic pigs were randomly divided into four groups and buried
in four different soil types; L-Loamy (n = 8), C-Clayey (n = 8), O-Or-
ganic (n = 8), S-Sandy (n = 8). All specimens were weighed and
photographed before burying and the place of burial for each spec-
imen was recorded and labeled.
2.2. Soils
Sandy soil used in this experiment collected from Ankara, loamy
and organic soils collected from Akgöl, Adapazarı and clayey soil
The field of experiment was in Kazan, Ankara, Turkey. The field
was surrounded by fence to deter entry into the site of experiment.
Thirty-six graves (4 blank controls and 32 specimens) that were
50 cm long, 40 cm wide and 50 cm deep, had been excavated by
digging machine (Fig. 1a and b). All specimens were transported
to the area within a few hours. Firstly inside of graves were cov-
ered with incorruptible and small porous tulles for separating the
sample soil from host soil of ground, and filled to the middle
(25 cm) with the soil samples used in the study (Fig. 1c). After-
wards, except controls extremities were horizontally placed in
the middle of graves and remaining part was filled up with sample
soil (0.1 m3 soil for each grave) (Fig. 1d, Fig. 2). Therefore, interac-
tion chance between host soil through the sample soil and the
cadavers was minimized.
The experiment was conducted for a total of 6 months (2010
May – 2010 November) as two time interval. At the end of first
three months, four extremities of each group and controls were

Table 1
Properties of soils, before burial.

Soil Sand Clay Silt N OM pH (1:2,5 CaCO3 EC b-Glu (mg pNP ALP (mg pNP Urease (lg N CO2 E (mgCO2/
1
types (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) w/v) (%) (dsm ) h 1 g 1 soil) h 1 g 1 soil) g 1 soil) 24 h)
L 37.5 29.6 32.9 0.27 0.16 7.10 19.1 1.12 1.12 0.09 0.14 0.13
C 18.1 51.0 30.7 0.28 1.66 7.24 16.2 1.20 1.00 0.09 0.09 0.13
O – – – 1.24 30.0 6.5 0.4 1.37 1.09 0.10 0.13 1.28
S 91.8 6.3 1.7 0.13 0.37 7.05 6.2 0.96 0.05 0.10 0.07 0.10

L-Loamy, C-Clayey, O-Organic, S-Sandy, N: Nitrogen, OM: Organic Matter, EC: Electric Conductivity, b-Glu: Beta Glucosidase, ALP: Alkaline Phosphatase, CO2 E: CO2 Evolution.

Fig. 1. Excavating graves and insertion of limbs. (a) Excavating graves by digging machine. (b) Measuring of graves (50 cm long, 40 cm wide and 50 cm deep). (c) Burying of
extremities in graves covered with tulles. (d) Filling graves up with soil.
 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156 151

Samples were directly killed by either ethyl acetate jars or put in

70% ethanol. Ethanol killed insects were preserved in 15 cc plastic
specimen containers and ethyl acetate killed insects were pinned
for identification and observation. Laboratory examinations were
done by using Leica MZ 16A Stereomicroscope and DFC320 imag-
ing system and identified specimens by using keys [32].

2.5. Statistical analyses

The statistical analyses were performed with SPSS for Windows

15.0. Kruskal–Wallis test was used to compare groups. Mann–
Whitney U test was used for all pairwise multiple comparisons.
Bonferroni correction was used for pairwise multiple comparisons.
A P value of <0.05 was considered significant.

Fig. 2. Illustration of graves and placement of the extremities.

3. Results

Table 2 3.1. Evaluation of decomposition

Average monthly temperature, humidity and rainfall for burial site location.

