Universal basic income

Universal basic income (UBI)[note 1] is a social

welfare proposal in which all citizens of a given
population regularly receive a guaranteed income in
the form of an unconditional transfer payment (i.e.,
without a means test or need to work).[2][3][4] It
would be received independently of any other
income. If the level is sufficient to meet a person's
basic needs (i.e., at or above the poverty line), it is
sometimes called a full basic income; if it is less than
that amount, it may be called a partial basic
income.[5] No country has yet introduced either,
although there have been numerous pilot projects and In 2013, eight million 5-centime coins (one per
the idea is discussed in many countries. Some have inhabitant) were dumped on the Bundesplatz in Bern
labelled UBI as utopian due to its historical to support the 2016 Swiss referendum for a basic
origin.[6][7][8] income (which was rejected 77%–23%).

There are several welfare arrangements that can be

considered similar to basic income, although they are not unconditional. Many countries have a system of
child benefit, which is essentially a basic income for guardians of children. A pension may be a basic
income for retired persons. There are also quasi-basic income programs that are limited to certain
population groups or time periods, like Bolsa Familia in Brazil, which is concentrated on the poor, or the
Thamarat Program in Sudan, which was introduced by the transitional government to ease the effects of the
economic crisis inherited from the Bashir regime.[9] Likewise, the economic impact of the COVID-19
pandemic prompted some countries to send direct payments to its citizens. The Alaska Permanent Fund is a
fund for all residents of the U.S. state of Alaska which averages $1,600 annually (in 2019 currency), and is
sometimes described as the only example of a real basic income in practice. A negative income tax (NIT)
can be viewed as a basic income for certain income groups in which citizens receive less and less money
until this effect is reversed the more a person earns.[10]

Critics claim that a basic income at an appropriate level for all citizens is not financially feasible, fear that
the introduction of a basic income would lead to fewer people working, and/or consider it socially unjust
that everyone should receive the same amount of money regardless of their individual need. Proponents say
it is indeed financeable, arguing that such a system, instead of many individual means-tested social benefits,
would eliminate a lot of expensive social administration and bureaucratic efforts, and expect that
unattractive jobs would have to be better paid and their working conditions improved because there would
have to be an incentive to do them when already receiving an income, which would increase the
willingness to work. Advocates also argue that a basic income is fair because it ensures that everyone has a
sufficient financial basis to build on and less financial pressure, thus allowing people to find work that suits
their interests and strengths.[11]

Early historical examples of unconditional payments date back to antiquity, and the first proposals to
introduce a regular unconditionally paid income for all citizens were developed and disseminated between
the 16th and 18th centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, public awareness and support for the concept
increased. At least since the mid-20th century, basic income has repeatedly been the subject of political
debates. In the 21st century, several discussions are related to the debate about basic income, including
those regarding automation, artificial intelligence (AI), and the future of the necessity of work. A key issue
in these debates is whether automation and AI will significantly reduce the number of available jobs and
whether a basic income could help prevent or alleviate such problems by allowing everyone to benefit from
a society's wealth, as well as whether a UBI could be a stepping stone to a resource-based or post-scarcity
economy.

History

Antiquity

In a 46 BC triumph, Roman general and dictator Julius Caesar gave each common Roman citizen 100
denarii. Following his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar's will left 300 sestertii (or 75 denarii) to each
citizen.[12]

Trajan, emperor of Rome from 98–117 AD, personally gave 650 denarii (equivalent to perhaps US$430 in
2023) to all common Roman citizens who applied.[13]

16th century

In his Utopia (1516), English statesman and philosopher Thomas More depicts a society in which every
person receives a guaranteed income.[14] In this book, basic income is proposed as an answer to the
statement "No penalty on earth will stop people from stealing, if it's their only way of getting food",
stating:[15]

instead of inflicting these horrible punishments, it would be far more to the point to provide
everyone with some means of livelihood, so that nobody's under the frightful necessity of
becoming first a thief, and then a corpse.

