Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire: a Case Study 195
Celia Sánchez Natalías Thanks to the “Greek Magical Papyri” (hereafter PGM, with its
University of Zaragoza, Spain
Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire:
a Case Study from the Fountain of Anna Perenna
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine an interesting
case of aggressive magic dated to the IV century AD and discovered
in the Roman sanctuary of the goddess Anna Perenna. The poppet
represents a man trapped in the coils of a snake, who was addition-
ally attached to a defixio and enclosed in a series of three miniature
leaden cinerary urns. The ensemble was finally deposited within
the cistern of the fountain, where the victim was consecrated to the
goddess and her nymphs.
Key words: magical poppets, Anna Perenna, defixio
1. Introduction
Since the publication of Christopher Faraone’s article in Classical
Antiquity (1991), the number of magical poppets discovered in the
Latin West has doubled. Currently we know of 35 figurines, which
form a limited but meaningful ensemble. The use of poppets, at-
tested from the V century BCE onwards, is closely linked to the
use of curse tablets (defixiones). Both types of objects belong to the
category of aggressive magic and were used to achieve purposes
otherwise unattainable through “normal” or “legal” methods, since
“…they were intended to influence, by supernatural means, the ac-
tions or welfare of persons or animals against their will” (Jordan
1985: 151).
Within this framework, the main difference between the poppet
and the “typical” defixio is simply one of shape (Ogden 20092: 245):
while the former is an anthropomorphic representation of the victim
him- or herself, the defixio, usually but not always a lead tabella
(on the different media employed, see Vallarino 2010 and Sánchez
Natalías 2011), constrains the victim merely through the engraving
of his or her name. From the III century AD onwards, however, we
also find drawings of bound victims on the tablets, whose function
was exactly the same as that of poppets (Faraone 1991: 25).
editor specified when necessary) – true treatises of ancient magic
–, we know a fair amount about the manufacture of this kind of
poppet. Apart from some brief instructions (such as PGM XXIV b,
1–15; PGM CXV, 1–6; etc.), the most complete recipe is a love spell
of attraction which prescribes (PGM IV, 296–334): “take some wax
or some clay [...] and mold two figures, male and female. Arm the
male one like Ares, brandishing a sword in his left and striking the
female’s neck on her right side. Put the female doll’s hands behind
her back and make her kneel” (English translation by Ogden 20092:
number 239: 247). Then, and after inscribing several magical words
over the woman’s body, the recipe continues: “take thirteen bronze
needles and insert one of them into the brain [...] two more into
her eyes, one into her mouth, two below her rib cage, one into her
hands, two into her vulva and anus, and two into the soles of her
feet, while on each occasion saying once “I pierce the (insert name
of the part) of (insert her name), so that she may think of no one,
except me alone (insert your name)”. Take a lead tablet, inscribe the
same spell on it, and say it through. Bind the tablet to the figures
[...] while saying [...] “Abrasax, constrain her”. Lay it as the sun
sets, besides the grave of one untimely dead or dead by violence,
and lay flowers of the season there with it...” (English translation
by Ogden 20092: number 239: 248).
This recipe, preserved in the so-called great magical papyrus, now
in Paris, is dated to the IV century AD and describes a complicated
Graeco-Egyptian praxis, all of whose components are perfectly de-
fined. This constitutes the most precise recipe for making a magical
poppet within the corpus of the PGM, and it has a striking parallel
in a poppet from Egypt (on which see the interpretation of Ritner
20084: 112–113 and Ogden 20092: number 240; Louvre Museum,
Inv. number 27145). With these instructions provided by the PGM
in mind, we can now turn to the find from Rome, which dates from
a similar period.
2. A case study from the fountain of Anna Perenna
The fountain, discovered in 1999 by Marina Piranomonte and her
team, is a Roman sanctuary consecrated to the ancient goddess
Anna Perenna and her nymphs (vid. Piranomonte 2010 and 2012).