Month Average Average Average One of fundamental assumptions in science is reproducibility of

temperature (°C) humidity (%) rainfall (mm) an experimental result; however, at the end of the experiment, it
May (2010) 18.4 4.4 31.0 was obtained some lack of reproducible results because of limita-
June 21.5 5.4 57.8 tions. In this study, comparison of each group for mass loss brought
July 26.2 4.4 25.7
with high standard deviation values by reason of limited number
August 28.4 3.1 0.4
September 22.5 4.2 1.5 of extremities. Therefore, evaluation of decomposition was mainly
October 12.2 7.2 167.6 conducted by using qualitative data.
November 11.2 6.4 32.0

excavated L (n = 4), C (n = 4), O (n = 4) and S (n = 4). Firstly, ambits 3.1.1. Interval 1

of graves were cleaned from grass and surrounding soil samples
were obtained appropriately. Afterwards, extremities were ex-
humed and control soil samples were taken from blank graves.
Six months later the same steps were conducted repeatedly for
the remaining 16 extremities.
Daily average temperature, humidity and rainfall readings dur-
ing May 2010 through October 2010 were obtained from the re-
cords of Turkish State Meteorological Service (Table 2).
2.4. Evaluation of decomposition, soil and entomologic analyses
2.4.1. Evaluation of decomposition
Following exhumation, the putrefied extremities were photo-
graphed and weighed in order to measure mass loss. Qualitative
data on the state of decomposition was assessed according to vi-
sual parameters and recorded. Consequently, observed parameters
including corruption of skin, loss of soft tissue, disarticulation of
bones and hooves, and adipocere formation were evaluated
comprehensively.
2.4.2. Soil analyses
Soil samples were analyzed for their beta-glucosidase (C cycle)
and alkaline phosphotase activities (P cycle) by the methods of
Naseby and Lynch [24]. Urease activity (N cycle) was determined
according to Hoffman and Ticher [25] and CO2 evolution was mea-
sured by the alkaline trap method [26]. Soil pH and EC were mea-
sured on 1:2.5 suspension distilled water [27]. Organic matter was
analyzed by a modified Walkley–Black method [28]; particle size
distribution was determined according to Bouyoucos [29]. Percent-
age of carbonate was measured according to Jackson [30], and total
N by the Kjeldahl method [31].
2.4.3. Entomologic analyses
In order to observe insect activity, insects were collected from
each soil type and around the extremities by forceps and hand.
In L, there was no soft tissue on the bones virtually, the bones
were mostly disconnected from each other and skin was not de-
tected in all specimens. In addition, a whitish waxy matter indica-
tive of adipocere formation was noticed on the bones in two limbs.
Three of them were devoid of hooves.
In C, the bones were nearly separated and had a small amount
of soft tissue around. Skin was not corrupted and adipocere forma-
tion covering remaining tissue was noticed, in these cases. Hooves
were observed with no disarticulation (Fig. 3).
In O, it was observed that skin was almost detached and bones’
positions were kept barely. Additionally, there was a slight amount
soft tissue on the bones and hooves were separated (Fig. 3).
In S, skin was completely decomposed whereas bones were not
disconnected. There was thick loose soft tissue on the bones. Inter-
estingly, hooves were not observed. (Table 3).
3.1.2. Interval 2
In L, the skins were completely corrupted. The bones were
brownish-yellow in color, completely was free of muscle, and dis-
jointed and all hooves were absent. In addition, whitish area indic-
ative of saponification was found in merely one extremity.
In C, it was found that skins were kept with no decomposition.
While disarticulation of bones occurred in advanced degree in only
one, the others were not separated completely. Additionally, there
was a little amount of soft tissue on the bones in all limbs. All of
extremities, similar to previous interval, were covered by adipo-
cere formation.
In O, all bones were separated and uncovered; skin was decom-
posed in all samples. There were also some greenish-yellowish
areas, on the bones, which might be staining because of sulfur.
Hooves were absent (Fig. 3).
In S, skins were completely decomposed as same degree as pre-
vious interval; however, the bones were not definitely disjointed.
And there were jelly like soft tissue on the bones. No hooves were
noticed in these samples (Fig. 3). (Table 3).
152 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156

Fig. 3. From extremities following exhumation in both intervals. (a) C (I), (b) O (I), (c) O (II), (d) S (II).

