High Performance Wet-Mix Shotcrete - A Practical Review

F. Papworth, C.Allen

Abstract
This paper describes recent developments and the current state of the art of High
Performance Shotcretes (HPS) and their application. The latest developments in
admixture technology, fibres, mineral additives and the dosing of accelerating
admixtures are discussed. The practical implications of the use of HPS are considered,
with reference to concrete producers, applicators, contractors, designers and clients.
Danny Dugina is a practical applicator with considerable experience in shotcrete
application and the opportunity is taken to express a number of his thoughts and
experiences

Key words : Shotcrete, Wet-mix, Admixtures, Fibres, Silica Fume, Economy.

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 2
2. MATERIALS ................................................................................................... 4
2.1. CEMENTS ................................................................................................. 4
2.2. AGGREGATES ........................................................................................... 4
2.3. SILICA FUME............................................................................................. 6
2.4. FIBRES..................................................................................................... 7
2.4.1. Steel Fibres ................................................................................... 7
2.4.2. Synthetic Fibres ........................................................................... 12
2.5. ADMIXTURES .......................................................................................... 13
2.5.1. Plasticisers & Superplasticisers ................................................... 13
2.5.2. Air Entraining Agents ................................................................... 14
2.5.3. Hydration Control Admixtures ...................................................... 14
2.5.4. Consistency Control (Slumpkiller) Systems ................................. 15
2.5.5. Shotcrete Accelerators ................................................................ 17
2.6. INTERNAL CURING ADMIXTURES ............................................................... 19
3. EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................ 20
4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTRACTORS AND SHOTCRETE
PRODUCERS ................................................................................................... 23
5. PERSONNEL ............................................................................................... 24
6. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 25
7. REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 25
 High Performance Shotcrete

1. Introduction
The utilisation of sprayed concrete, or shotcrete, is rapidly increasing on a worldwide basis.
The reasons for this are the growth in the constrution of underground structures (such as
tunnels and rock caverns), slope protection (as structures are built in difficult topographic
environments) and the need to repair decaying civil infrastructure facilities.

Shotcrete provides an economical solution to the placement of concrete in areas where the
application of in-situ concrete is either impossible or prohibitively expensive.

High Performance Wet-Mix Shotcrete may generally be considered to comprise the

following :

 Water/Binder ratio < 0.50.

 Maximum 10mm size aggregate.

 Steel fibre reinforcement (sometimes synthetic).

 Binary or ternary cement blends containing silica fume.

 The latest developments in admixture technology.

 Applied with equipment specifically designed and manufactured for the (robotic)
spraying of shotcrete and the accurate dosing of accelerating admixtures.

 Low rebound (typically < 10% overall).

 Safe working environment.

 Good QA/QC to ensure satisfactory performance of the in-place material.

The benefits of the use of wet-mix HPS are not fully understood by many parties and often
decisions are taken not to use HPS purely and simply on the costs of equipment and
materials per cubic metre of shotcrete delivered to the job site.

In order to fully appreciate the cost savings that may be achieved from the use of HPS, it is
necessary to consider the overall economics of a project, including the implications of poor
quality in-place shotcrete, particularly in underground rock support applications.

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As in the fields of High Performance Concretes (HPC), HPS is not a single product - it is a
range of shotcretes that utilise the latest technological advancements to meet particular
construction requirements. Some of these requirements are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1

Major Performance Requirements of HPS

UNDERGROUND SLOPE CIVIL
PROPERTY
STRUCTURE PROTECTION REPAIRS
Compressive/Flexural Strength   
Toughness   
Bond   
Low Shrinkage   
Chloride Resistance   
Sulphate Resistance   
Impermeability   
Good Curing   
Pumpabilty   
Thixotropic   
High Volume Production   
Robotic Spraying   
Long “Pot-Life”   
Fast Setting/Early Strength   
 Almost always required
 Requirements are project specific
 Seldom required

Performance requirements will vary from project to project. HPS for primary support in a
tunnel will require very fast setting and early strengths, however, if HPS is used later as a
final lining, the setting time and early strength criteria will be far less stringent and not even
required in certain areas such as vertical walls. HPS for civil repair works may require a
normal setting time to enable surface finishing, but repairs to marine structures in the tidal
zone might well require early setting and compressive strength to resist the next high tide.

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2. Materials

2.1. Cements

Generally speaking, there are no special requirements for the type of cement to be used in
HPS. Compliance with the national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the
shotcrete is normally sufficient.

One aspect that has to be considered carefully when selecting the supply of cement for a
project is its compatibility with any shotcrete accelerating admixtures that are to be used.
Both sodium and potassium aluminate based accelerators can exhibit variable
performances, dependent upon cement chemistry. Similarly, it is understood that the
recently developed alkali-free, non-caustic accelerators are also very sensitive to cement
chemistry (Ref 1,2).

It is essential, therefore, that should alkali-free, non-caustic accelerators be specified by a

designer or client, or selected by a contractor, on environmental, health and safety grounds,
then their compatibility with locally available cements should be verified prior to the tender
stage of a project, thus avoiding potential cost overruns and contractual claims.