196 Celia Sánchez Natalías
Located in the modern Piazza Euclide (Rome), between the 2nd
and the 3rd milestone along the Via Flaminia (the Tiberian Fasti
Vaticani, however, placed the fountain near to the 1st milestone;
for this controversy, see Piranomonte 2010: 192–193), the sanctuary
was in use, at least, from the IV century BCE until the VI century
AD. Typologically, the fountain was a krene, i.e. a revetment foun-
tain with a concealed cistern to the rear. This cistern preserved an
extraordinary ritual deposit comprising 549 coins, 74 oil-lamps, 22
curse tablets, 10 sets of containers made of lead or clay, a bucket,
seven pine cones, egg shells, twigs and small wooden plaques (Pi-
ranomonte 2012).  the practitioner to write the prescribed formula on the urn. Both
2.1 The container’s contents
Upon its discovery, the artefact discussed here appeared to be a
single small container with a sealed lid (measurements: 7.5 [height]
x 6.5 [lid Ø] cm). When opened, however, the archaeologists uncov-
ered a wonderful ensemble consisting of three lead cylinders nested
within each other, like “Russian dolls” (middle container: 7 x 5.5cm;
smallest: 6.2 x 4.8 cm. [height x Ø]; see figure 1, upper image). The
smallest of these contained an elaborate but tiny magical poppet.
Both it and the outer container were closed by means of a flat lid
and sealed with resins, to prevent them from being opened (and
luckily protected the ensemble). In addition, the resin preserved
some fingerprints that, when analyzed by the Roman police, were
determined to belong to a young man or a woman (Polakova and
Rapinesi 2002: 43).
From my point of view, these containers deliberately fulfilled two
ritual objectives at once: first, to serve as a vessel for the poppet
representing the victim; second, to provide a surface on which one
could write a curse. Concerning the first purpose, M. Piranomonte
has rightly pointed out (Piranomonte 2010: 207), that there is an
obvious parallel in the IV century BCE tombs in the Kerameikos ne-
cropolis at Athens, where several inscribed lead ‘coffins’ containing
poppets were found (see Ogden 20092: number 237). Nevertheless,
she interprets our containers, constructed some 700–800 years later,
as ink-wells or containers for cosmetics or medicines (Piranomonte
2012: 167–171).
Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire: a Case Study 197
In my view, however, there are compelling reasons for thinking
that they were intended to represent miniature cinerary urns, for
there are clear typological similarities between them and a series
full-sized cinerary urns (see Cochet 2000: 183–185, fig. 184–187 for
urns with flat lids; and 186, fig. 188–189 for conical lids). Moreover,
we can find allusions to the use of lead cinerary urns in the magical
papyri. One recipe, for example, to prevent a woman from being
possessed by another man, recommends to model a crocodile and
then put it into a ... εις <σ>ορίον (vid. PGM XIII, 322 [Preisendanz’s
edition]), that is, a small lead cinerary urn. The same recipe requires
details seem to offer a broad parallel to the procedure in our case,
even though the aims of the praxeis are quite different. I would
therefore suggest that the containers from the Fountain of Anna
Perenna should be understood as small cinerary urns whose function
was precisely the same as that of the coffins from the Kerameikos,
namely to bury symbolically the victim (Sánchez Natalías 2011:
88–89). 
2.2 The inscription
As already mentioned, the second ritual objective of these containers
was to provide a surface on which an indication of the target of the
curse could be written. It has been argued that in ancient magi-
cal practice writing was considered a powerful technique whereby
anything mentioned (the victim, his/her actions, possessions, life
and destiny) was inextricably fixed to the medium and thus con-
strained by the spell (Piccaluga 2010: 15–16). And this is the case
with the innermost of the containers we are analyzing, where an
inscription of two columns surrounds a standing figure. The editor
has read the text, written in IV AD Roman late-antique minuscule,
as follows (Blänsdorf 2010: 232–233; see figure 1, middle image):
I col. II col.
Sete standing Decen
Mnu figure tias
S
Θ
198 Celia Sánchez Natalías
Figure 1. Upper image: ensemble of containers from Anna Perenna,
Inv. number 475549.
Middle image: drawing of the inscription placed in the innermost
of the containers.
Bottom image: magical poppet of a man being gulped down by
a snake, Inv. number 475550. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico.
Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma.
Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire: a Case Study 199
Although I have some doubts about this transcription and am
currently working on a new reading of the text (which requires a
longer technical discussion), for the time being, we will follow the
editio princeps for practical reasons. Thus, let us begin with the
first column. The editor states: “...the letters SETE are [...] the
name of the Egyptian god Seth, in the vocative. Below it we read
MNU, an approximation to one of the ritual names of the deceased
Mnevis-bull, identified with Osiris. Below that again we find [...]
the letter S [...] and [...] an uncertain letter. I think these are to
be taken together and interpreted as a Greek abbreviation of Seth
(ΣΗΘ)” (Blänsdorf 2010: 218). Regarding the second column, Blän-
sdorf interprets the inscription as the female cognomen Decentia,
a name which is already attested on another container discovered
in the sanctuary (specifically, Inv. number 475564). The epigraph
ends with a series of five charâkteres, magical signs usually cre-
ated ex professo to reinforce the power of the text, since they were
considered sacred (Gordon 2011). Between the two columns there
is a drawing of a standing male figure, represented with marked
pectorals or, perhaps, wearing a cuirass. According to the editor,
the figure is crowned or wears a helmet, and thus it represents the
Egyptian deity Seth (Blänsdorf 2012: 623).
2.3 The poppet
In the innermost of the containers of this ensemble, there was
placed a small poppet (with measurements 7.5 x 3.2 cm; see figure
1, bottom image) facing head down, just as the PGM recommends
(vid. PGM CXXIV, 23–26 [Betz’s edition]), which metaphorically
prevents the victim’s escape. This deliberate positioning, used here
to confine the target, is reminiscent of some burial practices used
to restrain restless dead, who, sometimes, were buried in decubito
prono (that is, face down), in order to block the spirit’s possible
passage out of the tomb (Alfayé 2009: 210).
With regards to the media employed, the poppet was made mainly
of wax. On this point, it is worth noting that before the discovery
of this site, in the Latin West we only knew about the use of wax
poppets from the textual record, namely from recipes found in the
PGM (such as IV, 296; CXXIV, 10–11, etc. [Betz’s edition]) as well as
scattered references in some classical authors, such as Ovid (Amores
200 Celia Sánchez Natalías
III, 7, 29–30), who explained to his puella his sexual impotence while
wondering: “...did a witch bind my name with red wax and drive
fine needles through the middle of my liver?” (English translation
by Ogden 20092: number 99).
The poppet, a unicum among the magical figurines of the Latin
West, represents a man in the very act of being gulped down by a
snake which is coiling itself around his body. It seems likely that
this scenario is a plastic (three-dimensional) version of some images
depicted on some of the roughly contemporary Roman tablets found
in a ‘columbarium’ (or mausoleum) outside the Porta S. Sebastiano
(specifically, the SV number 16–18, 34 and 43). In this period, as
R. Gordon has rightly pointed out (Gordon 2002), Egyptian influ-
ences can be recognized in Graeco-Roman magic, as would be the
case with the objects under consideration. Thus, following Gordon’s
suggestion, the poppet from the sanctuary of Anna Perenna was
likely inspired by the well known icon of Osiris’s mummy rolled up
in the coils of a snake, since in his words “…in Egypt, this signified
Osiris the deity in the Underworld watched over by the snake (dwɜt=
Eternity), with the connotation “rebirth” […but outside Egypt] once
the snake became a sign of daimonic power, [it] was later appropri-
ated to signify the bound victims of a curse” (per litt. to the author
13/10/2014). In fact, interesting iconographical parallels are found
on several magical gems (such as Michel 2001: number 9 and 10,
and above all Mastrocinque 2014: number 73 and 166-verso, where
the mummy is engulfed by the snake in the same way as the poppet
from Anna Perenna).
For the sake of necessitas (i. e. the inevitableness), and in a new
case of what has recently been termed as “transferred death ritual”
(Marco Simón 2009), poppet and snake were fastened together by
means of a bronze tablet transfixed by two small iron nails. This
sheet was itself engraved with a depiction of a male figure wearing
a cuirass and greaves, who could be identified as the victim of the
spell. Some chârakteres and the Greek letter theta surround the
image of the target, whose feet and head were nailed to the pop-
pet itself with the aforementioned nails. This performance was,
doubtless, aimed to secure the complete paralysis of the victim,
who, enclosed in a triple cinerary urn, was consecrated to Anna
Perenna and her nymphs.
Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire: a Case Study 201
Acknowledgements
University of Zaragoza; Research Group: “Los contextos de las
prácticas mágicas en el Occidente del Imperio Romano” [ref.
number: HAR2011-26428]). I would like to thank Prof. Francisco
Marco Simón and Prof. Richard Gordon for their comments, Dott.
ssa Marina Piranomonte for the photographs, and Mr. Benjamin
Jerue for his help with the English.
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Konrad J. Kuhn
Seminar for Cultural Anthropology and European Ethnology, University of Basel,
Switzerland
Relics from the ‘Lost Valley’ –
Discourses on the Magic of Masks
Abstract: The paper shows how ‘the magic of the mask’ is an im-
portant and dynamic narrative strengthening the vitality of rituals
and the attention of the public. In the example of the Tschäggättä,
carnival masks from the Lötschental region in the Canton of Valais
in Switzerland, the paper points to the importance of scientific in-
terpretations for popular discourses on the magic of masks, but also
for the formulation of local discourses on the valley and for tourist
and self-representative images today. Masks as ‘relics from the old
days’ are highly valued objects for fragile community identities in
an alpine region.
Key words: carnival masks, discourses on magic, interpretations of
folklore studies, popular narratives, Valley of Lötschen, Switzerland,
1900–2014.
Wooden masks exert a profound fascination with their often seem-
ingly archaic appearance. Also the discipline of folklore studies has
surrendered to this fascination. Academic interest in wooden masks
can be seen through the process of their documentation by scholars
of folklore and ethnography from an early point. It can even be said
that the focus on wooden masks is approximately as old as the disci-
pline itself. According to this early understanding, masks from the
Alps were regarded as typical objects of an anonymous folk culture
of rural areas and have been scientifically documented by the early
folklore studies. It was the desire for relics of an ‘original state’ of
culture, but also for comparability with ethnographic objects from
distant parts of the world, that shaped scientific ideas. How strong
this desire is still today can be seen in the perpetuated highlighting
of the supposed ancient past of the masks, and in the perpetuated
discourses of the magic in the mask-rituals. The magic of rituals
is thus a permanent trope in narratives on wooden masks, both in
local stories as well as in scientific interpretations.
THE RITUAL YEAR 10

Magic in Rituals and Rituals in Magic

Edited by
Tatiana Minniyakhmetova and Kamila Velkoborská

Innsbruck – Tartu 2015

THE RITUAL YEAR 10
Magic in Rituals and Rituals in Magic
The Yearbook of the SIEF (Société Internationale d’Ethnologie et
de Folklore) Working Group on the Ritual Year
General Editor: Emily Lyle
Editors for this Issue: Tatiana Minniyakhmetova, Kamila Velkoborská
Language Editors: Jenny Butler, Molly Carter, Cozette Griffin-Kremer,
John Helsloot, Billy Mag Fhloinn, Emily Lyle, Thomas McKean, Neill
Martin, Elisabeth Warner
Layout: Liisa Vesik
Front Cover Photo: Yuri Lisovskiy “Four Houses – Four Seasons”
Front Cover Design: Andres Kuperjanov
Advisory Board: Maria Teresa Agozzino, Marion Bowman, Jenny Butler,
Molly Carter, Kinga Gáspár, Evy Håland, Aado Lintrop, Neill Martin, Lina
Midholm, Tatiana Minniyakhmetova, David Stanley, Elizabeth Warner
ISSN 2228-1347
ISBN (paper) 978-9949-544-54-7
The Yearbook was established in 2011 by merging former periodicals dedi-
cated to the study of the Ritual Year: 9 volumes in 2005–2014.
Innsbruck, Tartu: ELM Scholarly Press.
Publication is supported by the authors and the project IRG 225, Estonian
Folklore Institute.