Table 3
Evaluation of visual decomposition parameters.

Soil types Skin corruption Loss of soft tissue Hooves disart. Bone disart. A.F.
Low Medium High
I II I II I II I II I II I II I II
L + + + + + + + + + +
C + + + + + + +
O + + + + + +
S + + + + + + +

L-Loamy, C-Clayey, O-Organic, S-Sandy,

Disart.: Disarticulation, A.F.: Adipocere Formation.

Table 4
Soil chemical properties in both intervals.
1
Soil types Organic matter (%) Nitrogen (%) pH (1:2,5) EC (dS m ) CaCO3 (%) Moisture content (%)
I II I II I II I II I II I II
L Control 0.15 0.14 0.27 0.26 7.09 7.10 1.12 1.11 19.15 19.08 8.2 23
Grave 1.17 1.43 0.95 0.95 7.00 6.90 1.45 1.41 20.82 21.14 10 19
C Control 1.59 1.55 0.28 0.19 7.21 7.24 1.20 1.20 16.26 16.25 9.5 43
Grave 1.60 2.51 1.35 1.29 7.03 7.27 1.36 1.30 16.31 17.48 12 39
O Control 29.50 29.05 1.24 1.01 6.78 6.85 1.30 1.30 0.42 0.40 43 43
Grave 30.44 30.79 1.22 1.11 6.77 6.67 2.92 1.93 1.18 3.27 45 47
S Control 0.36 0.35 0.13 0.11 7.03 7.03 0.96 0.96 6.22 6.20 2.3 8.94
Grave 0.44 0.99 0.27 0.24 7.02 6.93 1.08 1.08 6.26 6.29 2.5 3.28
LSD > 0.05 1.049 0.724 0.213 0.200 0.263 0.109 0.713 0.603 1.137 1.698

LSD: Least Significant Difference.

Significant differences between treatments at each time point (P < 0.05 level) indicated by italic letters.
L-Loamy, C-Clayey, O-Organic, S-Sandy.
Standard Deviations in interval I: organic matter = 27.33, nitrogen = 3.0663, pH = 0.18437, EC = 4.00723, CaCO3 = 2.76281.
Standard deviations in interval II: Organic matter = 3.71, nitrogen = 2.70280, pH = 1.43280, EC = 1.50407, CaCO3 = 307.357.

3.2. Soil findings 3.2.1. Organic matter (OM)

The amount of OM of soil was greater in O because of its nature
Results of soil analyses were evaluated together because of sim- (Table 4). The amount of OM of soils (except S) obtained from
ilar results in both intervals. Moisture content for each soil type in the graves was higher than those of the control soils (P < 0.05) at
both intervals is shown in Table 4. the second interval. The most obvious factor contributing to
 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156 153