The inclusion of fly-ash or blast furnace slag in shotcrete mixes is allowable and may well be
beneficial to the properties of the hardened shotcrete, such as reduced permeability,
increased resistance to chlorides and sulphates and improved overall durability. When using
blended cements, attention must be paid not only to accelerator compatibility, but to general
mix design and extended setting times (if accelerators are not to be used). Blended cements
have been used successfully in many applications (Ref 3) and high early strength blended
cement shotcretes have been produced in Canada (Ref 4).

From an applicators perspective the use of flyash, slag and blended cements or very coarse
grind cements are not desirable in non accelerated shotcrete.

2.2. Aggregates

HPS is produced with a maximum coarse aggregate sixe of 10mm. The Norwegian
Concrete Association (Ref 5) recommends that “the quantity of 8mm plus particles should
preferrably not exceed 10%.” Recommended aggregate grading limits are given in Table 2.

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Table 2
Shotcrete Aggregate Grading Limits
SIEVE SIZE (MM) MIN % MAX %
0.125 4 12
0.250 11 26
0.500 22 50
1.00 37 72
2.00 55 90
4.00 73 100
8.00 90 100
16.00 100 100

These limits are graphically represented as grading curves in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Shotcrete Aggregate Grading Curves

ISO Sieve
0.125 0.25 0.50 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0 32.0 64.0
0

10

20
Retained in % by weight

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 0.149 0.297 0.595 1.19 2.38 4.76 9.51 19.0 38.1 74.1

ASTM sieve, opening in mm

Larger maximum aggregate sizes than those recommended will significantly increase the
rebound of a shotcrete mix and consequently increase the cost of the in-place shotcrete.

Aggregates for HPS should comply with the relevant local codes or standards for concrete
aggregates.

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2.3. Silica Fume

An integral component of any HPS is condensed silica fume (CSF). The benefits that CSF
imparts to shotcrete mixes have been well documented (Refs 6,7,8,9,10).

CSF significantly increases the water demand of a shotcrete mix and necessitates the use
of a superplasticiser to obtain the required flowability of the mix. CSF will increase the
compressive strength of a shotcrete, reduce its permeability and improve the bond of the
mix to its substrate (particularly important in shotcretes for rock support and repair works).In
the plastic state, shotcretes containing CSF exhibit dramatically improved cohesion,
reduced rebound and increased build properties.

In some locations HPS is very successfully produced with the use of a good quality water
reducer/retarder and not including a superplasticiser. This is the case particularly on the
east coast of Australia.

CSF is generally used as an additive in HPS mixes, at 5 to 10% by weight of cement. The
Norwegian Concrete Association limits the maximum dosage of CSF in shotcretes to 15%
by weight of cement. In the authors’ experiences, the addition of CSF in excess of 10% is
not cost effective unless it is necessary to provide resistance to aggressive chemical attack.

CSF is normally available in three forms - undensified, densified and slurry. The undensified
material has a bulk density of around 200 kgs/m3 and as such is not practical to use in the
commercial production of concrete and shotcrete. Densified CSF has a bulk density of 500
to 600 kgs/m3 and a similar particle size to cement. It may be used with normal cement
handling equipment, with only minor modifications necessary to the plant. CSF slurry
contains approximately 40% of dry material in an aqueous solution. Small amounts of
chemicals are added to the slurry to reduce the tendency of the solids to “settle out”.

The use of CSF in large quantities at a batching plant will require the shotcrete producer to
have an additional cement silo for the storage of densified material, or install a liquids
storage tank and dispensing system if slurrified CSF is used. The producer also has to
consider that if the slurry form is used, then the storage tank will have to have an agitating
system to keep the material in suspension in the slurry. Also, because of the abrasive effect
of CSF slurry on metal components, extensive wear might occur in the dispensing system
pumps.

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The cost of transportation is another factor to consider before deciding on the form of CSF
to use. If the source of CSF is a long distance from the project site, transportation costs of
the material will be a major consideration. The cheapest method of transporting CSF over
long distances is in the densified form in bulk bags of 1.0 to 1.5 tonnes capacity. In
Australia bulk CSF is handled in twenty tonne lots in a bulk container.

For these reasons, it is recommended to use densified CSF when utilising large quantities of
material. The use of a dedicated silo is strongly recommended.

In Australia and Asia 20kg degradeable bags have been used extensively with the complete
bag being discharged unopened into the truck mixer. Generally this has been successful,
however some shotcrete operators have reported that small parts of these bags have not
dissolved completely. This matter is being reviewed by the suppliers of the silica fume.

2.4. Fibres

2.4.1. Steel Fibres

The use of steel fibre reinforced wet-mix shotcrete began in Scandinavia in the late 1970’s.
Since then, its use and specification has increased substantially.

The main reason for incorporating steel fibres in shotcrete is to impart ductility to an
otherwise brittle material. This enables shotcrete to continue to carry loads after cracking
occurs, i.e., post crack behaviour, or toughness.

Figure 2 illustrates the shotcrete failure modes in a simulated “falling block” test in a rock
support situation. It is easy to see that, in order to resist each mode of failure, some form of
reinforcement is required in the shotcrete.

