Ahmed Hussien

Process Chemist .
a_Hussiensoliman@yahoo.com
MOPCO
Many of the topics contained in this book are the subject of patents and therefore nothing
contained herein should be construed as granting a licence or permission to use any Contributors
invention or process which may be protected by a patent.
Reasonable care has been used in compiling the contents of this book but the editor, the
contributors, and the publisher accept no liability with respect to the accuracy of the G. W. Bridger BSc, MRSC
contents. Any person using information, equipment, methods or procedures described in
this book should only do so aft.er seeking the advice of a suitably qualified person. P.J.H. Camell BSc, PhD
P. DaviesBSc
R.T.Donald
D.R. Goodman BA
N.H. Harbord BSc, PhD
J.R. Jennings BSc, PhD
L. Lloyd BSc, PhD
W.J. LywoodBSc, ACGI I
B.B. PearceBSc, PhD
D.E. RidlerBSc
I
M.S. Spencer BSc, PhD, C. Chem., FRSC
M.V. TwiggBSc, PhD, C.Chem., FRSC
Copyright©M.V. Twigg , 1989 S.A. WardBSc
Published by Wolfe Publishing Ltd, 1989
Printed by Butler & Tanner, Frame, England
ISBN O 7234 08572
C. WoodwardBSc, PhD
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!
j
i.
II!

1
Iii
 Contents

Contents 1.3.12.1. AmmoniaSynthesis........................................... ·67

1.3.12.2. Methanol Synthesis ........................................... 68
1.4. Catalyst in Use ............................ ,........................................... 69
Preface.................................................................................... 16 1.4.1. Introduction................................................................... 69
1.4.2. Pretreatment and Activation.............................................. 69
1.4.3. Loss of Catalyst Pe rformance............................................. 73
1.4.4. Physical Causes of Decay .............................................. :... 76
Chapter 1. 1.4.5. Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts ........................ 77
1.4.6. Poisoning by Reactants or Products..................................... 81
1.4.7 . Interactions in Catalyst Deactivation................................... 82
Fundamental Principles
Chapter 2.
M.S. Spencer
Process Design, Rating and
• 1.1. Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis.................................... .
1.1.1. Introduction ...................................................................
17
17 Performance
1.1.2. The Role of Catalysis ................_....................................... 18
1.1.2. 1. Ammonia Synthesis .............................................. 18
1.1.2.2. Ammonia Oxidation ........................... :.................. 19 W.J.Lywood
1. 1.3. The Nature of the Catalytic Process..................................... 23
1.1.4. Catalyst A ctivity ............................................................ . 24
2.1. Design of Catalytic Reactors ...................................... : ...............
1.1.5. Catalyst Selectivity .......................................................... 26 85
27 2.1.1. Operating Temperature and Pressure .................................. 87
1.1.6. Steps in the Catalytic Process ............................................ . 2.1.1.1. Desulphurization Reactor ......................................
1.1.7. Adsorption and Desorption .............................................. . 29 87
32 2.1.1.2. Steam Reformers ................................................. 87
1.1.8. Catalyst Design............................................................... 2.1.1.3. Water-gas Shift Reactors........................................ 88

t
1.2. Catalyst Manufacture ............................................................... . 34 2.1.1.4. Methanation Reactor ........................................... . 89
1.2.1. Introduction................................................................... 34 2.1.1.5. Ammonia and Methanol S ynthesis Reactors ............... 89