differences in carbon distribution was the presence of the pig
remains.
3.2.2. Nitrogen (N)
The N content of C and L grave soils were higher than control
soils during the experiment (P < 0.05). The highest N content was
determined in C grave soil followed by O grave soil (Table 4).
3.2.3. Soil pH
For soil pH, in the first interval, there was no significant differ-
ence between soil types. In contrast, the pH of grave soils was lower
than control in O and L at the second interval (P < 0.05), (Table 4).
3.2.4. Electrical conductivity (EC)
EC increased significantly in O grave soil for both intervals
(P < 0.05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences
in other soil types (Table 4).
3.2.5. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
The highest CaCO3 content was determined in L, in both inter-
vals (P < 0.05). Additionally, a significant difference was found for
second interval in O (P < 0.05) (Table 4).
3.2.6. Phosphomonoesterase
In both intervals, the highest phosphatase activity was deter-
mined in O grave soils. Phosphatase activity was also higher in O
grave soil than its control (P < 0.05). There were no significant
differences in other soil types (Table 5).
3.2.7. Urease
The highest urease activity was determined in O, and the least
was determined in S. In S, no difference between control and grave
soils was detected. On the other hand, statistically significant dif-
ference was observed between control and grave soils for C and
O in both intervals, and for L in second interval (P < 0.05) (Table 5).
3.2.8. CO2. evolution
CO2 evolution showed a similar pattern to the urease activity,
with higher values for all grave soils compared with the controls,
at the first interval (P < 0.05). But this difference was statistically
significant (P < 0.05) only for O, at the end of the experiment
(Table 5).
3.2.9. Beta-glucosidase
In all grave soil, beta-glucosidase enzyme activity was higher
than the control soils during the experiment (P < 0.05); further-
more, the highest beta-glucosidase activity was determined in L
(Table 6).
3.3. Entomologic findings
3.3.1. Interval I
All insects found in the first interval were completely member
of Coleoptera order, which are normally common in soil environ-
ments. Staphylinidae species, Aleochara clavicornis L.Redtenbatcher
1849 in particular, were predominantly observed in all soil types.
However, great majority of them were in C. Unlike others, two dif-
ferent species of Coleoptera were identified in S. (Table 6).
3.3.2. Interval II
In second interval, although, there were different subspecies of
insect, all of them were Coleoptera order. Staphylinidae species
were not observed in O; however, a small number was existed in
other types of soil. Overwhelmingly, Histeridae and Nitidulidae

Table 5
Soil biochemical properties in both intervals.
1 1 1 1 1
Soil types Beta-glucosidase (mg pNP h g soil) Phosphate (mg pNP h g soil). Urease (lgN g soil) CO2 evolution (mgCO2/24 h)
I II I II I II I II
L Control 1.13 1.13 0.09 0.04 0.14 0.09 0.13 0.05
Grave 7.29 1.73 0.18 0.08 1.42 2.55 4.05 0.12
C Control 1.15 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.93 0.64 0.12 0.04
Grave 3.79 0.88 0.15 0.03 3.56 2.75 3.56 0.12
O Control 1.12 0.54 0.10 0.04 0.12 0.09 1.23 0.98
Grave 2.86 1.42 0.29 0.14 5.53 3.76 6.45 2.36
S Control 0.54 0.61 0.10 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.02
Grave 1.19 0.81 0.15 0.03 0.37 0.67 3.42 0.04
LSD > 0.05 0.3090 0.0396 0.100 0.0480 1.700 1.903 1.2154 0.801

LSD: Least Significant Difference.

Significant differences between treatments at each time point (P < 0.05 level) indicated by italic letters.
L-Loamy, C-Clay, O-Organic, S-Sandy.
Standard Deviations in interval I: beta-glucosidase = 141.913, phosphate = 0.042477, urease = 47.379, Co2 evolution = 11366.2.
Standard Deviations in interval II: beta-glucosidase = 0.219854, phosphate = 0.0093201, urease = 24.8961, Co2 evolution = 22.1680.

Table 6
List of insects (Species from Coleoptera order) identified in both intervals.