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Figure 2

Shotcrete Failure Modes in Rock Support

SHEAR FAILURE DIAGONAL TENSION FAILURE

BONDING/ADHESIVE FAILURE BENDING FAILURE

Wire mesh or fibres are used to reinforce the shotcrete layers. Figure 3 shows the
load/deformation curves of wire mesh and steel fibre reinforced shotcretes (SFRS) in the
falling block test. This illustrates the superior ability of SFRS to accommodate increased
loads and deflections after initial cracking of the shotcrete.

Figure 3

Falling Block Test, Mesh vs SFRS

150

Fibre

100
Load in kN

Mesh
50

Bond Mesh Flexural

Failure Failure Failure
0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Deformation in mm

There are several types of steel fibre currently available on the market, but the most widely
used for HPS are the hooked end 30-35mm and the enlarged end 25mm fibers. Both are

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formed from high tensile steels. Fibre dosages in HPS are generally in the range of 30 to 70
kgs/m3. Before deciding to select a fibre for use in a HPS mix, it is advisable that the
contractor carries out some testing on SFRS mixes, with different fibres at different dosages,
in order to find the optimum type and dosage rate of fibre required to meet the performance
criteria of the project specification, at the most economical cost. It might well prove that the
cheapest fibre has high fibre rebound properties and therefore requires a higher dosage rate
in the mix in order to achieve the specified toughness values. In this situation, the cheapest
fibre could prove to be the most expensive to use.

Two test methods which quantify the toughness for steel fibre reinforced concretes and
shotcretes are ASTM C1018-85 (USA) and JSCE-SF4 (Japan). Both are based upon the
third point loading of a beam, with the rate deformation (or flexure) being controlled, while
the load is measured. The most widely specified of the two test methods in evaluating the
Toughness Index (I) of shotcretes is ASTM C1018-85. The test methods and interpretation
of results has been widely covered elsewhere, as has the design theory of SFRS (Refs
5,11,12). For example the toughness performance of a hooked end fibre which has a wire
tensile strength of 1,000Mpa or higher will require a much lower dosage rate per cubic
meter than an enlarged end fibre which has tensile strength eg 700 - 800Mpa.

It is generally accepted that SFRS can be designed in thinner sections than that required by
mesh reinforced shotcretes to resist the same loads. By enabling mesh reinforcement to be
replaced by steel fibres, the use of HPS in rock support applications can offer considerable
time (and consequently cost) savings to contractors in tunnel and cavern construction.
These time savings were well documented on a road tunnel project in Hongkong in the late
1980’s (Ref 13). By redesigning the various shotcrete sections for different categories of
support (Table 3) and eliminating the need to fix mesh and spray a second layer of
shotcrete, considerable time savings per round of tunnel were experienced by the contractor
(Table 4).

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Table 3

Shotcrete Sections for Various Categories of Support, Shing Mun Tunnels

Category C2 C1 B2 B1* B0* A

Q value 1 - 1.0 4-1 10 - 4 40 - 10 10 - 15 >40

Bolt c/c (m) As

1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0
Necessary

Shotcrete
thickness
(mm)

As
Necessary

200+ mesh 100+ mesh 100+ mesh 50 50

SFRS
thickness
(mm) Not Used Not Used Not Used

135 65 65

 10 over 90% of arc

RQD
* Category B0 if jn

Table 4

Time per Round of Tunnel, Mesh vs Fibres, Shing Mun Tunnels

SHOTCRETE SHOTCRETE
OPERATION
WITH MESH WITH FIBRES
Drilling 2.0 Hrs 2.0 Hrs
Charging/Blasting 1.5 Hrs 1.5 Hrs
Shotcreting 1st Layer 1.0 Hrs -
Shotcreting with Fibres - 1.5 Hrs
Mucking Out 1.5 Hrs 1.5 Hrs
Fixing Wire Mesh (50m2) 5.0 Hrs -
Shotcreting 2nd Layer 3.0 Hrs -
Total 14.0 Hrs 6.5 Hrs

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In the project, approximately 760 meters of tunnel was constructed using SFRS. Assuming
average round lengths of 3.5 meters, then total construction time savings of up to 67 days
might have been experienced by the contractor.

Although steel fibres comprise the largest single cost component of a HPS mix (between
US$50-100/m3), this cost can be more than offset by savings to be achieved in overall
construction time, the elimination of steel mesh and a reduction in shotcrete thicknesses.

For the shotcrete producer, no real difficulties are experienced in the inclusion of steel fibres
in a shotcrete mix, provided that the fibres have an adequate aspect ratio (length/diameter)
to reduce the risk of balling in the mixer. Ease of mixing is quite an important parameter to
consider when selecting a steel fibre for use. Poorly designed and dimensioned fibres can
cause excessive balling in the mixer, resulting in batches of waste shotcrete that have to be
disposed, causing unnecessary costs for the shotcrete producer.

Additional costs are incurred by the shotcrete producer when batching HPS by having to
batch another mix component, i.e., steel fibres. Several different methods of adding steel
fibres to a shotcrete mix are possible.

 After introduction of the basic materials, fibres can be added directly into the
mixer.

 Fibres can be added together with the sand and aggregates via a conveyor belt.

 Fibres can be added to the aggregates in the aggregate weigh hopper.

