Carbon Capture

Usage and
Storage
Group 3 Team Member:
Jason Hon, Clifford Kung, Vitus Lui, Harold Hung, Roy Lau
 Carbon Cycle

Inputs Outputs
➢ Photosynthesis ➢ Burning fossil fuels
➢ Precipitation (Combustion)
➢ Phytoplankton in ocean ➢ Changing land use
➢ Burial and Compaction ➢ using limestone to make
concrete
➢ Soil erosion
➢ Volcanic activity
➢ Respiration, excretion,
and decomposition of
animal bodies

Storage: Rocks and Sediments (about 65,500 billion metric ton) > Oceans > atmosphere > living organisms
Sources:
https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/climate/carbon-cycle
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/CarbonCycle
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 Carbon Cycle
❖Slow Carbon Cycle
The slow carbon cycle through a series of chemical reactions and tectonic
activity, carbon takes between 100-200 million years to move between rocks, soil,
ocean, and atmosphere in the slow carbon cycle.
On average, 1013 to 1014 grams (10–100 million metric tons) of carbon move
through the slow carbon cycle every year.
❖Fast Carbon Cycle
The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on
Earth, or the biosphere within years only. Between 1015 and 1017 grams (1,000 to
100,000 million metric tons) of carbon move through the fast carbon cycle every
year. E.g., human emissions. It only takes days, months, or years for carbon to
cycle through this process.

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 Carbon Cycle - Storage

Source: https://www.alevelgeography.com/carbon-cycle/

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 Carbon Cycle and Global Warming
❖Carbon cycle is the exchange through which carbon flows between
each of those sinks. Any change in the cycle that lets carbon flows out of
one sink creates more carbon in the other sinks.
❖The carbon cycle seems to keep the balance that avoids carbon from
entering the atmosphere or from being stored in rocks. This balance
helps keep the planet’s temperature stable.
❖Human activities disturb the natural carbon cycle significantly. By
burning coal, oil, and natural gas, we quicken the carbon cycle process,
releasing large amounts of carbon into the air each year.
❖More CO2 concentrations and warming temperatures are causing
changes in the natural carbon cycle. Warmer ocean waters can hold
less carbon, it will leave more in the atmosphere.

Source: https://carboncredits.com/the-carbon-cycle/

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 The Development of CCUS
❖ CCUS technologies capture CO2 emissions at source or directly from the air. CO2 emissions are then transported away and
stored deep underground or turned into useful products
❖ There are around 35 commercial facilities applying CCUS to industrial processes, fuel transformation and power generation, with a
total annual capture capacity of almost 45 Mt/year. Project developers have announced ambitions for over 200 new capture
facilities to be operating by 2030, capturing over 220 Mt/year. Nevertheless, even at such level, CCUS deployment would remain
substantially below what is required in the Net Zero Scenario (1,286 Mt/year).
❖ The United States and Canada, which together account for 65% of annual capture capacity, have continued their strong support for
CCUS by introducing new targeted policies to drive deployment over the coming years. In other regions, such as Europe and Asia,
funding programs and new frameworks contribute to CCUS support.

Sources: IEA (2022), Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage-2, License: CC BY 4.0

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 The Development of Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS)
Capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) is the first step in carbon capture and storage (CCS), a suite of
technologies that prevents large quantities of CO2 from being released into the atmosphere.

There are THREE basic types of CO2 capture:

Pre-Combustion Oxy-Fuel Combustion Post-Combustion

Sources:
https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1418
https://climatescience.org/advanced-oxy-fuel-combustion-

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 The Development of CCS
Pre-Combustion Carbon Capture:
➢Pre-combustion carbon capture allows the removal of
CO2 from fossil fuels before combustion takes place.
➢The feedstock (such as coal) is partially oxidized in
steam and oxygen/air under high temperature and
pressure to form synthesis gas
➢The gas will undergo a water-gas shift reaction to
convert CO and H2O to H2 and CO2, producing H2 and
CO2-rich gas mixture
➢The CO2 will then be captured, separated, transported,
and ultimately sequestered.
➢Operators typically apply this carbon capture in
integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power
plants which is used to generate electricity
➢However, the capital costs of the basic gasification
process are more expensive than traditional pulverized
coal power plants.