f
1.2.2. Unsupported Metals ........................................................ 34 2.1.2. Converter Types ............................................................. 90
1.2.3. Fused Catalysts ............................................................... 35 2.1.2.1. Single Adiabatic Bed ............................................ . 90
1.2.4. Wet Methods of Catalyst Manufacture ................................. 37 2.1.2.2. Quench Converter ................................................ 91
1.2.5. Fundamentals of Precipitation Processes .............................. 38 2.1.2.3. Inter-bed Cooling ................................................. 91
1.2.6. Catalyst Manufacture by Precipitation Processes .................... 40 2.1.2.4. !CI High-conversion Reactor .................................. 96
1.2.7. Impregnation Processes .................................................... 41 2.1.2.5. Tube-cooled Reactor............................................. 96
1.2.8. Forming Stages............................................................... 43 2.1.2.6. Steam-raising Reactor ........................................... 96
2.1.3. CatalystLife................................................................... 96
1.3. Catalyst Testing ....................................................................... 48 2.1.4. Optimum Catalyst Size and Shape..................................... 101
1.3.1. Introduction ................................................................... 48 2.1.4.1. Voidage ._.....• :.. :................................................ 101
1.3.2. Chemical and Physical Properties........................................ 49
1.3.3. Bulk Chemical Properties.................................................. 49 ................ ·......
2.1.4.2. Catalyst Particle Size...........................................
2.1.5. Design Conversion of Reactor ....................
103
1
105
1.3.4. Surface Chemical Properties .............................................. 50 2.1.6. Calculation of Catalyst Volume ................. ...................... 107
1.3.5. Physical Properties .......................................................... 52 2.1.6.1. Catalyst Volume for Low concentration Reactant
1.3.6. Catalyst Performance ....................................................... 55
56
., ·
Being Removed ................................................. 107
1.3. 7. Coarse Laboratory Screening ............................................. ·z.1.6.2. Catalyst Volume for Low concentration Product Being
1.3.8. Fine Laboratory Screening.........................................•·••···· 58 Formed ............................................................ 108
1.3.9. Semi-technical Catalyst Testing .......................................... 60 2.1.6.3. Equilibrium Concentrations ................................. . 109
1.3.10. Reaction Kinetics.......................................................... . 61 2.1.6.4. Rate Constants .................................................. 119
1.3.11. Catalyst Ageing............................................................. 65 2.1.7. Vessel Dimensions......................................................... 119
1.3.12. Mechanism of the Catalytic Reaction ................................. 66
2.2. Reactor Rating ...................................................................... 121
 2.2.1. Optimum Operating Temperature .................................... 121 Chapter 3.
2.3. Catalyst Performance.............................................................. 123
2.3.1. Fall in Apparent Catalyst Activity.....................................
2.3.1.1. Poisoning/Sintering.............................................
123
123 Handling and Using Catalysts in the
2.3.1.2. Poor Gas Distribution . ........... ............................. 124 Plant
2.3.1.3. PoorMixing ofReactants..................................... 124
2.3.2. Increase in Pressure Drop ........ ....................................... 125
2.3.2.1. Breakage or Erosion of Catalyst Particles ................ 125 D.R. Goodman
2.3.2.2. Disintegration of Catalyst Particles......................... 125
2.3.2.3. Deformation of Catalyst Particles .......................... 126 3.1. Introduction .......".................................................................. 140
2.3.2.4. Carry-over onto Catalyst Bed................................ 126
2.3.2.5. Collapse of Bed Support...................................... 126 3.2. CatalystStorage .................................................................... 140
2.3.3. Measurement of Performance ........ .. ..... .................... .. ..... 126 141
2.3.3.1. Analysis........................................................... 126 3.3. Drum Handling .....................................................................
2.3.3.2. Mass Balance .................................................... 127 3.4. Intermediate Bulk Containers and Socks ..................................... 142
2.3.3.3. Catalyst-bed TemperatureRises............................ 127
2.3.3.4. Catalyst-bed Temperature Profiles......................... 127 3.5. SievingCatalyst ..................................................................... 149
2.3.3.5. Radioactive Tracing............................................ 127 3.6. Catalyst Charging .................................................................. 150
2.3.3.6. Pressure Drop ................................................... 127 3.6.1. Pre-charging Checks ...................................................... 150
2.3.4. Quantifying Catalyst Performance ...................... .............. 127 3.6.2. Charging Vessels........................................................... 151
2.3.4.1. Composition at the Exit from the Reactor................ 128 3.6.3. Charging Ammonia Converters ........................................ 155
2.3.4.2. Approach to Equilibrium..................................... 128 3.6.4. Charging Reformer Tubes ............................................... 156
2.3.4.3. Activity or Active Volume of Catalyst..................... 128
2.3.5. Calculation of Catalyst Performance... :.............................. 128 3.7. Catalyst Reduction ................................................................. 161
2.3.5.1. Reactor Exit Composition.................................... 129 3.7.1. Reduction ofReforming Catalyst ..................................... . 162
2.3.5.2. Calculation of Approach to Equilibrium.................. 130 3.7.1.1. Typical Reduction with Steam and Natural Gas......... 163
2.3.5.3. Calculat!<:n of Activity or Active Volume from 3. 7.1.2. Reduction with Gas Recirculation .......................... 164
Composition ..................................................... 132 3.7.2. Reduction of High-temperature Shift Catalyst ..................... 165
2.3.5.4. Calculation of Activity or Active Volume from 3.7.2.1. Typical Reduction of High-temperature Shift
Temperature Profiles ...... .......... ........ .. ................ 133 Catalyst ............................................................ 166
2.3.6. Application ofMethods to Ammonia andMethanol Catalysts 134 3.7.3. Reduction of Low-temperature Shift Catalyst ...................... 166
2.3.6.1. Desulphurizer.................................................... 135 3.7.3.1� Typical Reduction of Low-temperature Shift Catalyst 170
2.3.6.2. Primary and Secondary Reformer.......................... 135 3.7.4. Reduction ofMethanation Catalyst .................................. . 171
2.3.6.3. High Temperature Shift ..................................... ,. 136 3.7.5. Reduction of Ammonia Synthesis Catalyst.......................... 171
2.3.6.4. Low Temperature Shift........................................ 136 3.7.5.1. Typical Reduction of a Tube-cooled Ammonia
2.3.6.5. Methanator..................................... ............ ...... 136 Converter ......................................................... 173
2.3.6.6. Ammonia and Methanol Synthesis Converter........... 137 3.7.5.2. Typical Reductionof a Multibed Quench Converter.. . 174
2.4. Computer Programs ........................ .............. ......................... 137 3.8. Catalyst Shutdown and Restarts ................................................ 175 �t.....
2.4.1. Reasons for Using Computer Calculations . ......................... 137 ii!
3.9. Catalyst Regeneration............................................................. 176 •l
2.4;.l.l. Accurate Calculations......................................... 137 3.9. I. Regeneration ofReforming Catalyst................................. . 176
IJ
Jl
2.4.1.2. Non-isothermal Reactors..................................... 138 3.9.2. Regeneration of High-temperature Shift Catalyst ................. 177
2.4.1.3. MultipleReactions .............................................. 138 3.9.3. Regeneration of Low-temperature Shift Catalyst ................ . 177 'I'.;
2.4.1.4. Optimization..................................................... 138 3.9.4. Washing of Meinanation Catalyst ..................................... 177
2.4.1.5. Simulation........................................................ 138
!.
3.9.5. Regeneration of Ammonia Synthesis Catalyst..................... . 178 I'
2.4.2. Types of Computer Programs........................................... 138
3.10. Blanketing ofReduced Catalyst............................................... 178 ,:1,
179
i'
3.11. Catalyst Stabilization ............................................................. l1
3.11.1. Stabilizatio n of Reforming Catalyst. ................................. 180
3.11.2. Stabilization of High�temperature Shift Catalyst................. 180
 Contents Contents