 Fibres may be added into a truck mixer together with the weighed and batched
materials.

 Introduction of fibres into the truck mixer after all other components have been
batched and mixed (by hand or appropriate loading conveyor).

 Using a specially designed bulk storage container, fibres can be automatically

weighed and then added to the mixer.

Steel fibres have successfully been proportioned and added to shotcrete mixes by all of the
above methods. The actual method chosen depends upon the design and loading

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configuration of the batching plant and the total volume of fibres that have to be handled and
batched during a project.

2.4.2. Synthetic Fibres

Since the 1980’s, some synthetic polymer fibres (mainly monofilament and fibrillated
polypropylene or nylon) were beginning to be used in some wet-mix shotcretes at low rates
of addition (1.0% by volume, or 0,9 kgs/m3) for the control of plastic shrinkage cracking and
to enhance the green strength of applied shotcrete. At such low rates of addition the fibres
have little or no effect upon the toughness of a shotcrete. Higher dosage rates (up to 6
kgs/m3) have been tried, with resultant increases in flexural strengths, but toughness
performances still inferior to steel fibres. Also, these high addition rates of fibrillated
poypropylene fibres created many practical problems in the field, such as difficulties in
batching, mixing, pumping and spraying. Because of this, such fibres are never considered
for use in HPS that requires a good toughness performance.

Recently, however, a new type of monofilament polyolefin fibre has been developed (Ref
14). This fibre is able to be added to shotcrete mixes at dosages of up to 2.0% by volume
(18.2 kgs/m3) and has dimensions of 25mm length and 0.38mm diameter. In conclusion, the
researchers stated the following :

“The mixture with 1.0% by volume of polyolefin fibre displayed good pumping

and shooting characteristics; some difficulty was, however, encountered in

pumping and shooting the mixture with 2.0% by volume of polyolefin fibre, as it

tended to block at the point where the reducing line from the pump was

attached to the 50mm internal diameter shotcrete hose.”

“At 1.0% by volume (9.1 kgs/m3) fibre addition rates the polyolefin fibre is

capable of producing good Toughness Performance Levels intermediate in

performance between certain lesser and better types of steel fibres added at

rates of around 0.7% by volume (55 kgs/m3).”

The economics of this new fibre, compared with steel fibres was not reported,

but further development of this material will be interesting to follow. The results

of flexural strength and flexural toughness testing to ASTM C1018 are included

in Table 5.

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Table 5

Flexural Strength & Toughness of Shotcrete Mixes

Containing Polyolefin Fibre (Ref 14)

Sample Mix 7 day ASTM C1018 toughness indicies ASTM C1018 residual strength
No descriptio flexural factors
n strength
(Mpa)
I5 I10 I20 I30 I50 R5,10 R10,20 R20,30 R30,50
A1 Plain 4.02
shotcrete
A2 4.51
A3 4.98

Avg 4.50
B1 1.0% vol. 4.23 4.1 6.1 10.2 14.1 21.6 40.0 41.0 39.0 37.5
fibre
B2 4.50 4.2 6.9 11.8 16.6 25.9 54.0 49.0 48.0 46.5
B3 4.36 4.0 6.4 10.5 14.0 20.6 48.0 41.0 35.0 33.0

Avg 4.36 4.1 6.5 10.8 14.9 22.7 48.0 43.0 41.0 39.0
C1 2.0% vol. 3.87 4.4 7.9 14.5 21.0 32.9 70.0 68.0 65.0 59.5
fibre
C2 3.70 4.3 7.3 13.0 18.6 29.5 60.0 57.0 56.0 54.5
C3 3.58 4.4 7.8 14.3 21.0 33.9 68.0 65.0 67.0 64.5

Avg 3.70 4.4 7.7 13.9 20.2 32.1 66.0 62.0 63.0 59.5

2.5. Admixtures

HPS could conceivably require the inclusion of up to six separate admixtures in an applied
shotcrete, with the resultant quality control onus placed upon the producer at the batching
plant, where up to 5 different admixtures may have to be dosed into a single batch of
shotcrete. The past few years have probably witnessed some of the most exciting
developments in admixture technology since the advent of superplasticisers in the 1960’s.
Many of these developments have taken place in the field of wet-mix shotcrete.

2.5.1. Plasticisers & Superplasticisers

Because of the very high internal surface area of HPS mixes (high cement contents, very
high fines contents, silica fume and fibres), the use of relatively large dosages of
superplasticisers is generally recommended in order to achieve the desired consistency of
the mix. However as stated previously high quality water reducer / retarders are often used
quite successfully

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Napthalene Sulphonate based superplasticisers are the most widely used products. Often a
lignosulphonate based plasticiser is also included in the mix. This enables the first 8% or so
of water reduction to be achieved at a lower cost by reducing the required dosage of
superplasticiser.

If accelerating admixtures are not to be used at the nozzle on application of the shotcrete,
care must be taken that the combination of plasticisers and superplasticisers do not cause
excessive retardation of the shotcrete.