Sources:
1) http://www.linde.hk/en/clean_technology/clean_technology_portfolio/carbon_capture_storage/precombustion_ccs/index.html
2) https://www.energy.gov/fecm/pre-combustion-carbon-capture-research#:~:text=Pre%2Dcombustion%20capture%20refers%20to,pressure%20to%20form%20synthesis%20gas.
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 The Development of CCS
Oxy-Fuel Combustion Carbon Capture:
➢Use of air separation unit to remove nitrogen from air
➢Burning the fossil fuel with nearly pure oxygen instead
of air, resulting in a flue gas composed of CO2 and
water vapor
➢The CO2 can then be captured by condensing the
water in the exhaust stream
➢However, the amount of oxygen required in oxy-
combustion is significantly greater than in pre-
combustion applications, increasing CO2 capture costs.

Sources:
1) https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1418
2) http://www.linde.hk/en/clean_technology/clean_technology_portfolio/carbon_capture_storage/oxyfuel_technology/index.html

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 The Development of CCS
Post-Combustion Carbon Capture:
➢Remove CO2 from flue gas streams obtained after
combustion at low pressure
➢Easy to retrofit existing processes and plants with post-
combustion capture units
➢ Various techniques are being developed throughout the
world to effectively capture CO2 .
➢Chemical absorption using amine-based solvents is the
most technologically mature CO2 separation technique
for power plants and is applied in the two large-scale
projects in operation today (Boundary Dam and Petra
Nova)

Sources:
1) https://www.rff.org/publications/explainers/carbon-capture-and-storage-101/#:~:text=They%20fall%20into%20three%20categories,and%20oxy%2Dfuel%20combustion%20systems.
2) https://meg.resourcesregulator.nsw.gov.au/invest-nsw/coal-innovation-nsw/post-combustion-capture-of-carbon-dioxide
3) https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-ccus-in-low-carbon-power-systems/timely-advances-in-carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage

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 The Development of CCS - Direct Air Capture
• Direct Air Capture (DAC) is another approach that use a technology to extract CO 2 directly
from the atmosphere.

• The captured CO2 can then be injected underground for sequestration or used in various products and
applications such as concrete or plastic can.
• There are currently 18 DAC plants operating worldwide, including Europe, United States and
Canada.
Sources:
https://www.iea.org/reports/direct-air-capture

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 Direct Air Capture (DAC)
The followings are examples of companies that are already capturing CO 2 from the air:
Carbon Engineering (Canada-based) Climeworks (Switzerland-based)
• Use of a giant fan to pull air into an air contactor, passing over
thin plastic surfaces with potassium hydroxide solution • Air is drawn through a fan located inside
flowing over them. Subsequently, the CO2 molecules bind the the collector. Once the air is sucked
with the liquid solution and become a carbonate salt.
• Pellet reactor will then be used to separate the salt out from in, it will pass through a filter which traps
the solution into small pellets. the CO2 particles.
• These pellets are then heated with calciner to release CO2 in • The collector will then be heated up after
pure gas form.
• The CO2 can either be buried deep underground through the filter is full of CO2, and subsequently
secure geologic storage or converted into synthetic crude, release the CO2 for collection.
which can be further processed into gasoline, diesel, and jet
fuel that work in existing vehicles and transportation
infrastructure without any modification

Plans for construction of more DAC facilities are in progress, which include:

1PointFive- The world’s first million-tonne DAC plant

• Use DAC technology from Carbon Engineering
• Located in Permian Basin, United States

• Operation Date: 2024 (Train 1)

• Expect to capture 1.0 MtCO2/year

Sources:
1) https://carbonengineering.com/our-technology/
2) https://climeworks.com
3) https://www.iea.org/reports/ccus-around-the-world/dac-1.

