UNIT 2

Q. What are the measures for relationship between

variables?
Bivariate population:

Correlation can be studied through

(a) cross tabulation

(b) Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation
(c) Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation

Cause and effect relationship can be studied through simple regression equations.

Multivariate population

Correlation can be studied through

(a) coefficient of multiple correlation

(b) coefficient of partial correlation

Cause and effect relationship can be studied through multiple regression

equations.

Q. What do you mean by Discriminative Learning

Discriminative learning refers to any classification learning process that classifies
by using a model or estimate of the probability P(y\,\vert x) without reference to
an explicit estimate of any of P(x), P(y, x), or P(x \vert \,y), where y is a class and x
is a description of an object to be classified.
Q. What is percentile, Z-score and Quartile. Elaborate with
example of each.
▪ Quartiles divide a rank-ordered data set into four equal parts.
▪ The values that divide each part are called the first, second, and third
quartiles; and they are denoted by Q1, Q2, and Q3, respectively.
▪ The 25th percentile is also known as the first quartile (Q1), the 50th
percentile as the median or second quartile (Q2), and the 75th percentile as
the third quartile (Q3).
▪ In general, percentiles and quartiles are specific types of quantiles.
▪ The relationship between quartiles and percentiles. Q1 corresponds to P25,
Q2 corresponds to P50, and Q3 corresponds to P75. Q2 is the median value
in the set.

Standard Scores (Z-Scores):

A standard score (z-score) indicates how many standard deviations an

element is from the mean. A standard score can be calculated from the
following formula.

z = (X - μ) / σ

where z is the z-score, X is the value of the element, μ is the mean of the
population, and σ is the standard deviation.
Q. Explain Bayesian Network with suitable example
Bayesian Networks are a type of Probabilistic Graphical Model that uses the
Bayesian inferences for probability computations. It represents a set of variables
and its conditional probabilities with Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). They are
primarily suited for considering an event that has occurred and predicting the
likelihood that any one of the several possible known causes is the contributing
factor.

▪ Bayesian networks satisfy Local Markov Property. It states that a node is

conditionally independent of its non-descendants, given its parents.

▪ Conditional Probability of event A is the probability that event A will occur

given that another event B has already occurred.
P (A| B) = P (A and B) / P (B)

▪ By making use of the relationships which are specified by the Bayesian

Network, we can obtain the Joint Probability Distribution (JPF) with the
conditional probabilities.

Consider 3 variables a1, a2 and a3. By definition, the probabilities of all

different possible combinations of a1, a2, and a3 are called its Joint
Probability Distribution.

P (Xi|Xi-1,…, Xn) = P(Xi |Parents(Xi ))

Q. Explain Least Square Method
The least-squares method is a crucial statistical method that is practiced to find a
regression line or a best-fit line for the given pattern. This method is described by
an equation with specific parameters.

The method of least squares actually defines the solution for the minimization of
the sum of squares of deviations or the errors in the result of each equation
Q. Explain Maximum Likelihood Estimation.
In statistics, maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is a method of estimating the
parameters of an assumed probability distribution, given same observed data.

The point in the parametric space that maximizes the functions is called MLE.

<discrete distribution, finite parameter space>

Example –

Suppose one wishes to determine just how biased an unfair coin is.

Calculate the probability of tossing a ‘head’ P

The goal then becomes to determine P

The coins have lost their labels, so which one it was unknown.

Using maximum likelihood estimation, the coin that has the largest likelihood can
be found, given the data that was observed.