Generally a shotcrete applicator with experience will prefer to use a longer life
superplasticiser such as the co-polymer type for ease of application and control

2.5.2. Air Entraining Agents

Sometimes there is a requirement in a project specification for air entrainment in an applied

shotcrete to withstand freeze-thaw cycling. The very process of applying shotcrete at high
velocity to a substrate causes the expulsion of entrained air. As much as half of the as
batched entrained air can be lost in the shotcrete application process and it is often
necessary to batch wet-mix shotcretes at air contents in the range of 8 to 12% if the in-place
shotcrete is to have adequate parameters of the air-void system (Ref 15).

2.5.3. Hydration Control Admixtures

A recent admixture innovation that can have an extremely beneficial impact upon the
application of shotcrete is hydration control admixtures. They are a two component
admixture system, comprising a “stabiliser”, which is introduced into the shotcrete mix at the
time of batching, and an “activator” which is introduced into the stream of shotcrete at the
nozzle.

The “stabiliser” is based upon a blend of mild acids that will coat the surface of cement
grains in a mix and completely inhibit the hydration of cement for hours, or days, depending
upon the dosage used. In this way, the “pot-life” of shotcrete mixes may be substantially
increased, ensuring that all applied shotcrete is of a fresh consistency and no quantities of
shotcrete have to be rejected because they are too old. “Stabilisers” can have a pH as low
as 1.5 and attention must be paid to the possibility of the corrosion of metal storage tanks,

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pumps and pipework when using in batching plants. It is recommended to use plastic tanks,
pipework and pumps when considering long term usage of the material in a batching plant.

The “activator”, when introduced into the shotcrete at the nozzle, breaks down the coating of
“stabiliser” and then acts on the cement in the same way that a conventional shotcrete
accelerator does, to give fast setting and early strength to the applied shotcrete. “Activators”
are based upon aluminates or modified silicates, similar to conventional accelerators. The
aluminates generally have a pH >13 and the modified silicates >11. Because of this, both
types of product have to be handled with care by shotcrete applicators.

The benefits of using a hydration control system for HPS in an underground project have
been summarised as follows (Ref 16) :

 Reduction in rebound.

 Less rebound to be carted away and dumped.

 No shotcrete deliveries have to be rejected because they are too old.

 Waste shotcrete in pumps and hoses does not have to be washed out and
disposed of when interruptions occur, nor at the end of a spraying shift.

 Less defective in-place shotcrete due to the fact that all applied shotcrete
contains cement that has not undergone any pre-hydration and has not expired
its “pot-life”.

 Longer haulage distances are possible, enabling site batching plants to be

eliminated (dependent upon other concrete requirements on the project).

 The cost of overtime and downtime in plant and personnel may be reduced by
ensuring that adequate shotcrete deliveries are always available at the
excavation face.

2.5.4. Consistency Control (Slumpkiller) Systems

In the early 1990’s a “consistency control” system (Ref 17) was developed by one of the
major admixtures manufacturers. This is a two component liquid admixture system.

The first component is a superplasticiser, based on a new copolymer combined with a small
quantity of synthetic pumping aid, that is added to the shotcrete at the time of batching. The

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benefits of this type of superplasticiser are that it provides good slump retention and the
inclusion of the pumping aid material enables marginal sands, deficient in “fine fines”, to be
used in shotcrete mixes.

The second component, the “slumpkiller”, is introduced into the shotcrete at the nozzle, as
with conventional accelerators. This material is based upon modified sodium silicates
combined with a small amount of another chemical that, after coming into contact with the
pumping aid in the

superplasticiser, creates very long chain polymers in the shotcrete, causing an immediate
loss of workability in the shotcrete within a few seconds of leaving the nozzle and hitting the
sustrate.

Various combinations are available within the “consistency control” system, to provide quick
setting acceleration for thick layers and high early strength or to utilise “slumpkilling” alone
(i.e., without acceleration) to enable surface finishing, as may be required in repair works.

The major benefits of the “consistency control” systems appear to be a reduction in

shotcrete rebound and a significant reduction in steel fibre rebound (resulting in improved
toughness). These improvements were experienced on a tunnel project in Norway and are
illustrated in Table 6

From knowledge and a practical aspect it is important for people to understand that the
slump killer system is not an accelerator as it is sometimes mistaken for.

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Table 6

Consistency Control System at the Hvassum Road Tunnel, Norway (Ref 1)

OLD MIX DESIGN CONSISTENCY
DESCRIPTION
CONTROL

Portland cement 470 kgs 470 kgs

CSF, Densified 8% 8%

Aggregate 0 to 8 mm 1670 kgs 1670 kgs

Superplasticiser (BNS) 5 kgs -
Cons. Cont. Superplasticiser - 8 kgs
Plasticiser (Lignosulphonate) 3.5 kgs -
Steel Fibres Dramix 40/.50 50 kgs 50 kgs
w/(c+s) 0.40 0.41
Slump 12 to 16 cm 20 to 24 cm
Accelerator 5% -
Activator (Slumpkiller) - 4%
Rebound, Total 5 to 6% 4 to 5%
Fibre Rebound 20 to 25% 10 to 12%
Toughness, I(30) Index 13 to 20 all > 25
Open Time Shotcrete Mix 1 hour > 2 hours

2.5.5. Shotcrete Accelerators

Several generic types of shotcrete accelerators are available on the worldwide markets,
ranging from basic sodium silicates to the recently developed alkali-free, non caustic
products.