3.11.3. Stabilization of Low-temperature Shift Catalyst .................. 181 4.11. Zinc Oxide.......................................................................... 209
3.11.4. Stabilization of Methanation Catalyst............................... 182 4.11.1. Background to Zinc Oxide Absorbents............................. 209
3.11.5. Stabilization of Ammonia Synthesis Catalyst...................... 183 4.11.2. Thermodynamics and Reaction Kinetics ........................... 209
3.12. Catalyst Discharge................................................................ 183 4.11.3. Formulation of Commercial Zinc Oxide............................ 211
3.12.1. General..................................................................... 183 4.11.4. Use of Test Reactors to Assess Zinc Oxide Absorbents ........ 211
3.12.2. Discharge ofPyrophoricCatalyst .................................... 184 4.11.5. Effect of Temperature, Pressure and Space Velocity on
-I 3.12.3. Top Discharge............................................................. 185 Efficiency of Zinc Oxide Absorbents................................ 213
4.11.6. Effect of Gas Composition............................................. 216
4.11.7. Effect of Reactor Des ign ......................... ...................... 217
3.12.4. Blanketing Pyrophoric Catalyst During Vacuum Extraction.. 186
3.12.5. Discharge of Ammonia Synthesis Catalyst......................... 186
Ii 3.13. Re-use of Discharged Catalyst................................................. 187
4.11.8. Other Desulphurization Uses for Zinc Oxide ...... ...............
4.11.9. Impurities in Zinc Oxide................................................
219
220
;! 3.14. Disposal of Used Catalyst....................................................... 188 4.12. Dechlorination .................................................................... 220
4.12.1. Chloride Sources and Absorbents.................................... 220

