explain why the long lifetime of the upper laser level is important for producing pulse of high

energy?

Ans:

The lifetime of the upper laser level is an important factor in determining the energy
output of a laser pulse. In a laser, energy is stored in the excited states of atoms or
molecules before it is released in the form of photons in the process of stimulated
emission. The upper laser level is the excited state that is responsible for the emission of
the laser beam.

When a laser pulse is generated, it requires a large population inversion, which is the
condition where the number of atoms or molecules in the upper laser level is greater
than that in the lower level. This population inversion is achieved by pumping energy
into the system to excite the atoms or molecules to the upper laser level.

The longer the lifetime of the upper laser level, the more time the atoms or molecules
spend in the excited state, and the greater the chance that stimulated emission will
occur. This means that a higher energy output can be achieved with a longer upper laser
level lifetime.

A high-energy laser pulse requires a large number of photons, which can be generated
by a large number of stimulated emissions from the upper laser level. If the lifetime of
the upper laser level is short, the excited atoms or molecules will quickly decay to the
lower energy level before they have a chance to emit photons through stimulated
emission. This reduces the number of photons emitted and thus decreases the energy
output of the laser pulse.

Therefore, a long lifetime of the upper laser level is important for producing a high-
energy laser pulse by allowing more stimulated emissions and thus generating a larger
number of photons.

why we use windows at the brewster angle in gas laser?

Ans:

The Brewster angle is the angle of incidence at which light reflecting off a surface
becomes completely polarized, with the reflected light's electric field vector
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. In gas lasers, windows are used at the Brewster
angle to minimize the losses due to reflections.
 When light travels from one medium to another, a portion of the incident light is
reflected and a portion is transmitted. The amount of light reflected and transmitted
depends on the refractive indices of the two media and the angle of incidence of the
light. When the angle of incidence is equal to the Brewster angle, the reflected light
becomes completely polarized, with the electric field vector perpendicular to the plane
of incidence.

In gas lasers, it is important to minimize the amount of reflected light because it can
interfere with the laser beam and reduce the laser's efficiency. By using a window at the
Brewster angle, the amount of reflected light can be minimized because the reflected
light is polarized and does not interfere with the laser beam. This results in a more
efficient laser with less interference and better beam quality.

which of resonator type is unstable resonator?

Ans:

An unstable resonator is a type of resonator that has a non-concentric cavity mirror

alignment, which causes the beam to diverge rapidly. This type of resonator is often
used in high-power lasers, where the goal is to generate a large output beam with
minimal losses.

There are several different resonator types, and not all of them are unstable. Some of
the most common resonator types include:

1. Fabry-Perot resonator - a type of resonator that consists of two parallel mirrors that
reflect the light back and forth between them.
2. Hemispherical resonator - a type of resonator that uses a curved mirror to reflect the
light back and forth.
3. Ring resonator - a type of resonator that uses a ring-shaped cavity to trap the light.
4. Folded resonator - a type of resonator that uses multiple mirrors to fold the light path
and increase the cavity length.

Out of these, the unstable resonator is a type of resonator that has a non-concentric
cavity mirror alignment, causing the beam to diverge rapidly. The unstable resonator is
often used in high-power lasers because it allows for a large output beam with minimal
losses.

what are essential laser components?

There are several essential components required to create a laser beam:

1. Gain Medium: This is the material that provides the amplification of light. It can be a
solid, liquid, or gas, and the specific material used depends on the wavelength of the
desired laser beam.
2. Pump Source: The gain medium needs to be excited with energy in order to create a
population inversion, which is necessary for laser action. The pump source, such as a
flash lamp or diode, provides this energy.
3. Optical Resonator: The optical resonator consists of two mirrors, one fully reflecting and
one partially reflecting. These mirrors are positioned facing each other, with the gain
medium in between. They allow light to bounce back and forth through the gain
medium, building up the intensity of the laser beam.
4. Laser Cavity: The laser cavity is the physical space where the laser beam is generated. It
contains the gain medium, the pump source, and the optical resonator.
5. Cooling System: The laser beam generates heat, which can damage the gain medium
and other components. A cooling system, such as a water-cooled heat exchanger, is
necessary to keep the temperature of the laser components under control.
6. Beam Delivery System: Once the laser beam is generated, it needs to be delivered to its
target. This is done using various optical components, such as lenses, mirrors, and fiber
optic cables.

Overall, these components work together to create a powerful, coherent laser beam that
can be used in a variety of applications.

calculate the spectral broadening due to Doppler effect in co2 laser wavelength 10.6 micro
meter .assuming that the temperature of pumping discharge is 400 kelvin?