Samples Type of soils

Organic Clay Sandy Loamy
I II I II I II I II
Staphylinidae Aleochara Clavicornis (L. Redtenbatcher, 1849) 22 – 72 1 52 3 43 1
Atheta sp. – – – – 3 2 – –
Bisnius fimetarius (Gravenhorst, 1802) – – – – 1 1 – –
Histeridae Saprinus maculatus (Rossi, 1792) – – – 3 1 – – 5
Margarinotus brunneus (Fabricius, 1775) – – – – – 2 – 16
Elateridae Drasterius bimaculatus (Rossi, 1790) – – – – 1 – – –
Carabidae – 1 – – – – – 1
Nitidulidae – 17 – 1 – – – –
Cryptophagidae – 1 – 1 – – – –
154 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156
species were observed in O and L, respectively. In addition, few of
Carabidae and Chryptophagidae species were identified. (Table 6).
4. Discussion
4.1. Chemical and biochemical properties of soil types, and
decomposition
Wide range of factors including soil type, pH, temperature,
humidity, microbial activity plays role on decomposition. They
are also substantially affected from each other such as relationship
between temperature and microbial activity or soil properties and
bacterial population [5,33–36]. A study by Carter et al. showed that
moisture capacity of soil related soil particles had a significant ef-
fect on decomposition because of possible interactions between
matrix potential and microbial activity [37]. Additionally, Wilson
et al. indicated that structure and microbial content of soil have
influence on decomposition process [38].
Beside factors enhancing the process; some might inhibit or
decelerate decomposition. In this context, C:N ratio is of high
importance, since soil pH changes due to microbial activity de-
pends on soil carbon and nitrogen content. Soil’s nitrogen content
is balanced in conversion of nitrogen between mineralization and
immobilization, which is associated with C:N ratio. It is showed
that, if this ratio is above 20 system runs in direction of immobili-
zation; if not, mineralization occurs [39]. For this reason, C:N ratio
will decrease during decomposition due to elevation of inorganic
nitrogen [19]. In current study, the decrease of the soil pH occurred
in L and O grave soils was attributed to high decomposition rate of
tissues and release of NH4+ from the extremities. This decrease is a
result of the conversion of ammonia (NH3), liberated from amino
acids to the soil, to ammonium (NH4+) [40]. Hopkins et al. [20] con-
cluded that decrease of pH in graves soils was a result of NH4+ re-
leased from the cadavers. Similarly, Haslam et al. have showed that
a decrease of pH occurred while organic matter decayed in a soil
whatever beginning value of soil pH was [8]. In this respect, it
can be concluded that the decomposition of pig tissue was greater
in L and O compared to C and S, in current study.
As it is known, inorganic matters such as calcium, magnesium,
etc., released from cadaveric material during decomposition [10].
In this study, however, CaCO3 contents were nearly at the same le-
vel in first interval; CaCO3 level of grave soils was significantly
higher than control soil in second interval. The highest CaCO3 level
was detected in L. Thus, it was interpreted that there was a concor-
dance between decomposition and increased CaCO3.
During decomposition of cadaveric material, microorganisms
undergo three phases (initial lag, log and declining) [41]. Measure-
ment of soil enzyme levels is used as an indicator of microbial
activity [24]. Phosphomonoesterase, an enzyme examined in this
study, has an agronomical importance, since it catalyzes the hydro-
lysis of organic P (phosphorus) into inorganic P, which can be
assimilated by plants. Soil phosphatase may play a significant role
in the P nutrition of plants, because it mediates the release of inor-
ganic phosphorus from organically bound phosphorus. Contrary to
expectations, beside extensive microbial activity there was no sta-
tistically significant difference for phosphomonoesterases activity
between control and grave soils, except O.
Urease is closely related to N mineralization potential [42,43],
since it is require to break down urea to liberate the N into a usable
form for plants [44]. Furthermore, urease is defined as the enzyme
responsible for the hydrolysis of urea to ammonia (NH3), which can
be assimilated by microbes and plants. Thus, its activity is used to
observe microbial biomass in experimental studies [42]. It was pre-
viously reported that increased urease activity was related to in-
crease of urea concentration [45]. In the present study; it was
observed that the highest urease activity was determined in O,
and the least was in S.
CO2 is produced from inorganic carbon by decomposers during
decomposition and used as a principal indicator of decomposition
in terrestrial decomposition studies because of being easily detect-
able [46] and indicative of microbial activity [47–49]. The present
study revealed that a similar pattern was found between CO2 evo-
lution and urease activity, with greater values for grave soils com-
pared with the controls.
Beta-glucosidase catalyzes the hydrolysis of beta-glucosidase
