USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO

(POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL)

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND EXTENSION SERVICES

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

MAE 907: ADVANCED HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

EDUCATION

PRESENTATION

ON

FROM BABYLON TO MODERNITY: A REVIEW OF THE HISTORY

OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN IRAQ

BY

UMAR BINJI, BASHAR

21310409001

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Introduction

Mathematics education in Mesopotamia (Iraq) has a rich history that dates back to ancient

civilizations such as the Babylonians and Sumerians (Marr, 2018). The Greek word

‘Mesopotamia’ means ‘between the rivers’ and has referred to the land around the Tigris and

Euphrates in modern-day Iraq since its conquest by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. But its

history goes back a good deal further than that. Mesopotamia was settled from the

surrounding hills and mountains during the course of the fifth millennium BCE. It was here

that the first sophisticated, urban societies grew up, and here that writing was invented, at the

end of the fourth millennium, perhaps in the southern city of Uruk (Robson, 2000). This was

an advanced civilization building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a

legal system, administration, and even a postal service. The study of mathematics has played

a significant role in shaping the country's culture, economy, and society. In this presentation,

the history of Mathematics education in Iraq, from its early origins to the modern era will be

explored.

The importance of mathematics education cannot be overstated. It is a fundamental subject

that provides the foundation for many other fields, including science, engineering, and social

sciences. By understanding the history of mathematics education in Iraq, we can gain insight

into the challenges and opportunities facing this field today.

Early History of Mathematics Education in Iraq

Babylonian (Sumerians) Mathematics refers to any Mathematics of the peoples of

Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of

Babylon as a place of study. The Babylonians and Sumerians were two of the earliest

civilizations to develop advanced mathematical systems (Gonçalves, 2023). They made

significant contributions to the study of geometry, algebra, and arithmetic, laying the

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foundation for modern Mathematics. These ancient cultures also developed sophisticated

methods of measuring time and distance, which were used in trade, agriculture, and

astronomy. The study of mathematics continued to flourish in Iraq during the Islamic Golden

Age when scholars made groundbreaking discoveries in fields such as trigonometry and

calculus. Many of these works were translated into European languages and had a profound

impact on the development of mathematics in the West (O’Connor & Robertson, 2000).

The Babylonians had developed a style of cuneiform writing (i.e. wedge-shaped) symbols on

clay tablets. Their symbols were written on wet clay tablets which were baked in the hot sun

and many thousands of these tablets have survived to this day. Below is one of the tablets, in

which the rulers or high government officials ordered Babylonian mathematicians to

calculate the number of workers and days necessary for the building of a canal, and to

calculate the total expenses of wages of the workers. There are several Old Babylonian

mathematical texts in which various quantities concerning the digging of a canal are asked

for. It was an important task for the rulers of Mesopotamia to dig canals and maintain them

because canals were not only necessary for irrigation but also useful for the transport of

goods and armies (Sövegjártó, 2023).

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Babylonian developed their counting system which was based on a sexagesimal system that

is (base-60) numeral system. From this derives the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a

minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle, as well as the use of

seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree. The sexagesimal system was

likely chosen because 60 can be evenly divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30.

Babylonian numeration was built from a 'unit' symbol and a 'ten' symbol, below are the 59

symbols built from these two symbols (O’Connor & Robertson, 2000).

Babylonian numerals (O’Connor & Robertson, 2000)

Babylonian developed the ‘’regula falsi method’’ of solving two systems of linear equations.

Below is one of the historic Babylonian problems on two systems of linear equations and

how they used the regula falsi method in solving the problem.

‘’One of the two fields yields 2/3 sila per sar, the second yields 1/2 sila per sar. The yield of
the first field was 500 sila more than that of the second; the areas of the two fields were
together 1800 sar, calculates how large is each field?’’

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This is how they solve the problem using the Babylonian regula falsi method

Such a problem can easily be translated into a system of two linear equations as follows:

Using the method of ‘’Regula Falsi”, this Babylonian scribe assumed that both x̂ and ŷ were equal
to 900, which satisfies equation (2).

So that, xˆ  yˆ ,

Now make model

x  xˆ  d and y  yˆ  d

Then substitute x  xˆ  d and y  yˆ  d in equation (1), so that we can find the value of d.

900  d 900  d

600 +

150 +

7d = 2100

d = 300

To find the value of x and y substitute the value of d in the model x  xˆ  d and y  yˆ  d

sar

sar

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Babylonian worked out Pythagoras theory and demonstrated Pythagorean triples. O’Connor

& Robertson (2000), examine four Babylonian tablets which all have some connection with

Pythagoras's theorem. Certainly the Babylonians were familiar with Pythagoras's theorem. A

translation of a Babylonian tablet which is preserved in the British museum goes as follows:

4 is the length and 5 the diagonal.

What is the breadth ?

Its size is not known.

4 times 4 is 16.

5 times 5 is 25.

You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9.

What times what shall I take in order to get 9 ?

3 times 3 is 9.

3 is the breadth.

Perhaps the most amazing aspect of the Babylonian's calculating skills was their construction

of tables to aid calculation. They were able to develop a Cuneiform table (clay tablets) for

multiplication, reciprocal, cube root, and square root. Because of the large base, all these

operations were carried out with the aid of a table. Two tablets found at Senkerah on the

Euphrates in 1854 date from 2000 BC.

They give squares of numbers up to 59 and cubes of numbers up to 32. The table gives 82 = 1,

4 which stands for

82 = 1,4 = 1 × 60 + 4 = 64

and so on up to 592 = 58, 1 = 58 × 60 + 1 = 3481

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Other achievements of Babylonians include finding the value of pie (π) as 3 and , using

the concept of similar figures to calculate areas of triangles, solving cubic equations with the

help of a Cuneiform table (clay tablets) and they developed a method of solving quadratics

equations.

