Chakra

Chakras (UK: /ˈtʃʌkrəz/, US: /ˈtʃɑːkrəz/ CHUK-rəz, CHAH-

krəz;[2] Sanskrit: चक्र, romanized:  cakra, lit. 'wheel, circle'; Pali:
cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient
meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or
the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism and
Buddhism.[3][4][5]

The concept of the chakra arose in the early traditions of

Hinduism.[6] Beliefs differ between the Indian religions, with
many Buddhist texts consistently mentioning five chakras,
while Hindu sources reference six or seven.[3][4][7] Early
Sanskrit texts speak of them both as meditative visualizations
combining flowers and mantras and as physical entities in the
body.[7] Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing
exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras
are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through
chakras.[6][8]

The modern Western chakra system arose from multiple

Sapta Chakra, an 1899 manuscript (above)
sources, starting in the 1880s with H. P. Blavatsky and other
illustrates the esoteric correspondence(s) between
Theosophists,[9] followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book
subtle energy and Tibetan psycho-physiology.[1]
The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book
The Chakras. Psychological and other attributes, rainbow
colours, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones,
homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later.

Etymology
Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and
"cycle" (Ancient Greek: κύκλος, romanized:  kýklos).[10][3][4] It has both literal[11] and metaphorical uses, as in the
"wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11,[12][13] pervasive in the earliest
Vedic texts.

In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel".[14] Within the central "Tripitaka",
the Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in
its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. The Buddha spoke of freedom
from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.[15]

In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature.[16] As in
other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic
energy center.[17]

Ancient history
The word chakra appears to first emerge within the Vedas, though not in the sense of psychic energy centers,
rather as chakravartin or the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a center, representing
his influence and power.[18] The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David
Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and
dumpling".[19]

The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunamnama. Literally, it means
"she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric
riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may
be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric
traditions.[20][21][22]

Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium
BCE,[23][24] but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in
which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad.[25] The latter, states David
Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers,
such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti.[23][26] These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma
(lotus) or pitha (mound).[23] These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras, while later Hindu texts
such as the Kubjikāmata and Kaulajñānanirnaya expanded the list to many more.[23]

In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of
"psychospiritual vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: prana or vayu (life energy) along with nadi
(energy carrying arteries).[21] According to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini-
style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The chakra in the
sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts.[27][23]

Overview

Chakra and divine energies The Chakras are part of esoteric

ideas and concepts about physiology
Shining, she holds and psychic centers that emerged
the noose made of the energy of will, across Indian traditions.[23][29] The
the hook which is energy of knowledge, belief held that human life
the bow and arrows made of energy of action. simultaneously exists in two parallel
Split into support and supported, dimensions, one "physical body"
divided into eight, bearer of weapons, (sthula sarira) and other
arising from the chakra with eight points, "psychological, emotional, mind,
she has the ninefold chakra as a throne. non-physical" it is called the "subtle
body" (sukshma sarira).[30][note 1]
This subtle body is energy, while the
—Yoginihrdaya 53–54 physical body is mass. The psyche
(Translator: Andre Padoux)[28] or mind plane corresponds to and
interacts with the body plane, and
the belief holds that the body and the
mind mutually affect each other.[5]
The subtle body consists of nadi (energy channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy
called chakra.[3] The belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting An illustration of a
88,000 chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied between Saiva Nath chakra
various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and seven.[3][4] Nyingmapa system, folio 2 from
Vajrayana Buddhist teachings mention eight chakras and there is a complete yogic system the Nath Charit,
for each of them. 1823. Mehrangarh
Museum Trust.
The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column
along the spinal cord, from its base to the top of the head, connected by vertical
channels.[5][6] The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing
exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human
physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and
other motifs.[3][5][32]

Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in
acupuncture.[6] Unlike the latter, the chakra relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position but no definite nervous
node or precise physical connection. The tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant and a
means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant
inner energy (prana flows) and mind-body connections.[6][33] The meditation is aided by extensive symbology,
mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to
increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are
awakened.[34][35]

These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other
cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body,
esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.[36][37][31] According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston,
professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions:

Ideas and practices involving so-called 'subtle bodies' have existed for many centuries in many parts
of the world. (...) Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind, spirit
or soul as distinct from the physical body, if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming.
(...) An important subset of subtle-body practices, found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric
traditions, and in similar Chinese practices, involves the idea of an internal 'subtle physiology' of the
body (or rather of the body-mind complex) made up of channels through which substances of some
kind flow, and points of intersection at which these channels come together. In the Indian tradition the
channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra.

— Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West:
Between Mind and Body[38]

Contrast with classical yoga

Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to
mainstream yoga.[39] According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga
such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and
the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it."[40][41]

Number of chakras
There is no consensus in Hinduism about the number of chakras because the concept of chakras has been evolved
and interpreted differently by various sects, schools of thought, and spiritual traditions within Hinduism over the
centuries. While some traditions follow the seven main chakra system as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, others
recognize additional chakras or a different number of chakras. The lack of a universally accepted standard has led
to variation and diversity in the interpretation and understanding of chakras within Hinduism. There are several
sects within Hinduism that have their own unique interpretations and understandings of the concept of chakras.
Here are some of the major sects that have different perspectives on chakras:

Bhakti Yoga: In Bhakti Yoga, the number of chakras varies, but the focus is often on the heart
chakra as the center of spiritual devotion.
Ayurveda (3): In Ayurveda, there are three main chakras, known as the "Marmas," which are
considered to be the focal points of the physical, mental, and spiritual energies in the body.
 Shaivism (5): In Shaivism, there are five chakras, with the focus being on the heart and crown
chakras.
Tantra (6): In Tantra, there are traditionally said to be four to six chakras, with the crown chakra
being considered the highest.
Kashmir Shaivism (6-7): In Kashmir Shaivism, there are six or seven chakras, with the focus being
on the awakening of the divine energy within.
Hatha Yoga (7): In Hatha Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but some Hatha Yoga traditions also
recognize additional chakras.
Kundalini Yoga (7): In Kundalini Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but additional minor chakras
are also recognized.
Nath Tradition (8): In the Nath tradition, there are eight main chakras, with the emphasis being on
the awakening of the divine energy through these centers.
Vaishnavism (12): In Vaishnavism, there are twelve chakras, with the emphasis being on the
spiritual ascent through these centers.

Classical traditions
The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India
during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a
"subtle body" context.[42] To them, they are in same dimension as of the
psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In the nadi and cakra flow the
prana (breath, life energy).[42][43] The concept of "life energy" varies
between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more
complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy.[42] This
prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross
body. Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws
within, when one sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able
and important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to
other people in one's life.[42] This subtle body network of nadi and chakra
is, according to some later Indian theories and many new age speculations,
closely associated with emotions.[42][44]

Hindu Tantra In meditation, chakras are often

visualised in different ways, such as
Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and a lotus flower, or a disc containing a
arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the particular deity.
last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent.[3][4][5] This seven-part system,
central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found
in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to
the six chakras of the six-plus-one system.[45]
 Association of six Yoginis with
chakra locations in the
Rudrayamala Tantra[45]
Place in subtle body Yogini
1. Muladhara Dakini

2. Svadhisthana Rakini

3. Manipura Lakini
4. Anahata Kakini

5. Vishuddhi Shakini

6. Ajna Hakini

The Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an
important concept along with yantras, mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice. Chakra in Shakta tantrism
means circle, an "energy center" within, as well as being a term for group rituals such as in chakra-puja (worship
within a circle) which may or may not involve tantra practice.[46] The cakra-based system is a part of the
meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga.[47]

Buddhist Tantra

The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras.[3] In

some early Buddhist sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura
(navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala
(crown).[49] In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the
Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras
in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows: Nirmanakaya
(gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya (causal self), and
Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and indirectly corresponding
to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, i.e.,
Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, Sahasrara, etc.[50] However, depending
on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six.[49] The
chakras are considered psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing
meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated
A Tibetan illustration of the subtle
Buddha counterpart.[51][49]
body showing the central channel
A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and two side channels as well as
five chakras.
and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:[52]

Basal chakra (Element: Earth, Buddha: Amoghasiddhi, Bija

mantra: LAM)
Abdominal chakra (Element: Water, Buddha: Ratnasambhava, Bija mantra: VAM)
Heart chakra (Element: Fire, Buddha: Akshobhya, Bija mantra: RAM)
Throat chakra (Element: Wind, Buddha: Amitabha, Bija mantra: YAM)
Crown chakra (Element: Space, Buddha: Vairochana, Bija mantra: KHAM)

Chakras clearly play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric
thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the
primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without
Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The
highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with
the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity,
namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with
the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of
absolute Buddhahood.[53]

According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as
"central to their soteriological process".[54] The theories were sometimes, but not
always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or
'phrul 'khor.

Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each
of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential
qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe.[55]

The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary
channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep
mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous A Tibetan thangka with a
qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an diagram showing six
chakras—a root chakra, a
attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative,
chakra at the sex organs,
supportive qualities.[55]
one at the navel, one at the
heart, another at the throat
Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light. The
and the last one located at
practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive
the crown.[48]
salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition.[55]

The seven chakra system

The more common and most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras
along with a seventh center generally not regarded as a chakra. These points are
arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in Hindu texts,
Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts).[57] According to Gavin Flood, this system of six
chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-
tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work.[58]

It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John
Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in the text The Serpent Power. Avalon
translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination
(nirūpaṇa) of the seven (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).[59]
One widely popular schema
The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from of seven chakras is as
lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, follows, from bottom to top:
1. Muladhara 2.
internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent.[60] In both the Hindu kundalini and
Svadhisthana 3. Manipura
Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing
4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6.
near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in
Ajna 7. Sahasrara.[4] The
Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce
colours are modern.[56]
one").[61]

Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh
point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colors of the rainbow not found in
any ancient Indian system.[56]
Image of Sanskrit No. of Modern Seed
Name Location Description
chakra (Translation) petals colour syllable

Highest spiritual centre,

pure consciousness,
containing neither object
nor subject. When the
feminine Kundalini Shakti
rises to this point, it unites
सहस्रार with the masculine Shiva,
Multi or giving self-realization and
Sahasrara "Thousand- Crown 1000 —
violet
petaled" samadhi.[4] In esoteric
Buddhism, it is called
Mahasukha, the petal lotus
of "Great Bliss"
corresponding to the fourth
state of Four Noble
Truths.[61]

Guru chakra, or in New Age

usage third-eye chakra, the
subtle center of energy,
where the tantra guru
आज्ञा Between
Ajna or Agya 2 Indigo — touches the seeker during
"Command" eyebrows
the initiation ritual. He or
she commands the
awakened kundalini to pass
through this centre.[4]
16 petals covered with the
sixteen Sanskrit vowels.
Associated with the
element of space (akasha).
The residing deity is
Panchavaktra shiva, with 5
heads and 4 arms, and the
Shakti is Shakini.[4]

विशुद्ध Ham
In esoteric Buddhism,
Vishuddha Throat 16 Blue it is called Sambhoga
"Purest" (space)
and is generally
considered to be the
petal lotus of
"Enjoyment"
corresponding to the
third state of Four
Noble Truths.[61]

Anahata अनाहत Heart 12 Green Yam Within it is a yantra of two

"Unstruck" (air) intersecting triangles,
forming a hexagram,
symbolising a union of the
male and female, and the
element of air (vayu). The
presiding deity is Ishana
Rudra Shiva, and the
Shakti is Kakini.[4]

In esoteric Buddhism,
this Chakra is called
Dharma and is
generally considered
to be the petal lotus of
"Essential nature" and
 corresponding to the
second state of Four
Noble Truths.[61]

For the Nath yogi

meditation system, this is
described as the
Madhyama-Shakti or the
intermediate stage of self-
मणिपूर Ram discovery.[60] This chakra
Manipura Navel 10 Yellow is represented as a
"Jewel city" (fire)
downward pointing triangle
representing fire in the
middle of a lotus with ten
petals. The presiding deity
is Braddha Rudra, with
Lakini as the Shakti.[4]
Svadhisthana is
represented with a lotus
within which is a crescent
moon symbolizing the
water element. The
presiding deity is Brahma,
with the Shakti being
स्वाधिष्ठान Rakini (or Chakini).[4]
"Where the Root of
Vam
Svadhishthana self sexual 6 Orange In esoteric Buddhism,
(water)
is organs
established"
it is called Nirmana,
the petal lotus of
"Creation" and
corresponding to the
first state of Four
Noble Truths.[61]

Muladhara मूलाधार Base of 4 Red Lam Dormant Kundalini is often

"Root" spine (earth) said to be resting here,
wrapped three and a half,
or seven or twelve times.
Sometimes she is wrapped
around the black
Svayambhu linga, the
lowest of three obstructions
to her full rising (also
known as knots or
granthis).[62] It is
symbolised as a four-
petaled lotus with a yellow
square at its center
representing the element of
earth.[4]

The seed syllable is

Lam for the earth
element. All sounds,
words and mantras in
their dormant form rest
in the muladhara
chakra, where
Ganesha resides,[63]
while the Shakti is
 Dakini.[64] The
associated animal is
the elephant.[65]

Western chakra system

History

Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the
western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration"
of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical;
Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the
Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour
system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras,[66] treated as
traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as
Barbara Brennan.[56][67] Leland states that far from being traditional, the
two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list
of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977.[56]

The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s; at that
time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus.[56] In 1918, Sir John
Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts, the Ṣaṭ-
Cakra-Nirūpaṇa and the Pādukā-Pañcaka, and in his book The Serpent
Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory.[68] Chakra positions in supposed
relation to nervous plexuses, from
In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book
gland,[56] a tradition that has persisted.[69][70][71] More recently, the lower The Chakras
six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.[72] The
seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system
in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white.[56] Leadbeater's theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's
1696 book Theosophia Practica, which mentioned inner "force centres".[73]

Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian
elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later.[56] A wide range of supposed
correspondences such as with alchemical metals, astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones,
homeopathic remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot cards have also been
proposed.[56]

New Age

In Anatomy of the Spirit (1996), Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and
experience you've ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases. Each event is recorded into
your cells...".[74] The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to
the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions,
chakras are associated with multiple physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, a classical element, and
other distinguishing characteristics; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras
are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.[56]

The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional
and mental nature. They are considered loci of life energy or prana (which New Age belief equates with shakti, qi
in Chinese, ki in Japanese, koach-ha-guf[75] in Hebrew, bios in Greek, and aether in both Greek and English),
which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw
in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance.[76]

Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has
become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in
future times.[77][78][79] Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves
down, rather than moving in the opposite direction. He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through
disciplining thoughts, feelings, and will.[80] According to Florin Lowndes, a "spiritual student" can further develop
and deepen or elevate thinking consciousness when taking the step from the "ancient path" of schooling to the
"new path" represented by Steiner's The Philosophy of Freedom.[81]

Skeptical response
The not-for-profit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that despite their popularity, "there has never been any
evidence for these meridian lines or chakras". It adds that while practitioners sometimes cite "scientific evidence"
for their claims, such evidence is often "incredibly shaky".[82]

See also
Hinduism portal

Aura
Dantian—energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems
Surya Namaskar—the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a
chakra and a mantra

Notes
1. The roots to this belief are found in Samkhya and Vedanta which attempt to conceptualize the
permanent soul and impermanent body as interacting in three overlapping states: the gross body
(sthula sarira), the subtle body (sukshma sarira), and causal body (karana sarira). These ideas
emerged to address questions relating to the nature of body and soul, how and why they interact
while one is awake, one is asleep and over the conception-birth-growth-decay-death-rebirth
cycle.[30][31]

References
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2. Wells, John (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-
4058-8118-0.
3. Chakra: Religion (https://www.britannica.com/topic/chakra), Encyclopaedia Britannica
4. Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in
English (https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC). State University of New York
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Further reading
Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (fourth revised & enlarged ed.).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
Bucknell, Roderick; Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist
Meditation and Symbolism. London: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-312-82540-4.
Edgerton, Franklin (2004) [1953]. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary (Reprint ed.).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0999-8. (Two volumes)
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000flo
o). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
Chia, Mantak; Chia, Maneewan (1993). Awaken Healing Light of the Tao. Healing Tao Books.
Dale, Cyndi (2009). The Subtle Body: An Encyclopedia of Your Energetic Anatomy. Boulder,
Colorado: Sounds True. ISBN 978-1-59179-671-8.
Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Prabhananda, S. (2000). Studies on the Tantras (Second reprint ed.). Calcutta: The Ramakrishna
Mission Institute of Culture. ISBN 81-85843-36-8.
Rinpoche, Tenzin Wangyal (2002). Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow
Lion Publications. ISBN 1-55939-176-6.
Saraswati, Swami Sivananda (1953–2001). Kundalini Yoga. Tehri-Garhwal, India: Divine Life
Society. foldout chart. ISBN 81-7052-052-5.
 Tulku, Tarthang (2007). Tibetan Relaxation. The illustrated guide to Kum Nye massage and
movement – A yoga from the Tibetan tradition. London: Dunkan Baird Publishers. ISBN 978-1-
84483-404-4.
Woodroffe, John (1964) [1919]. The Serpent Power. Madras, India: Ganesh & Co. ISBN 0-486-
23058-9.
Banerji, S. C. Tantra in Bengal. Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. (Manohar: Delhi, 1992)
ISBN 81-85425-63-9
Saraswati, Swami Sivananda (1953–2001). Kundalini Yoga. Divine Life Society. ISBN 81-7052-
052-5.
Goswami, Shyam Sundar. Layayoga: The Definitive Guide to the Chakras and Kundalini,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
Sharp, Michael (2005). Dossier of the Ascension: A Practical Guide to Chakra Activation and
Kundalini Awakening (https://archive.today/20121221033639/http://dossier.michaelsharp.org/)
(1st ed.). Avatar Publications. ISBN 0-9735379-3-0. Archived from the original (http://dossier.micha
elsharp.org) on 21 December 2012.
Khalsa, Guru Dharam Singh; O'Keeffe, Darryl. The Kundalini Yoga Experience Simon & Schuster,
2002.
Judith, Anodea (1996). Eastern Body Western Mind: Psychology and the Chakra System As A Path
to the Self. Berkeley, California, USA: Celestial Arts Publishing. ISBN 0-89087-815-3
Lowndes, Florin. 'Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart: The Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of
Rudolf Steiner' ISBN 1-85584-053-7, first English edition 1998 from the original German edition of
1996, comparing 'traditional' chakra teaching, and that of C.W. Leadbeater, with that of Rudolf
Steiner.

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