Spanish scholar Johannes Ludovicus Vives (1492–1540) proposed that the municipal government should
be responsible for securing a subsistence minimum to all its residents "not on the grounds of justice but for
the sake of a more effective exercise of morally required charity." Vives also argued that to qualify for poor
relief, the recipient must "deserve the help he or she gets by proving his or her willingness to work."[16]

18th century

In 1797, English Radical Thomas Spence published The Rights of Infants (https://www.marxists.org/histor
y/england/britdem/people/spence/infants/infants.htm) in 1797 as a response to Thomas Paine's Agrarian
Justice. In this essay Spence proposes the introduction of an unconditional basic income to all members of
the community. Such allowance would be financed through the socialization of land and the benefits of the
rents received by each municipality. A part of everyone’s earnings would be seized by the State, and given
to others. and

English-born American philosopher Thomas Paine authored Common Sense (1776) and The American
Crisis (1776–1783), the two most influential pamphlets at the start of the American Revolution. His essay,
Agrarian Justice,[17] was published in 1797, In it, he proposed concrete reforms to abolish poverty. In
particular, he proposed a universal social insurance system comprising old-age pensions and disability
support, and universal stakeholder grants for young adults, funded by a 10% inheritance tax focused on
land, it is also considered one of the earliest proposals for a social security system. Thomas Paine
summarized his view by stating that "Men did not make the earth. It is the value of the improvements only,
and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent
for the land which he holds." Paine saw inheritance as being partly a common fund and wanted to
supplement the citizen's dividend in a tax on inheritance transfers.

19th century

Henry George proposed to create a pension and disability system, and an unconditional basic income from
surplus land rents. It would be distributed to residents "as a right" instead of as charity. Georgists often refer
to this policy as a citizen's dividend in reference to a similar proposal by Thomas Paine. His ideas gave rise
to the economic philosophy now known as Georgism or the "single tax movement", which is an economic
ideology holding that, although people should own the value they produce themselves, the economic rent
derived from land—including from all natural resources, the commons, and urban locations—should
belong equally to all members of society.[18][19][20]

Early 20th century

Around 1920, support for basic income started growing, primarily in England.

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) argued for a new social model that combined the advantages of socialism
and anarchism, and that basic income should be a vital component in that new society.

In the United Kingdom at the end of World War I, Dennis and Mabel Milner, a Quaker married couple of
the Labour Party, published a short pamphlet entitled "Scheme for a State Bonus" (1918) that argued for
the "introduction of an income paid unconditionally on a weekly basis to all citizens of the United
Kingdom." They considered it a moral right for everyone to have the means to subsistence, and thus it
should not be conditional on work or willingness to work.[21][22]

C. H. Douglas was an engineer who became concerned that most British citizens could not afford to buy
the goods that were produced, despite the rising productivity in British industry. His solution to this paradox
was a new social system he called social credit, a combination of monetary reform and basic income.

In 1944 and 1945, the Beveridge Committee, led by the British economist William Beveridge, developed a
proposal for a comprehensive new welfare system of social insurance, means-tested benefits, and
unconditional allowances for children. Committee member Lady Rhys-Williams argued that the incomes
for adults should be more like a basic income. She was also the first to develop the negative income tax
model.[23][24] Her son Brandon Rhys Williams proposed a basic income to a parliamentary committee in
1982, and soon after that in 1984, the Basic Income Research Group, now the Citizen's Basic Income
Trust, began to conduct and disseminate research on basic income.[25]

Late 20th century

Milton Friedman proposed the idea of a negative income tax (NIT), which effectively sanctioned a basic
income for all, in his book Capitalism and Freedom published in 1962.[21] In his 1964 State of the Union
address, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson introduced legislation to fight the "war on poverty". Johnson
believed in expanding the federal government's roles in education and health care as poverty reduction
strategies. In this political climate, the idea of a guaranteed income for every American also took root.
Notably, a document, signed by 1200 economists, called for a guaranteed income for every American. Six
ambitious basic income experiments started up on the related concept of negative income tax. Succeeding
President Richard Nixon explained its purpose as "to provide both a safety net for the poor and a financial
incentive for welfare recipients to work."[26] Congress eventually approved a guaranteed minimum income
for the elderly and the disabled.[26]

In the mid-1970s the main competitor to basic income and negative income tax, the Earned income tax
credit (EITC), or its advocates, won over enough legislators for the US Congress to pass laws on that
policy. In 1986, the Basic Income European Network, later renamed to Basic Income Earth Network
(BIEN), was founded, with academic conferences every second year.[27] Other advocates included the
green political movement, as well as activists and some groups of unemployed people.[28]

In the latter part of the 20th century, discussions were held around automatization and jobless growth, the
possibility of combining economic growth with ecologically sustainable development, and how to reform
the welfare state bureaucracy. Basic income was interwoven in these and many other debates. During the
BIEN academic conferences, there were papers about basic income from a wide variety of perspectives,
including economics, sociology, and human rights approaches.