© Authors
SIEF Working Group on the Ritual Year
Contents
Foreword 13
The Ritual Year and Magical Features
Lyle Emily (Edinburgh, Scotland) 19
The Cosmic Connections of the Eight Key
Points in the Indo-European Ritual Year
Gunnell Terry (Reykjavik, Iceland) 28
The Background and Nature of the Annual and
Occasional Rituals of the Ásatrúarfélag in Iceland
Håland Evy Johanne (Bergen, Norway; Athens, Greece) 41
Magical Ceremonies during the Ritual Year
of the Greek Farmer
Mihaylova Katya (Sofia, Bulgaria) 61
The Fortune-Telling Customs of Andrzejki
and Katarzynki in the Polish Ritual Year
Gierek Bożena (Kraków, Poland) 70
Rituals of the Easter Period in Poland
Multari Anna (Messina, Italy) 83
Coptic Magic and Its Phases
Lielbārdis Aigars (Riga, Latvia) 91
Catholic Saints in the Latvian Calendar
Testa Alessandro (Pardubice, Czech Republic) 100
The Re-Enchantment of Europe: “Traditional”
Carnivals and the Belief in Propitiatory Magic
(Two Ethnographic Cases from Italy and Czechia)
Mifsud Chircop Marlene (Msida, Malta) 110
Good Friday Processions on Contemporary Malta
Griffin-Kremer Cozette (Rambouillet, France) 121
Doing Things Rightways and Three Times.
From Maying Practices to Standard Procedures
Mag Fhloinn Billy (Limerick, Ireland) 130
Sacrificial Magic and the Twofold Division of
the Irish Ritual Year
Symbolism of Fire, Food, Ritual Objects and
Magical Spaces
Sedakova Irina (Moscow, Russia) 141
Magico-Religious Symbolism of a Candle in
the Slavic Calendar Rituals
Minniyakhmetova Tatiana (Innsbruck, Austria) 152
Ritual Fire in the Annual Cycle of
Udmurt Calendar Customs
Wilk Urszula (Warsaw, Poland) 162
The Valencian Festival of Las Fallas
as an Example of Symbolic Violence
Ek-Nilsson Katarina (Uppsala, Sweden) 171
Folk Belief and Rituals about Bread in Sweden.
Some Interpretations and Comparisons
with Today’s Hipster Culture
Ramšak Mojca (Ljubljana, Slovenia) 177
The Magic of Wine Marketing:
Invented Rituals of Slovene Wine Queens
Rychkov Sergey (Kazan, Russia) 187
Magic of a Toast
Sánchez Natalías Celia (Zaragoza, Spain) 194
Magical Poppets in the Western Roman Empire:
a Case Study from the Fountain of Anna Perenna
Kuhn Konrad (Basel, Switzerland) 203
Relics from the ‘Lost Valley’ –
Discourses on the Magic of Masks
Shutova Nadezhda (Izhevsk, Russia) 213
Ritual as a Means of Organizing
the Traditional Udmurt Sacred Space
(The late 19th – early 20th century)
Khudyaev Andrey (Arkhangelsk, Russia) 220
Magic Ritual and its Spatial Structure
in Archaic Cultures of the North
Verebélyi Kincső (Budapest, Hungary) 230
Das Haus als geistiges Kraftfeld
Innovations in Traditions
Gareis Iris (Frankfurt on Main, Germany) 239
Politics and Magic in the Ritual Year:
Case Studies from Pre-Columbian Peru to the Present
Rancane Aida (Riga, Latvia) 248
Motifs of Sacrifice in the Context of the Present-Day
Search for Spiritual Experience in Latvia:
Traditions and Innovations
Urboniene Skaidre (Vilnius, Lithuania) 258
The Destruction of Religious Monuments in Lithuania
in Soviet Times: Stories, Magic and Beliefs
Divination, Fortune-telling
Voigt Vilmos (Budapest, Hungary) 269
Rebus – Charms – Evil Forces – Magic
Tuczay Christa Agnes (Vienna, Austria) 275
Necromancy from Antiquity to Medieval and
Modern Times
Šaknys Žilvytis (Vilnius, Lithuania) 286
Magic or Entertainment?