I.
3.15. Safety Precautions................................................................ 188
4.12.2. Op erating Conditions ................................................... 222
4.13. Removal of Silica and Fluoride ................................................ 223
Chapter 4.
4.14. Demetallization ................................................................... 223

i;
Feedstock Purification 4:15. Denitrification .............. ....... .................... ............................ 224
I:
'i P.J .H. Carnell Chapter 5.
!i

4.1. Introduction ......................................................................... 191 Steam Reforming

192

I
4.2. Feedstocks for Ammonia, Methanol and Hydrogen Production ...... .
4.2.1. Natural Gas ..................,.............................................. 192
4.2.2. Associated Gas, Natural Gas Condensates and LPG ............. 193 D.E. Ridler, M.V. Twigg
4.2.3. Naphtha ...................................................................... 194
4.2.4. Refinery Off Gases and Electrolytic Hydrogen .................... 194
194 5.1. History .............................................................................. .. 225
4.2.5. Coal Gasification and Coke Oven Gas ...............................
4.2.6. Mixed Feeds ................................................................. 195 5.2. Feedstock and Feedstock Pretreatment 226
4.3. Desulphurization .................................................................. .
4.3.1. Processes for Single-stage Sulphur Removal ........................
196
196
198
;tt s
�:�;tta�.a .:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
227
228
5.3. e i of S eam R;eforming ................................................. 230
;� r �i
Ki:;:�.��.��-
�
4.3.2. Processes for Two-stage Sulphur Removal ..........................
199 1 230
4.4. Thermal Dissociation of Sulphur Compounds............................... 5:3:2: ................... ..............
.�::::::::::::::::::·························· ··············· 239
4.5. Hydrogenolysis of Sulphur Compounds ...................................... 200
5.4. s n St�• Reforming Catalysts ......................................... 244
203 �� 1 s°�:::�
{ !" · ·········· ·········· ···· · ············· ···· ···· ··· ··
4.6. Carbonyl Sulphide ................................................................. t§t�bii t········· 244
204
s:4:2: T i 244
4.7. Cobalt Molybdate Catalysts ..................................................... 5.4.3. Physical Propertl�;·::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::: :::· ···· ···· ····· 244
4.7.1. Presulphiding Cobalt Molybdate Catalyst ........................... 205
206
5.4.4. Nickel as a Ste�m Reforming Catalyst ..................:::::::::::::: 244
4.7.2. Other Reactions Over Cobalt Molybdate Catalyst ................ 5.4.5. Supports for N1�kel Steam Reforming Catalysts ................... 249
4.8. Nickel Molybdate Catalysts ...................................................... 207 5.4.6. Carbon Formation on Reforming Catalysts ......................... 250
4.9. Physical Form of Cobalt and Nickel Molybdate Catalysts ................ 207 5.5. Secondary Reforming ····························································· 253

4.10. Replacement and Discharging of Cobalt and Nickel Molybdate

5.6. Catalyst Dimensions 254.
Catalysts.............................................. ............................... 208 5.7 • Uses of Catalytic Ste��;�;�;�i��:: :::::::::::: ::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 256