21st century

In recent years the idea has come to the forefront more than before. The Swiss referendum about basic
income in Switzerland 2016 was covered in media worldwide, despite its rejection.[29] Famous business
people like Elon Musk,[30] Pierre Omidyar,[31] and Andrew Yang have lent their support, as have high-
profile politicians like Jeremy Corbyn[32] and Tulsi Gabbard.[33]

In 2019, in California, then-Stockton Mayor Michael Tubbs initiated an 18-month pilot program of
guaranteed income for 125 residents as part of the privately funded S.E.E.D. project there.[34]

In the 2020 Democratic Party primaries, political newcomer Andrew Yang touted basic income as his core
policy. His policy, referred to as a "Freedom Dividend", would have provided adult American citizens
US$1,000 a month independent of employment status.[35]

On 21 January 2021, in California, the two-year donor-funded Compton Pledge[34] began distributing
monthly guaranteed income payments to a "pre-verified" pool of low-income residents,[34] in a program
gauged for a maximum of 800 recipients, at which point it will be one of the larger among 25 U.S. cities
exploring this approach to community economics.

Beginning in December 2021, Tacoma, Washington, piloted "Growing Resilience in Tacoma" (GRIT), a
guaranteed income initiative that provides $500 a month to 110 families. GRIT is part of the University of
Pennsylvania's Center for Guaranteed Income Research larger study. A report on the results of the GRIT
experiment will be published in 2024.[36]

Response to COVID-19

As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic and related economic impact, universal basic income and similar
proposals such as helicopter money and cash transfers were increasingly discussed across the world.[37]
Most countries implemented forms of partial unemployment schemes, which effectively subsidized
workers' incomes without a work requirement. Around ninety countries and regions including the United
States, Spain, Hong Kong, and Japan introduced temporary direct cash transfer programs to their
citizens.[38][39]
In Europe, a petition calling for an "emergency basic income" gathered more than 200,000 signatures,[40]
and polls suggested widespread support in public opinion for it.[41][42] Unlike the various stimulus
packages of the US administration, the EU's stimulus plans did not include any form of income-support
policies.[43]

Pope Francis has stated in response to the economic harm done to workers by the pandemic that "this may
be the time to consider a universal basic wage".[44]

Basic income vs negative income tax

The diagram shows a basic income/negative tax
system combined with flat income tax (the same
percentage in tax for every income level).

Y is here the pre-tax salary given by the employer and

y' is the net income.

Negative income tax

For low earnings, there is no income tax in the

negative income tax system. They receive money, in
the form of a negative income tax, but they don't pay
any tax. Then, as their labour income increases, this
benefit, this money from the state, gradually
decreases. That decrease is to be seen as a mechanism
for the poor, instead of the poor paying tax.

Basic income Two ways of looking at basic income when

That is, however, not the case in the corresponding
basic income system in the diagram. There everyone
typically pays income taxes. But on the other hand,
everyone also gets the same amount of basic income.
combined with a flat income tax, both of which
result in the same net income (orange line): 1. (red)
stipend with conventional tax for income above the
stipend. 2. (blue) negative tax for low-income people
and conventional tax for high-income people.

But the net income is the same

But, as the orange line in the diagram shows, the net income is anyway the same. No matter how much or
how little one earns, the amount of money one gets in one's pocket is the same, regardless of which of these
two systems are used.

Basic income and negative income tax are generally seen to be similar in economic net effects, but there are
some differences:

Psychological. Philip Harvey accepts that "both systems

would have the same redistributive effect and tax earned
income at the same marginal rate" but does not agree
that "the two systems would be perceived by taxpayers
as costing the same".[45]: 15, 13 
Tax profile. Tony Atkinson made a distinction based on
whether the tax profile was flat (for basic income) or
variable (for NIT).[46]
Philippe Van Parijs in his library.
 Timing. Philippe Van Parijs states that "the economic equivalence between the two
programs should not hide the fact that they have different effects on recipients because of
the different timing of payments: ex-ante in Basic Income, ex-post in Negative Income
Tax".[47]

Perspectives and arguments

Automation

One central rationale for basic income is the belief that automation and There is a prevailing opinion
robotisation could result in technological unemployment, leading to a that we are in an era of
world with fewer paid jobs. A key question in this context is whether a technological
basic income could help prevent or alleviate such problems by allowing unemployment – that
everyone to benefit from a society's wealth, as well as whether a UBI technology is increasingly
could be a stepping stone to a resource-based or post-scarcity making skilled workers
economy.[30][49][50][51] obsolete.