Marriage Divination and the Ritual Year in Lithuania
Klimova Ksenia (Moscow, Russia) 294
Fortune Telling in the Modern Greek Ritual Year
Vlaskina Nina (Rostov-on-Don, Russia) 303
The Types of Divination Used by the Don Cossacks:
Highlighting Areas of Distribution
Astral Objects, Plants and Magic in Healing Strategies
Kõiva Mare, Kuperjanov Andres (Tartu, Estonia) 313
The Moon, Astronomic Objects and Symbolic Rites
in Healing Strategies
Tchoekha Oksana (Moscow, Russia) 323
Lunar Magic in the Modern Greek Folk Tradition
Mishev Georgi (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) 335
Where Do You Come From, Ash? – I Come From
a Pure Place. Magical Healing Practices from
the Region of the Thracian Cult Center of Starosel,
Plovdiv region, Bulgaria
Ippolitova Aleksandra (Moscow, Russia) 346
Circumscription Ritual in Russian Herbals
of the 17th–early 20th Centuries
Sidneva Svetlana (Moscow, Russia) 356
The Magic Herbs in the Modern Greek and
Italian Calendar Customs
Shamanism and Neo-Shamanism,
Paganism and Neo-Paganism,
Cults and Wicca in the Old and New Traditions
Zoric Snjezana (Seoul, Republic of Korea) 367
The Magic of Performance in Korean Shamanic
Ritual – gut
Fehlmann Meret (Zurich, Switzerland) 376
“The Earth’s Unseen Powers of Growth
Need to be Nourished” – on Images of Seasonal
Pagan Rituals in Popular Culture
Velkoborská Kamila (Pilsen, Czech Republic) 384
Magic as practised by the Brotherhood of Wolves
(Czech Republic)
Malita Joanna (Kraków, Poland) 394
Magic in Everyday Life of Polish Wiccans
Reasoning of Supernatural: Theory and Practice
Savickaitė Eglė (Kaunas, Lithuania) 405
Reasoning Supernatural Experiences:
Rationalism and Intuition
Fournier Laurent Sébastien (Nantes, France) 414
The Magic of Traditional Games:
From Anthropological Theory to
Contemporary Case Studies
Zanki Josip (Zadar, Croatia) 422
Embodiment and Gender: Constructing Balkan
Masculinities
Sorcerers, Witches and Magic Practices
Baiduzh Marina (Tyumen, Russia) 433
Constructing the Image of Witch in Contemporary
Russian Mythological Beliefs and Magical Practices
Betea Raluca (Berlin, Germany) 444
Magical Beliefs for Stealing the Milk of Animals.
A Case-study on the Romanian Villages
in Transylvania (18th–19th Centuries)
Dillinger Johannes (Oxford, Great Britain) 453
Treasure and Drache. Ritual and Economy
in the Early Modern Period
Sivilova Yana (Sofia, Bulgaria) 460
Magic versus Rational Reasoning in Anecdotal Tale
Magic and Rituals in Family Tradition
Paukštytė–Šaknienė Rasa (Vilnius, Lithuania) 471
Ritual Year of Godparents and Godchildren
in Contemporary Society in Lithuania
Stolyarova Guzel (Kazan, Russia), 479
Danilova Olga (Yoshkar-Ola, Russia)
Magic in the Traditional Culture of the
Russian Population in the Mari Region
Mykytenko Oksana (Kiev, Ukraine) 487
Padlock and Key as Attributes of the Wedding
Ceremony: Traditional Symbolism and Contemporary
Magic (on the Material of the Slavic Tradition)
Rychkova Nadezhda (Kazan, Russia) 497
Magic as Communication in Family Rituals
of Russians in Tatarstan
Beyond the Threshold and Magic Value
Pócs Éva (Budapest, Hungary) 507
The Living and the Dead at the Time of the Winter
Solstice in Central Eastern European Beliefs
Stahl Irina (Bucharest, Romania) 519
The Nine Miraculous Graves:
Seeking Help from Beyond
Neubauer-Petzoldt Ruth (Erlangen, Germany) 532
The Year of Magical Thinking – Rituals and Magical
Thinking in Autobiographical Literature of Mourning
Analysing Magic in Rituals and New Field Researches
Krasheninnikova Yulia (Syktyvkar, Russia) 547
Magic Beliefs and Practices of Holy Thursday
in the Modern Tradition of the Peasant
Population of the Russian North
(based on materials of the XXI century)
Iagafova Ekaterina, Bondareva Valeria (Samara, Russia) 557
Traditional Festive Rituals in Modern
Chuvash Culture
Koval-Fuchylo Iryna (Kyiv, Ukraine) 568
Ukrainian Calendar Cry: the Magical Value
and Functional Features of the Tradition
Graden Dorothy Clark (Valparaiso, USA) 579
Archaic Magic as Background to Artistic
Inspiration and Interpretation
The Authors 583
SIEF Working Group on the Ritual Year
Inaugural Meeting 589
The Conferences 589
The Publications 590
Conference Memories 592