2.5.5.1. Silicates

The use of sodium silicates as shotcrete accelerators is well established. Although cheap,
the high dosage rates (often > 20%) required to obtain satisfactory build and early stiffening
are detrimental to the ultimate strength of shotcrete. They should not be considered for use
in HPS.

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Modified sodium silicates have been successfully used at lower dosage rates (4 to 6%) than
normal silicates in shotcretes, especially in Scandinavia. They give higher final strengths
and have been used in HPS’s.

Silicates do not chemically react with cement to acclelerate strength development. Their
action in shotcrete is a “gelling”, or “gluing”, effect that imparts an early stiffening to the in-
place shotcrete. As such, these type of accelerators are not sensitive to cement chemistry
and can be used with all types of cement. Silicates, however, do have a high pH value and
can cause health and environmental problems when using them.

2.5.5.2. Aluminates

Two types of aluminate based accelerators are used in shotcretes, sodium and potassium.
Aluminates react chemically in the cement hydration process to give fast setting and early
strength development, but also reduce the ultimate strength of the shotcrete. Typical
dosage rates are 4 to 8%, by weight of cement. Higher dosage rates are sometimes used
for very fast setting when spraying shotcrete over percolating water in rock support
applications.

Aluminates are sensitive to cement chemistry. Potassium aluminates are less sensitive
than sodium and may be used with a wider range of cements. Aluminates have a pH in
excess of 12.5 and are therefore very aggressive materials that create health and safety
problems when used in the spraying of shotcrete. Workers involved with the handling and
spraying of aluminates should always wear protective clothing, including gloves, mask and
goggles.

2.5.5.3. Calcium Sulphoaluminate Powders

Calcium Sulphoaluminate (CSA) powders are a cement mineral compound. They impart
rapid setting and high early strengths to shotcretes. They have a low alkali content, but will
cause irritation when in contact with body fluids, such as sweat or eye fluid, and people
handling the material have to take adequate safety measures.

CSA powders are used extensively in shotcretes in Japan and have recently been
introduced into Europe. Typical dosage rates are 3 to 6% by weight of cement. The
introduction of CSA powders at the nozzle into wet-mix shotcrete is achieved by dosing from

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a pressure vessel and conveyed along hoses by air into the nozzle. To date, references on
the use of CSA accelerators in HPS are limited.

2.5.5.4. Alkali-free, Non Caustic Accelerators

Alkali-free, non caustic (AF) accelerators have recently been introduced by admixtures
manufacturers. This has been necessitated by the health, safety and environmental
concerns associated with the use of traditional silicate and aluminate based shotcrete
accelerators. AF accelerators are available in both powder and liquid form, with the latter
being most suitable for use in wet-mix HPS. Liquid AF accelerators have a pH of 3 to 5.5, an
alkali content of < 3% and are dosed into shotcretes at rates of between 3 and 10%, by
weight of binder. It has been reported (Ref 1), that shotcrete containing liquid AF
accelerators can achieve compressive strengths of 15 to 25 Mpa at 24 hours, with only a
marginal loss of strength at 28 days, compared to the same, unaccelerated shotcrete.

It would appear, however, that there is still some way to go in the development of this
technology, as users are advised of the following :

 Check the compatibility of the cement.

 The W/C ratio should be kept below 0.5, preferably below 0.45.

 The fresh concrete slump test should be below 20 cm or less than 42 cm spread.

 If a hydration control admixture is being used, check the practical dosage range.

 Stir the stored containers before use and clean the dosage pump once per day.

 With accelerator pH on the acid side, check the corrosion protection of the dosing
equipment.

The above would indicate that AF liquid accelerators are sensitive to cement chemistry,
water contents and consistency of the shotcrete mix. They do, however provide the best
potential solution to the production of a safe, environmentally friendly HPS for rock support.

2.6. Internal Curing Admixtures

Another recent development in shotcrete technology has been the introduction of internal
curing admixtures. All concretes and shotcretes must be properly cured. In underground

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rock support and in slope protection works, traditional wet curing is difficult, or even
impossible, to do correctly.

Often, the best that is achieved in an underground project is that a layer of wax based
curing membrane is sprayed onto the surface of the shotcrete. Other than that, generally
speaking, the adequate curing of shotcrete is ignored.

Underground excavations provide the worst possible curing conditions for shotcrete for the
following reasons :

 Thin layers of shotcrete dry out quickly.

 Constant circulation of dry air from ventilation ducts.

 Shotcrete is often accelerated, creating high temperatures of hydration.

It has been reported (Ref 18) that shotcrete containing an internal curing admixture exhibits
improved compressive and bond strengths and increased densities.

3. Equipment
The selection of suitable wet-mix shotcrete equipment for the application of HPS in a project
is of utmost importance. Shotcrete pumps must be of adequate capacity for the anticipated
hourly production volumes, spraying robots of the correct dimensions and reach, and
accelerator dosage pumps of adequate capacity to accurately dispense the correct dosages
of accelerator.