U.S. presidential candidate and nonprofit founder Andrew Yang has

stated that automation caused the loss of 4 million manufacturing jobs Prof. Mark MacCarthy
and advocated for a UBI (which he calls a Freedom Dividend) of (2014)[48]
$1,000/month rather than worker retraining programs.[52] Yang has
stated that he is heavily influenced by Martin Ford. Ford, in his turn,
believes that the emerging technologies will fail to deliver a lot of
employment; on the contrary, because the new industries will "rarely, if ever, be highly labor-intensive".[53]
Similar ideas have been debated many times before in history—that "the machines will take the jobs"—so
the argument is not new. But what is quite new is the existence of several academic studies that do indeed
forecast a future with substantially less employment, in the decades to come.[54][55][56] Additionally,
President Barack Obama has stated that he believes that the growth of artificial intelligence will lead to an
increased discussion around the idea of "unconditional free money for everyone".[57]

Economics and costs

Some proponents of UBI have argued that basic income could increase economic growth because it would
sustain people while they invest in education to get higher-skilled and well-paid jobs.[58][59] However,
there is also a discussion of basic income within the degrowth movement, which argues against economic
growth.[60]

Advocates contend that the guaranteed financial security of a UBI will increase the population's willingness
to take risks,[61] which would create a culture of inventiveness and strengthen the entrepreneurial spirit.[62]

The cost of a basic income is one of the biggest questions in the public debate as well as in the research and
depends on many things. It first and foremost depends on the level of the basic income as such, and it also
depends on many technical points regarding exactly how it is constructed.

While opponents claim that a basic income at an adequate level for all citizens cannot be financed, their
supporters propose that it could indeed be financed, with some advocating a strong redistribution and
restructuring of bureaucracy and administration for this purpose.[63]
According to the George Gibbs Chair in Political Economy and Senior
Research Fellow at the Mercatus Center at George Mason University and
nationally syndicated columnist[64][65] Veronique de Rugy's statements
made in 2016, as of 2014, the annual cost of a UBI in the US would have
been about $200 billion cheaper than the US system put in place at that date.
By 2020, it would have been nearly a trillion dollars cheaper.[66]

American economist Karl Widerquist argues that simply multiplying the

amount of the grant by the population would be a naive calculation, as this
is the gross costs of UBI and does not take into account that UBI is a system
where people pay taxes on a regular basis and receive the grant at the same
time.[67]
Veronique de Rugy at the
According to Swiss economist Thomas Straubhaar, the concept of UBI is 2015 International Students
basically financeable without any problems. He describes it as "at its core, for Liberty Conference at
nothing more than a fundamental tax reform" that "bundles all social policy the Marriott Wardman Park
measures into a single instrument, the basic income paid out Hotel in Washington, D.C.
unconditionally."[68] He also considers a universal basic income to be
socially just, arguing, although all citizens would receive the same amount
in the form of the basic income at the beginning of the month, the rich would have lost significantly more
money through taxes at the end of the month than they would have received through the basic income,
while the opposite is the case for poorer people, similar to the concept of a negative income tax.[68]

Inflation of labor and rental costs

One of the most common arguments against UBI stems from the upward pressure on prices, in particular
for labor and housing rents, which would likely cause inflation.[69] Public policy choices such as rent
controls would likely affect the inflationary potential of universal basic income.[69]

Work

Many critics of basic income argue that people, in general, will work less, which in turn means less tax
revenue and less money for the state and local governments.[70][71][72][73] Although it is difficult to know
for sure what will happen if a whole country introduces basic income, there are nevertheless some studies
who have attempted to look at this question:

In negative income tax experiments in the United States in 1970 there was a five percent
decline in the hours worked. The work reduction was largest for second earners in two-
earner households and weakest for primary earners. The reduction in hours was higher
when the benefit was higher.[71]
In the Mincome experiment in rural Dauphin, Manitoba, also in the 1970s, there were slight
reductions in hours worked during the experiment. However, the only two groups who
worked significantly less were new mothers, and teenagers working to support their families.
New mothers spent this time with their infant children, and working teenagers put significant
additional time into their schooling.[74]
A study from 2017 showed no evidence that people worked less because of the Iranian
subsidy reform (a basic income reform).[75]
Regarding the question of basic income vs jobs, there is also the aspect of so-called welfare traps.
Proponents of basic income often argue that with a basic income, unattractive jobs would necessarily have
to be better paid and their working conditions improved, so that people still do them without need, reducing
these traps.[76]