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 Direct Air Capture (DAC)
Below is the graph that shows the DAC global To reach the Net Zero Scenario, IEA estimates that the DAC
operating capacity from 2010-2021. technologies need to be capturing more than 85 MtCO2/year
2030 and 980MtCO2/year by 2050

Therefore, more development and deployment of DAC plants are required to achieve the target!
The good news is the governments start to make more commitment and plans for a total of 11
DAC facilities are now in advanced development.
Sources:
1) https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/companies-are-sucking-carbon-from-the-atmosphere-using-direct-air-capture-how-does-it-
work/#:~:text=A%20direct%20air%20capture%20plant,be%20reused%20in%20other%20industries.
2) https://www.iea.org/reports/direct-air-capture

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 The Applications of CCUS
❖Enhanced oil recovery: Injecting CO2 into oil fields to boost oil production. The CO2 absorbs into oil, reducing its
viscosity and increase oil mobility, making it possible to extract more oil that would otherwise remain in the ground. This
extends the life of oil fields by 10-15 years or more and reduces CO2 emissions from oil extraction.
➢ Application example: At one of the Middle East’s largest CO2 capture and storage demonstration projects by Aramco. Since the initial
injection of CO2 in 2015, they have doubled oil production rates from four of their wells.

❖Carbon mineralization: Reacting the CO2 with alkaline materials like basalt, limestone or calcium silicate to from
carbonate minerals. The CO2 gets mineralized have has much lower solubility and can store as very stable carbonate
minerals. Carbon mineralization provide permanent CO2 storage and avoids issues with leakage.
➢ Application example: CarbonCure applies carbon mineralization technology to inject concentrated CO2 into concrete for construction.

❖Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): BECCS is a process that involves capturing
carbon dioxide emissions from biomass combustion and storing them underground. This process can help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions while producing renewable energy.

❖Carbon Storage in Saline Aquifers: CCUS technology can be used to inject captured CO2 into saline
aquifers, where it is stored deep underground in geological formations.

Sources:
Carbon capture, utilization & storage | Aramco
CarbonCure's Sustainable Concrete Solution - Concrete Technology Reducing Carbon Impact
Preventing Climate Change with BECCS: Bioenergy With Carbon Capture and Storage — PSCI (princeton.edu)
Status of CO2 storage in deep saline aquifers with emphasis on modeling approaches and practical simulations - Celia - 2015 - Water Resources Research - Wiley Online Library

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 CCUS Application: Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR):
Carbon dioxide (CO2) expands
in an oil reservoir to push
additional oil to a production
wellbore and dissolves in the
oil to lower its viscosity and
improves its flow rate.

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Curing – Embedded Carbon in Concrete
❖ A process of using CO2 to cure concrete instead of traditional water curing methods
➢CO2 is injected into the concrete during carbon curing, which reacts with calcium ions to form
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a mineral that strengthens the concrete
➢Reduces CO2 in the atmosphere by capturing it and storing in the concrete; it also sequesters
carbon in the concrete itself, making it a carbon-negative building material
➢Using captured CO2 from industrial processes and offset their emission such as power plants

Source:
CarbonCure's Sustainable Concrete Solution - Concrete Technology Reducing Carbon Impact
Carbon curing - Concrete curing | Aramco

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Curing – Embedded Carbon in Concrete
❖ Recycling CO2
❖ CO₂ undergoes a mineralization process and becomes permanently
embedded in the concrete:
➢ Reduce carbon footprint without harming or negatively effecting the
strength of the end-product
➢ Concrete being more durable than traditional concrete
➢ Reduce the time it takes to remove concrete from molds
➢ Lower water permeability and greater chlorine and sulfate resistance
➢ Crucial in construction offshore or in places with high humidity Removing
Emissions from
53 millions Cars