Modern Era of Mathematics Education in Iraq

In the modern era, mathematics education in Iraq has undergone significant changes and

developments. The establishment of universities and research institutions has led to the

growth of the field, and new teaching methods have been introduced to improve student

learning outcomes (Aldulaimi, Kadhim, Al-Nidawi, & Kzar, 2023). Many important figures

have contributed to the development of mathematics education in Iraq, including

mathematicians, educators, and policymakers. Recent initiatives are the implementation of

educational reforms aimed at increasing access to mathematics education for all students

(Omer & Abbas, 2023). The overall objectives of education in Iraq are to foster new

generations who:

1. Believe in God Almighty and His Messengers;

2. Love their country and work to consolidate its national unity;

3. Are able to deal with scientific achievements and methods;

4. Are ethical and respectful of human rights, the cultural heritage and the environment;

5. Are contributing to social cohesion in a pro-active and constructive way;

6. Are cultivating originality and innovation;

7. Are interested in personal development and life-long learning.

According to their curriculum framework Mathematics equips students with powerful ways
to describe, analyse and change the world. It enables students to think independently and in

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abstract ways; to reason, solve problems and assess risk. Mathematical thinking is important
for all members of a modern society as a habit of mind, for its use in the workplace, for
participation in the knowledge economy, for understanding of science, engineering,
technology, business and finance, and for both personal and public decision-making. The
subject transcends cultural boundaries and its importance is universally recognized.
Mathematics is a creative discipline. It can stimulate moments of pleasure and wonder for all
students when they solve a problem for the first time, or discover a smoother solution, or
notice hidden connections. Main themes of their Mathematics curriculum include Numbers,
Mathematical symbols, Basic operations with numbers (numeracy; arithmetic operations),
Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Statistics and, Applied mathematic

Despite these advances, there are still challenges facing mathematics education in Iraq today.

Issues related to funding, resources, and curriculum development continue to be major

obstacles. However, there are also many opportunities for improvement, including the use of

technology to enhance teaching and learning, and the development of partnerships with

international organizations and institutions.

Challenges and Opportunities

The challenges facing mathematics education in Iraq today are significant. One of the biggest

obstacles is the lack of funding and resources for schools and universities. This has led to a

shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate facilities and equipment. Another challenge is

the need to develop a curriculum that is relevant and up-to-date, and that meets the needs of

students and the job market. Other challenges include political instability and economic

hardship. Despite these obstacles, there have been efforts to improve the quality of education

in the country.

Despite these challenges, there are also many opportunities for improvement. The use of

technology, such as online learning platforms and educational apps, can help to enhance

teaching and learning outcomes. Partnerships with international organizations and institutions

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can provide access to funding and resources, as well as opportunities for collaboration and

the exchange of ideas (Aldulaimi, Kadhim, Al-Nidawi, & Kzar, 2023).

Impact of Mathematics Education in Iraq

The impact of mathematics education in Iraq can be seen in many areas of society. It has

played a key role in the development of the country's economy, particularly in fields such as

finance, engineering, and technology (Aldulaimi, Kadhim, Al-Nidawi, & Kzar, 2023).

Mathematics education has also had a significant impact on culture, influencing art, literature,

and music.

Perhaps most importantly, mathematics education has helped to shape the minds and lives of

countless individuals in Iraq. It has provided them with the skills and knowledge they need to

succeed in their chosen careers and has given them a deeper understanding of the world

around them.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the history of mathematics education in Iraq is a fascinating and important

topic that deserves our attention and study. By exploring this history, we can gain insight into

the challenges and opportunities facing the field today and can work towards improving

mathematics education for future generations.

It is clear that continued investment in mathematics education is essential for the future

success and prosperity of Iraq. We must work together to overcome the challenges facing this

field, and to ensure that all students have access to high-quality mathematics education that

will prepare them for success in their chosen careers.

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I hope that you will agree with me that mathematics is fundamentally a product of society. Its

history is made immeasurably richer by the study of the cultures which have

produced it, wherever and whenever they might be.

References

Aldulaimi, M. H., Kadhim, T. A., Al-Nidawi, W. J. A., & Kzar, M. H. (2023). Covid-19
pandemic effects on the sustainable development of learning in Iraq. In AIP Conference
Proceedings (Vol. 2776, No. 1). AIP Publishing.

Gonçalves, C. (2023). Quantification and Computation in the Mathematical Texts of Old

Babylonian Diyala. In Cultures of Computation and Quantification in the Ancient World:
Numbers, Measurements, and Operations in Documents from Mesopotamia, China and South
Asia (pp. 691-730). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

Marr, P. (2018). The modern history of Iraq. Routledge.

O’Connor, J. J., & Robertson, E. F. (2000). Babylonian numerals. MacTutor History of

Mathematics. December.

Omer, A. I. T. K., & Abbas, A. M. (2023). Investigating Principles and Models of

Curriculum Development in some Iraqi Kurdistan Regional Universities through Teachers’
Point of view. Journal of Language Studies. Vol. VI, (2), 123-141.

Robson, E. (2000). Mesopotamian mathematics: some historical background. The

Mathematical Association of America.

Sövegjártó, S. (2023). A Collector’s Edition of the Past: Personal Collections of

Mesopotamian Royal Inscriptions from the Old Babylonian Period. Personal Manuscripts:
Copying, Drafting, Taking Notes, 30, 447.

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