Philosophy and morality

By definition, universal basic income does not make a distinction between "deserving" and "undeserving"
individuals when making payments. Opponents argue that this lack of discrimination is unfair: "Those who
genuinely choose idleness or unproductive activities cannot expect those who have committed to doing
productive work to subsidize their livelihood. Responsibility is central to fairness."[77]

Proponents usually view UBI as a fundamental human right that enables an adequate standard of living
which every citizen should have access to in modern society.[78] It would be a kind of foundation
guaranteed for everyone, on which one could build and never fall below that subsistence level.

It is also argued that this lack of discrimination between those who supposedly deserve it and those who
don't is a way to reduce social stigma.[77]

In addition, proponents of UBI may argue that the "deserving" and "undeserving" categories are a
superficial classification, as people who are not in regular gainful employment also contribute to society,
e.g. by raising children, caring for people, or doing other value-creating activities which are not
institutionalized. UBI would provide a balance here and thus overcomes a concept of work that is reduced
to pure gainful employment and disregards sideline activities too much.[79]

Health and poverty

The first comprehensive systematic review of the health impact of basic income (or rather unconditional
cash transfers in general) in low- and middle-income countries, a study that included 21 studies of which 16
were randomized controlled trials, found a clinically meaningful reduction in the likelihood of being sick by
an estimated 27%. Unconditional cash transfers, according to the study, may also improve food security and
dietary diversity. Children in recipient families are also more likely to attend school and the cash transfers
may increase money spent on health care.[80] A 2022 update of this landmark review confirmed these
findings based on a grown body of evidence (35 studies, the majority being large randomized controlled
trials) and additionally found sufficient evidence that unconditional cash transfers also reduce the likelihood
of living in extreme poverty.[81]

The Canadian Medical Association passed a motion in 2015 in clear support of basic income and for basic
income trials in Canada.[82]

Advocates

Pilot programs and experiments

Since the 1960s, but in particular, since the late 2000s, several pilot
programs and experiments on basic income have been conducted.
Some examples include:

1960s−1970s
Experiments with negative income tax in the United Omitara, one of the two poor villages
States and Canada in the 1960s and 1970s. in Namibia where a local basic
income was tested in 2008–2009
The province of Manitoba, Canada experimented with
Mincome, a basic guaranteed income, in the 1970s. In
the town of Dauphin, Manitoba, labor only decreased by
13%, much less than expected.[83][84]

2000−2009
The basic income grant in Namibia launched in 2008 and ended in 2009.[85]
An independent pilot implemented in São Paulo, Brazil launched in 2009.[86]

2010−2019
Basic income trials run in 2011-2012 in several villages in India,[87] whose government has
proposed a guaranteed basic income for all citizens.[88] It was found that basic income in the
region raised the education rate of young people by 25%.[89]
Iran introduced a national basic income program in the autumn of 2010. It is paid to all
citizens and replaces the gasoline subsidies, electricity, and some food products,[90] that the
country applied for years to reduce inequalities and poverty. The sum corresponded in 2012
to approximately US$40 per person per month, US$480 per year for a single person, and
US$2,300 for a family of five people.[91][92]
In Spain, the ingreso mínimo vital, the income guarantee system, is an economic benefit
guaranteed by the social security in Spain, but in 2016 was considered in need of reform.[93]
In South Korea the Youth Allowance Program was started in 2016 in the City of Seongnam,
which would give every 24-year-old citizen 250,000 won (~215 USD) every quarter in the
form of a "local currency" that could only be used in local businesses. This program was
later expanded to the entire Province of Gyeonggi in 2018.[94][95]
The GiveDirectly experiment in a disadvantaged village of Nairobi, Kenya, benefitting over
20,000 people living in rural Kenya, is the longest-running basic income pilot as of
November 2017, which is set to run for 12 years.[96][97][98]
A project called Eight in a village in Fort Portal, Uganda, that a nonprofit organization
launched in January 2017, which provides income for 56 adults and 88 children through
mobile money.[99]
A two-year pilot the Finnish government began in January 2017 which involved 2,000
subjects[100][101] In April 2018, the Finnish government rejected a request for funds to extend
and expand the program from Kela (Finland's social security agency).[102]
An experiment in the city of Utrecht, Netherlands launched in early 2017, that is testing
different rates of aid.[88]
A three-year basic income pilot that the Ontario provincial government, Canada, launched in
the cities of Hamilton, Thunder Bay and Lindsay in July 2017.[103] Although called basic
income, it was only made available to those with a low income and funding would be
 removed if they obtained employment,[104] making it more related to the current welfare
system than true basic income. The pilot project was canceled on 31 July 2018 by the newly
elected Progressive Conservative government under Ontario Premier Doug Ford.
In Israel, in 2018 a non-profit initiative GoodDollar started with an objective to build a global
economic framework for providing universal, sustainable, and scalable basic income
through the new digital asset technology of blockchain. The non-profit aims to launch a peer-
to-peer money transfer network in which money can be distributed to those most in need,
regardless of their location, based on the principles of UBI. The project raised US$1 million
from a financial company.[105][106]
The Rythu Bandhu scheme is a welfare scheme started in the state of Telangana, India, in
May 2018, aimed at helping farmers. Each farm owner receives 4,000 INR per acre twice a
year for rabi and kharif harvests. To finance the program a budget allocation of 120 billion
INR (US$1.55 Billion as of May 2022) was made in the 2018–2019 state budget.[107]