RECYCLE up to
246 million tons
CO2 Annually
=
Source:
CarbonCure's Sustainable Concrete Solution - Concrete Technology Reducing Carbon Impact
Carbon curing - Concrete curing | Aramco

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Curing – Embedded Carbon in Concrete
❖Construction industry is one of the world’s biggest carbon emitter with
the rapid urbanization process and rapid economic growth. The built
environment generates 40% of annual global CO2 emission.
❖CO2 created by the cement production process itself was reused
❖Environmental-friendly and sustainable method of curing concrete than
traditional water curing
❖Reduces water consumption and eliminates high-energy consumption
processes like heating
❖ Studies shown that carbon curing can potentially reduce the carbon
footprint of concrete production by up to 50%
The Built Environment
❖ Reduce environment impact and bring a lower-carbon future
generates 40% of annual
❖ Result in both economic and climate benefits for concrete producers global CO2 emission
Source:
Factors Contributing to Carbon Emission in Construction Activity, Nadzirah Zainordin, Dhuny Bibi Faitmah Zahra
Why The Building Sector? – Architecture 2030
Carbon curing - Concrete curing | Aramco
CarbonCure's Sustainable Concrete Solution - Concrete Technology Reducing Carbon Impact

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Curing – for Net Climate Benefit
❖Construction activities are responsible for a significant amount of carbon emissions, including emissions
from the production of building materials such as cement, steel, and glass, as well as emissions from the
energy used during construction and operation of buildings.
❖Reducing construction carbon footprint is important to address climate change.
❖Carbon curing is believed to be a significant tool to reduce the carbon footprint of the built environment
which can bring a net climate benefit.
❖Net climate benefit will depend on the specific circumstances of the concrete production and the emission
reduction potential of the carbon curing process.
❖To maximize the net CO2 and climate benefit of carbon curing:
➢Consider CO2 impact from the capture, transport and utilization of CO 2
➢Ensure that the CO2 used in the process is sourced from sustainable and low-carbon sources, such as
from industrial processes or direct air capture technologies powered by renewable energy
➢Need to decrease the electricity used in CO2 curing are promising strategies to increase the net
CO2 benefit from CCU concrete

Source: Carbon dioxide utilization in concrete curing or mixing might not produce a net climate benefit | Nature Communications

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Curing – for Net Climate Benefit
❖ Carbon curing is just one of many potential solutions to reduce the carbon footprint of construction
❖ Combination of these solutions for achieving significant emissions reductions in the concrete industry and move towards a
more sustainable and low-carbon future
❖ For reduction of carbon footprint, below should be considered for sustainable construction
➢Using alternative low-carbon construction materials. Production of cement, steel, and glass is a significant source of
carbon emissions. Using alternative materials with lower carbon footprints, such as recycled materials, wood, or
bamboo, can help to reduce emissions
➢Reduce using wood for avoiding deforestation
➢Optimizing production process to reduce energy consumption and emissions, reducing construction energy
consumption
➢Optimize and utilization of low carbon transportation of construction materials
➢Use renewable energy sources. Generating electricity from renewable sources such as solar, wind, or geothermal
➢Consider the entire building lifecycle including maintenance and end-of-life disposal, can help to identify opportunities to
reduce emissions. The carbon footprint of a building is not just limited to the construction phase.
➢Buildings can be designed to use energy more efficiently, reducing the amount of energy needed for heating, cooling,
and lighting. This can be achieved through measures such as improved insulation, efficient HVAC systems, and use of
natural lighting.

Source: Carbon dioxide utilization in concrete curing or mixing might not produce a net climate benefit | Nature Communications

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 CCUS Application: Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS)
➢ BECCS is a process that begins with
growing biomass, which is organic
matter. The commonly used biomass
for this process is wood.
➢ The biomass is burned and converted
to bioenergy — electricity, liquid or gas
fuels, or heat.
➢ While burning biomass is carbon
neutral, the carbon emitted in BECCS
is captured and sequestered, or stored,
underground in mountains, valleys, and
other geological formations, for later
usage.
➢ Thus, BECCS is carbon negative. The
carbon dioxide can also be stored in
products that last a long time, such as
harvested wood or landfills.