bonds and provides the breakdown of complex carbohydrates,
and saccharification of cellulose, which are important constituents
of organic residues such as crop remains, animal manure [50,51].
Similar to the activity of urease and CO2 evolution, beta-glucosi-
dase activity was determined to be higher in all grave soils, in
the present study. This might be due to high organic matter con-
tent of grave soils. In accordance with this, high beta-glucosidase
activity detected in forest soils was attributed to high organic mat-
ter content, by Kızılkaya and Dengiz [52].
Many markers have been used for evaluation of decomposition
[53]. The current study revealed that there was accordance be-
tween visual parameters and mass loss of exhumed extremities.
In respect of the relationship of decomposition and soil type, ob-
tained findings showed that the extremities were much decom-
posed in L and O, and decomposition of tissue had a direct effect
on the biochemical properties, providing a nutrient source capable
of supporting a greater microbial activity.
4.2. Adipocere formation
There are many chemical and environmental factors that induce
formation of adipocere; however, chief of these is moisture that
arises from both liquid decomposition products and ground water
[54,55]. In current study, saponification –whitish waxy fat decom-
position products- was observed on the exhumed limbs in C and L
in which water was stored intensively, in both intervals. However,
that was not a classical adipocere formation inhibiting decomposi-
tion. Dissimilarly, Forbes et al. obtained different results that par-
ticular to soil types including sand and silty sand; as they were
able to accelerate adipocere formation when kept moist and in a
temperate environment. Other types of soil including clay, repre-
sentative ‘soil’ and sterilized soil, had no affect on adipocere forma-
tion in comparison [56].
4.3. Entomology
In current study, Aleochara clavicornis from Staphylinidae family
and Histeridae species were intensively observed in the first and
second interval, respectively. Furthermore, Carabidae and Chryp-
tophagidae species from Coleoptera were found; however, it is
known that they are negligible for forensic entomology [57].
Frequently Stapyhylinidae, Silphidae and partially Histeridae
are observed in the early stages of decomposition [58]. Payne have
suggested that population of Stapyhylinidae and Histeridae in-
crease with process of decay and while Silphidae species leave
the carcass by the time passing, Staphylinidae and Histeridae are
still existing. At this time, Nitidulidae species are becoming active
[59]. In our study, existence of Staphylinidae, Histeridae and Nitil-
ulidae species were consistent with the literature; however, Silphi-
dae species were not determined in both intervals. This difference
was thought to be arisen from use of non-buried pigs in Payne’s
study.
Insects inhabited in different habitats are occasionally found
with a coincidence on the decomposing area [57]. Parallel to this
statement, Carabidae and Cryptophagidae species were also identi-
fied on the pig limbs coincidentally, in this study.
 A.R. Tumer et al. / Legal Medicine 15 (2013) 149–156
Additionally, results of this study showed that Staphylinidae
species were found at the same ratio in each soil, in first interval
whereas Nitidulidae and Histeridae species were intensively iden-
tified in O and L, respectively, in second interval. In respect of this
limited data, one might conclude that different species of insects
could differently distribute depending upon type of soil.
5. Conclusions
Type of soil is one of the most important factors that have af-
fects on decomposition of any organic material in soil. The present
study showed that the changes related decomposition was more
dramatic in loamy and organic soils compared to clayey and sandy
soils. Biochemical properties of soil were determined to be more
sensitive indicators than soil’s physico-chemical parameters while
grade of decomposition is observed. Additionally, the structure of
any decomposing organic matter also affects and causes changes
in biochemical properties of soil. Therefore, in forensic sciences,
soil properties and textures should take into account in evaluation
of decomposition and estimating postmortem interval in crime
scene investigation. However, further studies need to be performed
both on real observations, on similar experiments in other climates
and on human remains.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Hacettepe University Scientific Re-
search and Development Office for financial support and Gülhane
Military Medical Academy for providing pigs. We also thank Oguz
Can Turgay, Ph.D. from Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Soil Science and Crop Nutrition, and Burcu Sabano-
glu and Senem Ozdemir from Hacettepe University Faculty of Sci-
ence, Department of Biology, Applied Biology Section and Yasßar
Celik Biyotar Co. for their helps during experimental steps.
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