Ans:

The spectral broadening due to Doppler effect in a CO2 laser can be calculated using
the following formula:

Δλ = λ0 * (v / c)

where: Δλ is the spectral broadening λ0 is the original wavelength (10.6 micrometer in

this case) v is the velocity of the gas particles c is the speed of light

To calculate the velocity of the gas particles, we can use the following formula from
kinetic theory of gases:

v = √(3kT/m)
where: k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10^-23 J/K) T is the temperature in Kelvin
(400 K in this case) m is the mass of a CO2 molecule (44 atomic mass units)

Plugging in the values, we get:

v = √(3 * 1.38 x 10^-23 * 400 / (44 * 1.66 x 10^-27)) = 390.9 m/s

Substituting this value into the Doppler formula, we get:

Δλ = 10.6 * 10^-6 * (390.9 / 3 x 10^8) = 1.38 x 10^-9 meters = 1.38 nanometers

Therefore, the spectral broadening due to Doppler effect in a CO2 laser with a
wavelength of 10.6 micrometer and a pumping discharge temperature of 400 Kelvin is
approximately 1.38 nanometers.

how population inversion is achieved in Nd: YAG laser?

Ans:

Population inversion in Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet) laser is

achieved by pumping the laser medium with a high-intensity flashlamp, which excites a
large number of neodymium ions from their ground state to an excited state. The
excited ions can then spontaneously emit photons, which can stimulate other excited
ions to emit more photons, creating a chain reaction that leads to the emission of a
large number of coherent photons in a specific direction.

In order to achieve a population inversion, the pumping rate must be higher than the
decay rate from the excited state to the ground state. This ensures that a significant
number of ions remain in the excited state long enough to undergo stimulated emission
and generate a laser beam.

The neodymium ions in Nd:YAG crystal are optically pumped by a high-intensity

flashlamp that provides a short, intense burst of light. This energy is absorbed by the
neodymium ions, exciting them to higher energy levels. The excited ions then undergo a
series of non-radiative and radiative transitions, eventually returning to the ground
state.

However, if the pumping rate is high enough, a significant number of ions will remain in
the excited state long enough to undergo stimulated emission and generate a coherent
laser beam. This is because the stimulated emission process occurs much faster than the
 spontaneous emission process, and so a large number of photons can be generated in a
short amount of time.

Overall, the key to achieving population inversion in Nd:YAG laser is to pump the laser
medium with enough energy to create a large number of excited neodymium ions and
maintain the pumping rate higher than the decay rate from the excited state to the
ground state.

what is broadening and its types?

Ans:

Broadening is a phenomenon that occurs when a spectral line, which represents the
radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule, becomes wider and less well-
defined due to various physical processes that affect the emitting or absorbing species.

There are several types of broadening, including:

1. Doppler broadening: This occurs due to the random motion of atoms or molecules that
emit or absorb radiation. It results in a broadening of the spectral lines due to the
distribution of velocities of the atoms or molecules.
2. Pressure broadening: This is caused by collisions between the emitting or absorbing
species and other particles, such as atoms or molecules in the surrounding gas. These
collisions can alter the energy levels of the emitting or absorbing species, leading to a
broadening of the spectral lines.
3. Stark broadening: This occurs due to the presence of an electric field, which can cause a
splitting of energy levels in the emitting or absorbing species, leading to a broadening
of the spectral lines.
4. Natural broadening: This is caused by the finite lifetime of excited states in the emitting
or absorbing species, which leads to a broadening of the spectral lines due to the
uncertainty principle.
5. Instrumental broadening: This is caused by the limitations of the measuring instrument,
such as its spectral resolution or the width of its slit, and can lead to a broadening of the
spectral lines that is not due to any physical process in the emitting or absorbing
species.
what is collisional broadening in laser physics?

Ans:

In laser physics, collisional broadening refers to the broadening of spectral lines in a

laser beam caused by collisions between the atoms or molecules in the laser medium.
The spectral lines of a laser beam are typically very narrow, corresponding to a very
specific wavelength or frequency of light. However, in a real-world laser, the atoms or
molecules in the laser medium can collide with each other, causing small shifts in their
energy levels and, consequently, small shifts in the frequencies of the light emitted by
the laser.

These small shifts in frequency can cause the spectral lines of the laser beam to
broaden, resulting in a slightly wider distribution of frequencies. This broadening can
limit the spectral resolution of the laser and affect its overall performance.

Collisional broadening can be reduced by using a laser medium with low atomic or
molecular density or by cooling the laser medium to reduce the number of collisions.
Alternatively, techniques such as Doppler broadening or pressure broadening can be
used to intentionally broaden the spectral lines of a laser for specific applications.

write Lorentzian and Guassian line shape function?

Ans:

The Lorentzian and Gaussian functions are both common mathematical functions used
to describe the shape of spectral lines, such as those found in spectroscopy or
chromatography.

The Lorentzian function, also known as the Cauchy distribution, is defined as:

�(�)=1���2+(�−�0)2f(x)=π1γ2+(x−x0)2γ

where $x_0$ is the center of the peak and $\gamma$ is the width parameter. This
function has long tails that extend to infinity, and it is commonly used to describe
resonances and spectral lines in physics.