Wet-mix shotcrete pumps usually operate on the double piston principle. The pump
conveys the shotcrete to the nozzle where compressed air is added to accelerate the
velocity of the shotcrete to enable spraying of the material. Of vital concern in the selection
of a shotcrete pump is the amount of pulsation when pumping. Pulsation occurs in piston
pumps as the flow of material switches from one piston to the other. At this point of
changeover, little or no shotcrete is being delivered to the nozzle. The length of time of this
pulsation period depends upon the make and size of the pump and can last for a fraction of
a second in a wet-mix shotcrete pump to 1 to 2 seconds in a large concrete pump operating
at low outputs. Recently introduced wet-mix shotcrete pumps have utilised computer
technology to virtually eliminate pulsation in the flow of material to the nozzle. The
incorporation of a “pulsation dampener” into the spraying hose, a few metres before the

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nozzle, allows a quantity of air and the necessary accelerators or activators to be introduced
into the stream of shotcrete at this point, giving a better distribution of the admixture in the
shotcrete prior to its final departure from the nozzle.

Accelerator or activator dosage pumps should be able to handle corrosive liquids and easy
to adjust the dosage rate of admixture. For the spraying of HPS, these pumps should be
integrated with the shotcrete pump so that as the volume of shotcrete being sprayed
increases or decreases, then the output of the dosage pump is automatically adjusted to
maintain the correct level of dosage of the admixture.

Even if the accelerator dosing pump is integrated with the output of the shotcrete pump, if
the pump imparts large pulsations to the shotcrete stream, then variations in the actual
dosage of accelerator/activator will occur and the in-place shotcrete will be overdosed in
some areas and probably of inferior quality to the bulk of the applied shotcrete. This
phenomenon is graphically illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4
Diagrammatic Effect of Pulsation on Accelerator Dosage
Pulsation

During periods of
Designed
pulsation accelerator
accelerator
dosage is dramatically
dosage
increased
Volume

Flow of shotcrete
to the nozzle

Time

If high volume (up to 15 m3/hour) robotic spraying of HPS is required in an underground or

slope protection project, then the spraying mobile selected should have sufficient reach,
manoeuvreability and output capacity for the job in hand. Ideally, the shotcrete pump,

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accelerator dosing systems and storage tanks and air compressor should be incorporated
into the one unit.

Finally, the correct diameter nozzles and hoses should be selected. The Norwegian
Concrete Association’s recommendations for these and the compressed air requirement are
given in Table 7.

Table 7
Recommended Line & Nozzle Dimensions and Compressed Air
Requirements (Ref 5)

SHOTCRETE LINE & NOZZLE COMPRESSED AIR

PRODUCTION RATE
DIAMETER REQUIREMENT
M3/HR
mm M3/Min
1 25 3
2 32 4
4 40 8
6 50 12
9 65 18
15 80 24
Figure 5
HPS Spraying Configuration

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4. Practical Considerations for Contractors and Shotcrete Producers

The application and production of HPS in a project requires a great deal of forethought and
planning by both the shotcrete applicator and the producer. This might well prove to be the
same party on a large site batched project.

Tables 8 & 9 illustrate some of the considerations and actions that have to be taken into
account by these parties prior to the successful large scale production of HPS. Apart from
these, contractors also have to evaluate less tangible items such as the service, support and
reliability of materials and equipment suppliers.

Table 8

Materials Usage and Batching Plant Considerations

MATERIAL ACTIONS / CONSIDERATIONS
 Laboratory and field trials to determine compatibility with proposed
CEMENT accelerator/activator.
 If not compatible, evaluate other sources of cement and/or
accelerators and activators.
 Are suitably graded materials available locally?

AGGREGATES
If not, evaluate alternative aggregate sources and/or modify
proposed mix designs.
 Identify optimum form, supply source and dosing logistics.

SILICA FUME
Slurry - requires agitated storage tank and specialised dispensing
system.
 Densified - requires additional silo capacity, minor plant
modifications and delivery logistics.
 Field trials to obtain optimum plasticiser and/or superplasticiser
ADMIXTURES - dosage levels.
 Will additional admixtures be required?
- Hydration control
- Internal curing
- Air entrainment
If yes, field trials to determine admixtures compatibility and optimum
dosage levels.
 Are there sufficient storage tanks and dispensing systems at the
batching plant?
 Are there adequate interfaces with the batch computer for recording
the necessary number of admixtures?
 Is the batching software designed to incorporate several admixtures
in a mix?
 Field trials and testing to evaluate optimum type and dosage of
STEEL FIBRES fibres to meet the shotcrete performance criteria.
 Evaluation of optimum method and sequence of addition of fibres to
the mix. Large quantities of fibre may require bulk handling and
weighing systems.
 Field trials to determine optimum accelerator/activator type and
ACCELERATOR/ dosage to meet the shotcrete performance criteria.

ACTIVATOR
Compatibilty with cement.
 Health, safety and environmental requirements.

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Table 9
Equipment Considerations

EQUIPMENT ACTIONS / CONSIDERATIONS

 Negligable pulsation.

SHOTCRETE PUMP
Output capacity suitable for job requirements (neither under
capacity nor excessively over capacity).
 Adequate size, reach, spraying configuration and manoeuvreability
ROBOTIC for the job in hand.