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 CCUS Application: Carbon Storage in Saline Aquifers
➢ Schematic diagram of key processes of CO2
sequestration in a saline aquifer.
➢ As caprocks are typically not perfectly horizontal, the
injected CO2 will tend to move up-dip and once the
injection of CO2 ends, the entire CO2 plume will
typically move up-dip.
➢ At the trailing edge of the CO2 plume, this leads to the
re-imbibition of native formation fluid (e.g., brine),
reducing the CO2 saturation in the pore space.
➢ When this imbibition process is completed, some
amount of CO2 remains trapped by capillary forces.
This "residual trapping" effectively immobilizes a large
portion of the injected CO2 and can, under favorable
geologic conditions, remove the necessity of a sealing
unit (caprock) to ensure permanent CO2 storage
underground.

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 Benefit of CCUS Applications
❖Reduced carbon emissions: CCUS can significantly reduce CO2 emissions from power plants, industrial facilities and
other large stationary sources. By capturing the CO2 before it enters the atmosphere, we can mitigate climate change impacts on
par with or greater than other emissions reduction strategies like renewable energy or energy efficiency upgrades alone.

❖Natural resource management: CO2-enhanced oil recovery uses captured CO2 to squeeze additional oil from mature
oil fields. This extends the productive lifetime of existing oil reserves without significantly disrupting oil supply or significantly
increasing extraction rates. It provides more stable oil production and revenue generation with a much smaller environmental
footprint than unconventional oil extraction methods.

❖CO2-based products: CO2 can be a feedstock for useful products like plastics, construction materials, fuels, and fertilizers.
While still limited, these types of CO2-based products create new value chains around a waste gas emission which could improve
sustainability, economic competitiveness and energy security over the long run. More research and development are needed to
scale up options and reduce costs, however.

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 Challenges for CCUS Development
❖ CO2 use does not necessarily lead to emissions reduction. Climate benefits associated with a given CO2 use depend on the
source of the CO2 (natural, fossil, biogenic or air-captured), the product or service the CO2 -based product is displacing, the carbon
intensity of the energy used for the conversion process, how long the CO2 is retained in the product, and the scale of the market
for this particular use.
❖ High costs: CCUS systems require significant capital expenditures for equipment, infrastructure, and operating expenses.
Although costs have declined in recent years, CCUS is still often not economically competitive with existing technologies or
approaches. More cost reductions are needed to make it affordable and scalable.
❖ Limited policy and incentives: Most experts agree that government policies, regulations, and incentives are necessary to
drive the initial adoption of CCUS at scale. However, current policies do not provide sufficient support. More stringent emissions
regulations or carbon pricing are needed to motivate companies to invest in CCUS.

❖ Technical challenges: Capturing CO2 from emissions streams requires very complex equipment that still struggles with
reducing energy penalties, achieving high capture rates, and handling high-moisture flue gases. Transporting and storing CO2 also
face issues like pipeline safety, storage site selection, and long-term storage integrity monitoring. More R&D is needed to improve
technologies and lower costs.
❖ Liability concerns: There is uncertainty around long term liability for stored CO2, especially if sites are abandoned. Questions
remain over who would be responsible for monitoring, remediating leaks or addressing public health issues arising from CO2
storage. Regulations are needed to establish clear rules and ensure financial responsibility.

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 The Future of CCUS
❖CCUS on its own will not be enough to significantly reduce the carbon dioxide
present in the atmosphere causing climate change. However, it is effective in
ensuring that a reduced amount of CO2 enters the atmosphere.

❖To solve the climate crisis in the long term, CCUS need to be utilized alongside
renewable power sources, green technologies, and nuclear power to replace
the current fossil-fuel dependent power supply system.

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 Thank You for Listening

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