I s 9

Preface
The first edition of Catalyst Handbook was published twenty years ago.
It contained fundamental information on heterogeneous catalysis and
practical details about the catalysts and processes employed in the
production of hydrogen an_d ammonia via the stream reforming of
hydrocarbons. It was used extensively by industrialists, and also by
those working in research and teaching institutions, who found it
valuable because it was one of the very few easily accessible
authoritative sources of information about industrial catalysis and the
operation of catalytic processes.
Since the publication of the first edition, there have been significant
advances in areas of catalysis and the technologies it covered, many of
which originated from ICI's operations at Billingham, in the North East
of England. As a result there have been numerous requests for an
updated edition incorporating the new developments.
This second edition is very different from the first edition. The
sections concerned with the catalysts and catalytic processes employed
in the production of synthesis gas for making ammonia and hydrogen
have been completely rewritten. In addition to these broadened main
sections, there is a chapter on methanol synthesis as the technology is in
many ways similar to that used in ammonia and hydrogen plants, having
as it does the same initial steps for the production of synthesis gas from
hydrocarbons. Conversion of methanol to formaldehyde is the largest
outlet for methanol, and as it is often operated with methanol synthesis
on the same site it is appropriate for it to be covered here. Similarly,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid plants have Jong been associated with
ammonia for the manufacture of nitrogen and compound fertilizers, and
so brief sections dealing with them are included.
The production of this book was truly multi-disciplinary involving
specialists with extensive experience of catalyst development, catalyst
manufacture, plant design, and plant operation. This brought together a
team of research workers and technologists comprising chemists,
physicists, metallurgists, chemical engineers and others. The result is a
handbook that is intended primarily for people working in the chemical
industry. However, it has been written with other readers in mind, so
that it can be used as a reference source for research and teaching
purposes in universities.
In addition to the named contributors, many other people at ICI both
at Billingham and at Chicago, USA, helped in compiling this book, and
the editor would like to extend his sincere thanks to them.
16
Chapter 1
Fundamental Principles
1 1.1. Fundamentals of
Heterogeneous Catalysis
1.1.1. lntroduction
The word "catalysis" is used to describe many phenomena but in all
instances an agent (the catalyst) exerts · a more-than-proportional
influence over some change. Indeed, the word catalysis, coined by
Berzelius in 1836 to describe some enhanced chemical reactions,1 is now
used popularly in a non-technical way. In this book we shall restrict use
of the. term "catalysis" to the heterogeneous catalysis of gas-phase
reactions; that is, the promotion of reactions between gases by the use
of solid catalysts. We shall be concerned mainly with a few reactions of
great importance in the heavy inorganic chemicals industry. The
simplicity of the overall chemistry of these reactions usually hides a
bewildering complexity of separate reaction steps on the catalyst
surface. The discussion in this chapter is limited to a few general
principles, which are illustrated by examples from the processes
described in later chapters. Further study, essential for any full
understanding of heterogeneous catalysis, can be undertaken using the
books listed in Appendix 1. All of the topics of this chapter are treated
comprehensively in a recent book by Richardson 1a.
Catalysts are frequently defined as materials which accelerate
chemical reactions without themselves undergoing change. As the
manager of any plant using a catalytic process knows, this is too
_ optimistic a definition: the properties of all real catalysts do change with
use. The definition is also unsatisfactory in a more general way, for it
implies that the acceleration is brought about without direct
involvement of the catalyst in the process. Rather than attempting to
produce an alternative succinct definition, we can list the essential
features of the heterogenous catalysis of gas-phase reactions.
1. The presence of a solid material (the heterogeneous catalyst)
changes the rate of an overall chemical reaction. The term "solid" is
_subject to some qualification, as the sulphuric acid catalyst (see
Chapter 10) is a melt held in a porous solid and some other catalysts
also contain mobile phases, e.g. some potassium salts in steam
-reforming catalysts (see Chapter 5). The overall chemical reaction
17
 3. 7. Catalyst Reduction
Chapter 3. Handling and Using Catalysts in the Plant

Figure 3.8. (c) Pressure-drop instrument ready for use. (dJ Adjusting the air
pressure upstream of the orifice plate to a standard setting. On this instrument the
pressure-drop reading is taken from the right-hand gauge, which measures the
pressure after the orifice plate.

discharged to correct high pressure drops (see Section 3.12 on

discharge). The extraction gear can also be useful for removing debris
from the tubes before charging is begun. As reformer tubes are not all
exactly the same size and the catalyst is not always exactly the same
density, the charged weight will only show major discrepancies in the
tube charging, so it is more important to charge to the correct level and
pressure drop. The tube should be vibrated periodically during the
charging process, either with electric vibrators fastened inside the
furnace or by hammering the top flange with soft-faced hammers. The
routine for vibration should be defined as charging commences and not
altered as charging proceeds, so as to give even packing over the whole