The Gaussian function, also known as the normal distribution, is defined as:

�(�)=12���−(�−�0)22�2f(x)=2πσ1e−2σ2(x−x0)2

where $x_0$ is the center of the peak and $\sigma$ is the standard deviation. This
function is bell-shaped and symmetric, and it is commonly used to describe the
distribution of data in many fields, including statistics and signal processing.
 Both functions are normalized, meaning that the area under the curve is equal to one.
They differ in their shape and properties, with the Lorentzian function having long tails
and the Gaussian function having a sharper peak.

what is giant technique or Q-switching ?discuss its types in detail?

Ans:

"Giant Pulse Technique" (GPT) and "Q-Switching" are related techniques used in laser
technology to generate very short pulses of high-energy light. These techniques are
used in a wide range of applications, including laser surgery, material processing, and
scientific research.

Giant Pulse Technique:

In giant pulse technique, the laser produces very short and high-energy pulses by using
a large amount of energy stored in a capacitor bank. The energy stored in the capacitor
bank is discharged into the laser cavity, which results in a high-power laser pulse. The
duration of this pulse is typically in the range of nanoseconds to microseconds, and the
energy of the pulse is several orders of magnitude higher than that of a continuous
wave laser.

Q-Switching:

Q-switching is another technique used to generate high-intensity laser pulses. Unlike

giant pulse technique, it is a more versatile method and can be used to generate pulses
of various durations. In Q-switching, the laser cavity is modified to include a Q-switching
element such as a saturable absorber or an electro-optic modulator. The Q-switching
element selectively blocks the passage of photons through the cavity, which allows
energy to build up in the cavity. Once the energy reaches a critical level, the Q-switching
element is rapidly switched, allowing the energy to be released as a high-intensity pulse.

Types of Q-switching:

1. Passive Q-switching: In passive Q-switching, a passive element such as a saturable

absorber is used as the Q-switching element. The saturable absorber is a material that
has the property of absorbing more light at low intensities than at high intensities.
When the light intensity reaches a critical level, the saturable absorber rapidly becomes
transparent, allowing the energy to be released as a high-intensity pulse.
2. Active Q-switching: In active Q-switching, an electro-optic modulator is used as the Q-
switching element. The electro-optic modulator changes the refractive index of the
material in response to an applied electric field. This change in refractive index allows
the modulator to selectively block the passage of photons through the cavity. When the
energy in the cavity reaches a critical level, the modulator is rapidly switched, allowing
the energy to be released as a high-intensity pulse.

In summary, the giant pulse technique and Q-switching are powerful methods for
generating high-intensity laser pulses, and both techniques have their unique
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of technique depends on the specific
application and the desired pulse characteristics.

what is the basic difference b/w LASER and MASER?

Ans:

LASER stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation," while

MASER stands for "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation."

The main difference between LASER and MASER is the type of radiation they use.
LASERs use visible or near-visible light, while MASERs use microwave radiation. The
processes used to amplify the radiation in both devices are similar, based on the
stimulated emission of radiation.

MASERs were actually invented before LASERs and are less commonly used than LASERs
today. They have been used primarily in scientific and industrial applications, such as in
atomic clocks and as amplifiers in radio telescopes. LASERs, on the other hand, have a
wide range of applications, from telecommunications to surgery to entertainment.

what is role of optical resonant cavity in laser?

Ans:

An optical resonant cavity plays a crucial role in the operation of a laser. It consists of
two highly reflective mirrors placed parallel to each other, which create a closed optical
path for light to travel back and forth between them.

When a gain medium (such as a crystal or gas) is placed within this cavity, and energy is
applied to it, the gain medium will emit photons, some of which will travel back and
forth between the mirrors, building up in intensity with each pass. This process is called
stimulated emission, and it leads to the amplification of the light within the cavity.

The mirrors of the cavity are designed to reflect only certain wavelengths of light,
creating a standing wave pattern within the cavity. This standing wave pattern
determines which wavelengths of light are emitted by the laser, and it gives the laser its
characteristic narrow spectral linewidth and high coherence.

Overall, the optical resonant cavity is essential for creating the conditions necessary for
stimulated emission to occur and for producing the coherent, monochromatic output of
a laser.

what is difference b/w pressure broadening and doppler broadening?

Ans:

Pressure broadening and Doppler broadening are two different mechanisms that can
cause spectral lines to broaden.

Doppler broadening is caused by the motion of atoms or molecules in a gas. The

thermal motion of the atoms and molecules causes them to move towards and away
from the observer at different speeds, which leads to a broadening of spectral lines. This
is known as Doppler broadening, and it is proportional to the temperature of the gas.
Doppler broadening causes a shift in the peak position of the spectral line.

Pressure broadening, on the other hand, is caused by collisions between atoms or

molecules in a gas. When a fast-moving atom collides with a slower-moving atom, it can
transfer some of its kinetic energy to the slower atom, causing it to emit a photon and
broaden the spectral line. This is known as pressure broadening, and it is proportional to
the pressure of the gas. Pressure broadening causes a broadening of the entire spectral
line, without any shift in the peak position.

In summary, Doppler broadening is caused by the motion of atoms or molecules, while

pressure broadening is caused by collisions between atoms or molecules. Doppler
broadening causes a shift in the peak position of the spectral line, while pressure
broadening causes a broadening of the entire spectral line.