SPRAYING MOBILE
Integral shotcrete pump, air compressor, accelerator dosing pump
and storage tank.
 Remote control of spraying by operator at a safe working distance.
 Sufficient capacity for quantities of accelerator to be dosed.

ACCELERATOR
DISPENSER SYSTEM Adequate corrosion resistance to aggressive chemicals.
 Integrated with shotcrete pump for automatic adjustment of
dosage volumes with increases/decreases in shotcrete output.
NOZZLES AND HOSES  Suitable sizes for the volumes of shotcrete to be sprayed and
adequate provision and configuration for the introduction of
accelerators.

5. Personnel
In any construction activity, the success of an operation is very dependent upon the
experience, expertise and commitment of the personnel involved. This is even more so in
the production and application of wet-mix HPS.

Nozzlemen should not only be experienced in the spraying of shotcrete, but should also
have a basic knowledge of concrete technology. In recent years in Europe, there have been
several calls for the licensing of skilled nozzlemen, who would have to pass both practical
and theoretical tests.

In addition to this, the site personnel of both the client and the contractor should contain at
least one member of staff who is a competent concrete technologist, is familiar with the
latest developments in concrete and shotcrete technologies and is conversant with the
relevant testing and QA/QC procedures associated with the materials. If it is not practical or
feasible for these parties to utilise the full-time services of such a technologist, then several
concrete consultancies throughout the world are able to supply these services on a part-
time, or temporary full-time basis.

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6. Conclusions
The design, production and application of wet-mix HPS mixes is a complex operation that is
highly dependent upon the materials, equipment and personnel used.

HPS is at the leading edge of concrete technology and is probably the most technically
demanding area in which concrete engineers can find themselves today.

Overall economy is the result of using HPS. Arguments against the use of such a perceived
“high cost” material are easily overcome when total project time and cost savings are
included in its evaluation. Cost benefits resulting from the use of HPS are available to client
and contractor alike.

The ultimate success of HPS may be represented in one simple equation :

SUCCESSFUL HPS = MATERIALS + EQUIPMENT + PERSONNEL

7. References
1. GARSHOL, K.F., “New Admixtures for High Performance Shotcrete”, Proceedings
ACI/SCA Conference on Sprayed Concrete, Edinburgh, 1996.

2. MAI, D., “Advanced Experiences with High Performance Alkali-free,Non Toxic Powder
Accelerator for all Shotcrete Systems”, Proceedings, ACI/SCA Conference on
Sprayed Concrete, Edinburgh, 1996.

3. MORGAN, D.R., “Use of Supplementary Cementing Materials in Shotcrete”,

Proceedings, International Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash, Slag, Silica Fume
and other Siliceous Materials in Concrete, Concrete Institute of Australia,
Sydney, 1988.

4. MORGAN, D.R., “High Early Strength Blended Cement Wet-Mix Shotcrete”, American
Concrete Institute, Compilation No. 18.

5. NORWEGIAN CONCRETE ASSOCIATION, Publication No. 7, “Sprayed Concrete for

Rock Support”.

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6. MORGAN, D.R., WOLSIEFER, J., “Wet-Mix Silica Fume Shotcrete : Effect of Silica
Fume Form”, Proceedings, Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete, 4th International Conference, Turkey, 1992.

7. PAPWORTH, F., “Shotcrete and Gunite for Repair”, Scancem Materials, publication
date unknown.

8. BURGE, T.A., “Fibre Reinforced High Strength Shotcrete with Condensed Silica
Fume”, Proceedings, Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete, 2nd International Conference, Spain, 1986.

9. CONCRETE SOCIETY, “Microsilica in Concrete”, Technical Report No. 41, 1993.

10. FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DE LA PRECONTRAINTE (FIP), “Condensed

Silica Fume in Concrete. State of the Art Report”, 1988.

11. VANDERWALLE, M., “ Dramix - Tunnelling the World”, N.V. Bekaert S.A., 1992.

12. PAPWORTH, F., RATCLIFFE, R., KUITENBROUWER, L., “Design and Construction
of Tunnel Linings Using Steel Fibres, Silica Fume Concrete and Shotcrete”,
Scancem Materials, publication date unknown.

13. BERGFORS, A., COATES, R., OSTFJORD,S., “SFRS in Shing Mun Tunnels
Hongkong - Specifying for Innovation”.

14. MORGAN, D.R., RICH, L.D., “Polyolefin Fibre Reinforced Wet-Mix Shotcrete”,
Proceedings, ACI/SCA Conference on Sprayed Concrete, Edinburgh, 1996.

15. MORGAN, D.R., “Freeze-Thaw Durability of Shotcrete”, American Concrete Institute,

Compilation No. 18.

16. ALLEN, C., “Controlled Hydration Shotcrete Mixes for Infrastructure Projects”,
Proceedings, Concrete Institute of Australia Conference, Melbourne, Australia,
1993.

17. MELBYE, T.A., “New Advanced Shotcrete Admixtures”, Proceedings, Sprayed

Concrete Conference, Fagernes, Norway, 1993.

18. MBT EUROPE, “Shotcrete for Rock Support”.

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