2020−present
Swiss non-profit Social Income started paying out basic incomes in the form of mobile
money in 2020 to people in need in Sierra Leone. Contributions finance the international
initiative from people worldwide, who donate 1% of their monthly paychecks.[108]
In May 2020, Spain introduced a minimum basic income, reaching about 2% of the
population, in response to COVID-19 in order to "fight a spike in poverty due to the
coronavirus pandemic". It is expected to cost state coffers three billion euros ($3.5 billion) a
year."[109]
In August 2020, a project in Germany started that gives a 1,200 Euros monthly basic income
in a lottery system to citizens who applied online. The crowdsourced project will last three
years and be compared against 1,380 people who do not receive basic income.[110]
In October 2020, HudsonUP[111] was launched in Hudson, New York, by The Spark of
Hudson[112] and Humanity Forward Foundation[113] to give $500 monthly basic income to
25 residents. It will last five years and be compared against 50 people who are not receiving
basic income.
In May 2021, the government of Wales, which has devolved powers in matters of Social
Welfare within the UK, announced the trialling of a universal basic income scheme to "see
whether the promises that basic income holds out are genuinely delivered".[114] From July
2022 over 500 people leaving care in Wales were offered £1600 per month in a 3-year
£20 million pilot scheme, to evaluate the effect on the lives of those involved in the hope of
providing independence and security to people.[115]
In July 2022, Chicago began a year-long guaranteed income program by sending $500 a
month to 5,000 households for one year in a lottery system to citizens who applied
online.[116] A similar program was launched in late 2022 by Cook County, Illinois (which
encompasses the entirety of Chicago as well as several suburbs) which sent monthly $500
payments to 3,250 residents with a household income at or below 250% of the federal
poverty level for two years.[117]

Payments with similarities

Alaska Permanent Fund

The Permanent Fund of Alaska in the United States provides a kind of yearly basic income based on the oil
and gas revenues of the state to nearly all state residents. More precisely the fund resembles a sovereign
wealth fund, investing resource revenues into bonds, stocks, and other conservative investment options
with the intent to generate renewable revenue for future generations. The fund has had a noticeable yet
diminishing effect on reducing poverty among rural Alaska Indigenous people, notably in the elderly
population.[118] However, the payment is not high enough to cover basic expenses, averaging $1,600
annually per resident in 2019 currency[119] (it has never exceeded $2,100), and is not a fixed, guaranteed
amount. For these reasons, it is not always considered a basic income. However, some consider it to be the
only example of a real basic income.[120][121]

Wealth Partaking Scheme

Macau's Wealth Partaking Scheme provides some annual basic income to permanent residents, funded by
revenues from the city's casinos. However, the amount disbursed is not sufficient to cover basic living
expenses, so it is not considered a basic income.[122]

Bolsa Família

Bolsa Família is a large social welfare program in Brazil that provides money to many low-income families
in the country. The system is related to basic income, but has more conditions, like asking the recipients to
keep their children in school until graduation. As of March 2020, the program covers 13.8 million families,
and pays an average of $34 per month, in a country where the minimum wage is $190 per month.[123]