1
ument with digital readout.
Figure 3.9. ICI pressure-drop instr
furnace. The final catalyst level is measured carefully to ensure that all
of the heated length of the tube will contain catalyst when the plant is at 3. 7. Ca�a lyst
operating temperature. Reduction
. active form under process
Catalysts are des1gned to be in their
lied in an inert form which is stable
conditions. They are gen�rall su p small
under atmospheric. cond 1t10nYs, anpd somefImes they also contain
. h have to be remo ved m the
quantities of impunt�es such as su1phur wh'tc
161
160
 I
!
Chapter 3. Handling and Using Catalysts in the Plant 3.7. Catalyst Reduction

course of activation. The activation procedure usually involves the roam. tam
. safe conditions in the heat-recovery section, as this may
reduction of a metal oxide, and requires careful control if the best become overheated because oflow flow on the tube s1"de .
catalyst performance is to be achieved. The procedures outlined in the The hydrogen for reduction can be provided directly' or from o�
following sections are typical of standard practices for catalyst ases containing hydrogen, or from natural gas, ammoma or methano
reduction. It is often possible to speed up the commissioning process but !,hich can form hydrogen in the tubes. It is an adva�tage to_ ensure there
faster methods of reduction can sometimes give rise to problems. For is some hydrogen present in the inlet feed gas, and_1f there is no ':xternal
instance, local overheating or uneven reduction can take place so that source of hydrogen this is best provided by recyclmg the reduction gas.
fast start-up methods are best considered on a case-by-case basis taking If h drogen is not provided in the inlet gas, the top por:10n of the
into account what instrumentation and other facilities that are available, catai st will not be reduced, resulting in a smaller eff':ct1ve catalyst
as well as the operating priorities on individual plants. ICI Catalysts has volu�e and increasing the likelihood of carbon format10n. In P!a�ts
substantial experience of the considerations involved, and will be which contain a cobalt/molybdenum catalyst in the desulphunzmg
pleased to assist in such studies.
2.6
3.7 .1. Reduction of Reforming Catalyst
Nickel reforming catalysts are supplied as supported nickel oxide and to
become active this must be reduced to give metallic nickel. The reaction £
� 2.4
NiO + H2-Ni +H2 0 (I) {
is almost thermally neutral. The reduction is nearly always carried out
0
,;;
with a mixture of steam and hydrogen, and a typical schedule is given 3 2.2
below. It is important to have sufficient hydrogen present to ensure that
reducing conditions are maintained, and this depends to some extent on
the temperature of the catalyst. Figure 3.10 shows the boundary
between the thermodynamic oxidizing and reducing conditions for the 700
reduction of nickel oxide in a mixture of steam and hydrogen. In 300 400 500 600

practice more hydrogen has to be present than the thermodynamic

Temperaturerc
. . . . . onditions for nickel oxide/nickel
minimum for kinetic reasons and a steam-hydrogen ratio of eight is T
Figure 3.10. � ermod y
_
namic reduci n
t����:�� :sed than indicated.
Y
typical. Some manuals have suggested that the initial heating of metal. In practice, considerably more
. ng if the recycle
reformers can be done with natural gas in the absence of steam. section, the�e is a dange� of methanation and overheati lt/molybdenum
d in such cases the coba
Although carbon lay-down is unlikely below catalyst temperatures gases contam carbon oxides, a re recycle flow
around 300°C, in practice it is difficult to prevent local overheating and bed be isolated, or _the c ar\on ox1'd s removed befo
• must from. plant to
carbon formati on, so the procedure is not recommended. 1s commenced • The details o f start-up Pr:cedure will vary
majo . c1p1es.
r pnn
The reduction of steam reforming catalyst is relatively plant, but the sequence set out b e1ow i'llustrates the
straightforward, but the temperature control of the furnace requires
care. Regular visual checks must be made on the furnace throughout the 3 . 7. 1 .1 . Typical reduction with steam and natural gas
start-up. The instrumentation provided to monitor furnace performance 1. Purge the plant free of oxygen wit . h m't:ogen. and heat th e refarmer
is designed for operation under normal running conditions. It is virtually . Iation . The.
he condensation temperature with mtrogen circu . s
if there
b
impossible to provide sufficient instrumentation for start-up conditions, m1 I �eat up can be done with air in the catalyst tubes
� -�-';,'t , but
not �e �tte_ m pte� .
with low flow in the tubes and with few burners lit. The appearance of 11 y of carbon being present this should
any poss1'b:l't
the tubes, the flames and the refractory lining is the best guide to the . g is determined by the mech anica l hm1ta t10n � on
The rate of heatm
actual state of affairs. Observations should be made at least after every the reformer, and typic . allY ls
. sooc h-1 Partic ular care is reqmred
. · to the
change in rate of feedstock or fuel. In addition, care should be taken to with new refractory or after repairs have been made

162 163