Other welfare programs

Pension: A payment that in some countries is guaranteed to all citizens above a certain age.
The difference from true basic income is that it is restricted to people over a certain age.
Child benefit: A program similar to pensions but restricted to parents of children, usually
allocated based on the number of children.
Conditional cash transfer: A regular payment given to families, but only to the poor. It is
usually dependent on basic conditions such as sending their children to school or having
them vaccinated. Programs include Bolsa Família in Brazil and Programa Prospera in
Mexico.
Guaranteed minimum income differs from a basic income in that it is restricted to those in
search of work and possibly other restrictions, such as savings being below a certain level.
Example programs are unemployment benefits in the UK, the revenu de solidarité active in
France, and citizens' income in Italy.

Petitions, polls and referendums

2008: An official petition for basic income was launched in Germany by Susanne Wiest.[124]
The petition was accepted, and Susanne Wiest was invited for a hearing at the German
parliament's Commission of Petitions. After the hearing, the petition was closed as
"unrealizable".[125]
2013–2014: A European Citizens' Initiative collected 280,000 signatures demanding that the
European Commission study the concept of an unconditional basic income.[126]
2015: A citizen's initiative in Spain received 185,000 signatures, short of the required
number to mandate that the Spanish parliament discuss the proposal.[127]
 2016: The world's first universal basic income referendum in Switzerland on 5 June 2016
was rejected with a 76.9% majority.[128][129] Also in 2016, a poll showed that 58% of the
EU's population is aware of basic income, and 64% would vote in favour of the idea.[130]
2017: Politico/Morning Consult asked 1,994 Americans about their opinions on several
political issues including national basic income; 43% either "strongly supported" or
"somewhat supported" the idea.[131]
2018: The results of a poll by Gallup conducted last year between September and October
were published. 48% of respondents supported universal basic income.[132]
2019: In November, an Austrian initiative received approximately 70,000 signatures but
failed to reach the 100,000 signatures needed for a parliamentary discussion. The initiative
was started by Peter Hofer. His proposal suggested a basic income sourced from a financial
transaction tax, of €1,200, for every Austrian citizen.[133]
2020: A study by Oxford University found that 71% of Europeans are now in favour of basic
income. The study was conducted in March, with 12,000 respondents and in 27 EU-member
states and the UK.[134] A YouGov poll likewise found a majority for universal basic income in
United Kingdom[135] and a poll by University of Chicago found that 51% of Americans aged
18–36 support a monthly basic income of $1,000.[136] In the UK there was also a letter,
signed by over 170 MPs and Lords from multiple political parties, calling on the government
to introduce a universal basic income during the COVID-19 pandemic.[137]
2020: A Pew Research Center survey, conducted online in August 2020, of 11,000 U.S.
adults found that a majority (54%) oppose the federal government providing a guaranteed
income of $1,000 per month to all adults, while 45% support it.[138]
2020: In a poll by Hill-HarrisX, 55% of Americans voted in favour of UBI in August, up from
49% in September 2019 and 43% in February 2019.[139]
2020: The results of an online survey of 2,031 participants conducted in 2018 in Germany
were published: 51% were either "very much in favor" or "in favor" of UBI being
introduced.[140]
2021: A Change.org petition calling for monthly stimulus checks in the amount of $2,000 per
adult and $1,000 per child for the remainder of the COVID-19 pandemic had received almost
3 million signatures.[141]

See also
Economics portal

Money portal
Organized labour
portal

Citizen's dividend Job guarantee

Economic, social and cultural rights Left-libertarianism
Equality of outcome Limitarianism (ethical)
Estovers Living wage
FairTax § monthly tax rebate Moral universalism
Geolibertarianism New Cuban economy
Global basic income Old Age Security
Happiness economics Participation income
Humanistic economics Post-work society
Involuntary unemployment Quatinga Velho
 Rationing Universalism
Social safety net Wage subsidy
Speenhamland system Welfare capitalism
The Triple Revolution Workfare
Universal Credit Working time
Universal value List of basic income models

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Notes
1. Also variously known as unconditional basic income, citizen's basic income, basic
 income guarantee, basic living stipend, guaranteed annual income,[1] universal
income security program, or universal demogrant

Further reading
By date of publication:

Ailsa McKay, The Future of Social Security Policy: Women, Work and a Citizens Basic
Income, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 9781134287185
Karl Widerquist, Independence, Propertylessness, and Basic Income: A Theory of Freedom
as the Power to Say No (http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137274724) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20170216081348/http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/978113727472
4) 16 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, March 2013.
Early drafts of each chapter are available online for free at this link (https://works.bepress.co
m/widerquist/#freedom-as-the-power-to-say-no) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0613211552/https://works.bepress.com/widerquist/#freedom-as-the-power-to-say-no) 13
June 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Karl Widerquist, Jose Noguera, Yannick Vanderborght, and Jurgen De Wispelaere (editors).
Basic Income: An Anthology of Contemporary Research (https://www.academia.edu/310815
75/BASIC_INCOME_AN_ANTHOLOGY_OF_CONTEMPORARY_RESEARCH) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190914043343/https://www.academia.edu/31081575/BASIC
_INCOME_AN_ANTHOLOGY_OF_CONTEMPORARY_RESEARCH) 14 September 2019
at the Wayback Machine, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
Rutger Bregman, Utopia for Realists, De Correspondent, 2014, ISBN 9789082520347
Nick Srnicek and Alex Williams, Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without
Work, Verso Books, 2015, ISBN 9781784780968
Colombino, U. (2015). "Five Crossroads on the Way to Basic Income: An Italian Tour" (http
s://iris.unito.it/bitstream/2318/143781/1/dp8087%20Copy_1312037.pdf) (PDF). Italian
Economic Journal. 1 (3): 353–389. doi:10.1007/s40797-015-0018-3 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs40797-015-0018-3). S2CID 26507450 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:265
07450). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221229104610/https://iris.unito.it/bitstream/
2318/143781/1/dp8087%20Copy_1312037.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 29 December
2022. Retrieved 2 September 2019.
Karl Widerquist, ed., Exploring the Basic Income Guarantee (http://www.palgrave.com/gb/ser
ies/14981) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160623201459/http://www.palgrave.co
m/gb/series/14981) 23 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, (book series), Palgrave
Macmillan.
Paul O'Brien, Universal Basic Income: Pennies from Heaven, The History Press, 2017,
ISBN 978 1 84588 367 6.
Benjamin M. Friedman, "Born to Be Free" (review of Philippe Van Parijs and Yannick
Vanderborght, Basic Income: A Radical Proposal for a Free Society and a Sane Economy,
Harvard University Press, 2017), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 15 (12
October 2017), pp. 39–41.
Marinescu, Ioana (February 2018). "No Strings Attached: The Behavioral Effects of U.S.
Unconditional Cash Transfer Programs" (https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw24337). NBER
Working Paper No. 24337. doi:10.3386/w24337 (https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw24337).
Ewan McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income,
and Economic Democracy (https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180524201340/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/paper
s.cfm?abstract_id=3044448) 24 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine' (2018) SSRN (https://pa
pers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
 20180524201340/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448) 24 May
2018 at the Wayback Machine, part 4(2).
Andrew Yang, The War on Normal People, Hachette Books, April 3, 2018
Lowrey, Annie (2018). Give People Money: How a Universal Basic Income Would End
Poverty, Revolutionize Work, and Remake the World. Crown. ISBN 978-1524758769.
David Graeber, Bullshit Jobs, Simon & Schuster, May 2018, ISBN 9781501143311
Bryce Covert, "What Money Can Buy: The promise of a universal basic income – and its
limitations", The Nation, vol. 307, no. 6 (10 / 17 September 2018), pp. 33–35.
John Lanchester, "Good New Idea: John Lanchester makes the case for Universal Basic
Income" (discusses 8 books, published between 2014 and 2019, comprehensively
advocating Universal Basic Income), London Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 14 (18 July
2019), pp. 5–8.

External links
Basic Income Earth Network (https://basicincome.org)
Basic Income India (https://basicincomeindia.weebly.com)
Basic Income Lab (BIL) (https://basicincome.stanford.edu/)
Citizen's Basic Income Trust (https://citizensincome.org)
Red Humanista por la Renta Básica Universal (https://redhumanistarbu.org) (in Spanish)
Unconditional Basic Income Europe (https://www.ubie.org)
v:Should universal basic income be established?
Why we should give everyone a basic income | Rutger Bregman | TEDxMaastricht (https://w
ww.youtube.com/watch?v=aIL_Y9g7Tg0). TED Talk on YouTube by Rutger Bregman.
Uploaded 21 October 2014.

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