Infographic

Infographics (a clipped compound of "information"

and "graphics") are graphic visual representations of
information, data, or knowledge intended to present
information quickly and clearly.[1][2] They can
improve cognition by utilizing graphics to enhance the
human visual system's ability to see patterns and
trends.[3][4] Similar pursuits are information
visualization, data visualization, statistical graphics,
information design, or information architecture.[2]
Infographics have evolved in recent years to be for
mass communication, and thus are designed with fewer
assumptions about the readers' knowledge base than
other types of visualizations.[5] Isotypes are an early A Washington Metro subway map
example of infographics conveying information
quickly and easily to the masses.[6]

Overview
Infographics have been around for many years and recently the increase of the number of easy-to-use, free
tools have made the creation of infographics available to a large segment of the population. Social media
sites such as Facebook and Twitter have also allowed for individual infographics to be spread among many
people around the world. Infographics are widely used in the age of short attention span.

In newspapers, infographics are commonly used to show the weather, as well as maps, site plans, and
graphs for summaries of data. Some books are almost entirely made up of information graphics, such as
David Macaulay's The Way Things Work. The Snapshots in USA Today are also an example of simple
infographics used to convey news and current events.[7]

Modern maps, especially route maps for transit systems, use infographic techniques to integrate a variety of
information, such as the conceptual layout of the transit network, transfer points, and local landmarks.
Public transportation maps, such as those for the Washington Metro and the London Underground map, are
well-known infographics. Public places such as transit terminals usually have some sort of integrated
"signage system" with standardized icons and stylized maps.

In his 1983 "landmark book" The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Edward Tufte defines
"graphical displays" in the following passage:

Graphical displays should

show the data

induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about methodology,
graphic design, the technology of graphic production, or something else
avoid distorting what the data has to say
present many numbers in a small space
 make large data sets coherent
encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data
reveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine
structure
serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation, or
decoration
be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set.

Graphics reveal data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional
statistical computations.[8]

While contemporary infographics often deal with "qualitative" or soft subjects, generally speaking, Tufte's
1983 definition still speaks, in a broad sense, to what infographics are, and what they do—which is to
condense large amounts of information into a form where it will be more easily absorbed by the reader.

History

Early history

In 1626, Christoph Scheiner published the Rosa Ursina sive Sol, a book that revealed his research about the
rotation of the sun. Infographics appeared in the form of illustrations demonstrating the Sun's rotation
patterns.[9]

In 1786, William Playfair, an engineer and political economist, published the first data graphs in his book
The Commercial and Political Atlas. To represent the economy of 18th Century England, Playfair used
statistical graphs, bar charts, line graphs, area charts, and histograms. In his work, Statistical Breviary, he is
credited with introducing the first pie chart.[10][11][12]

Around 1820, modern geography was established by Carl Ritter.[13] His maps included shared frames,
agreed map legends, scales, repeatability, and fidelity. Such a map can be considered a "supersign" which
combines sign systems—as defined by Charles Sanders Peirce—consisting of symbols, icons, indexes as
representations.[14] Other examples can be seen in the works of geographers Ritter and Alexander von
Humboldt.[15]

In 1857, English nurse Florence Nightingale used

information graphics to persuade Queen Victoria to improve
conditions in military hospitals. The principal one she used
was the Coxcomb chart, a combination of stacked bar and pie
charts, depicting the number and causes of deaths during
each month of the Crimean War.

1861 saw the release of an influential information graphic on

the subject of Napoleon's disastrous march on Moscow. The Polar area diagram by Florence Nightingale
graphic's creator, Charles Joseph Minard, captured four illustrating causes of mortality during the
different changing variables that contributed to Napoleon's Crimean War (1857).
downfall in a single two-dimensional image: the army's
direction as they traveled, the location the troops passed
through, the size of the army as troops died from hunger and wounds, and the freezing temperatures they
experienced.
 James Joseph Sylvester introduced the term "graph" in 1878
in the scientific magazine Nature and published a set of
diagrams showing the relationship between chemical bonds
and mathematical properties.[16] These were also some of the
first mathematical graphs.

Charles Minard's information graphic of 20th century

Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
In 1900, the African-American historian, sociologist, writer,
and Black rights activist, W.E.B. Du Bois presented data
visualizations at the Exposition Universelle (1900) in Paris, France.
In addition to curating 500 photographs of the lives of Black
Americans, Du Bois and his Atlanta University team of students
and scholars created 60 handmade data visualizations [17] to
document the ways Black Americans were being denied access to
education, housing, employment, and household wealth. [18]

The Cologne Progressives developed an aesthetic approach to art

Circle graph shows percentage of
African Americans and whites in
various occupations.
that focused on communicating information.[19] Gerd Arntz, Peter
Alma and Augustin Tschinkel, all participants in this movement
were recruited by Otto Neurath for the Gesellschafts- und
Wirtschaftsmuseum, where they developed the Vienna Method
from 1926 to 1934. Here simple images were used to represent data
in a structured way. Following the victory of Austrofascism in the
Austrian Civil War, the team moved to the Netherlands where they
continued their work rebranding it Isotypes (International System of
Typographic Picture Education). The method was also applied by
IZOSTAT (ИЗОСТАТ) in the Soviet Union.

In 1942 Isidore Isou published the Lettrist manifesto, a document

covering art, culture, poetry, film, and political theory. The included works also called metagraphics and
hypergraphics, are a synthesis of writing and visual art.

In 1958 Stephen Toulmin proposed a graphical argument model, called The Toulmin Model of
Argumentation. The diagram contained six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments and was
considered Toulmin's most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric, communication, and
computer science. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation became influential in argumentation theory and its
applications.

In 1972 and 1973, respectively, the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft included on their vessels the
Pioneer Plaques, a pair of gold-anodized aluminum plaques, each featuring a pictorial message. The
pictorial messages included nude male and female figures as well as symbols that were intended to provide
information about the origin of the spacecraft. The images were designed by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake
and were unique in that their graphical meanings were to be understandable to extraterrestrial beings, who
would have no conception of human language.

A pioneer in data visualization, Edward Tufte, wrote a series of books – Visual Explanations, The Visual
Display of Quantitative Information, and Envisioning Information – on the subject of information
graphics.[20][21][22] Referred to by The New York Times as the "da Vinci of Data", Tufte began to give
day-long lectures and workshops on the subject of infographics starting in 1993. As of 2012, Tufte still
gives these lectures.[23] To Tufte, good data visualizations represent every data point accurately and enable
a viewer to see trends and patterns in the data. Tufte's contribution to the field of data visualization and
infographics is considered immense, and his design principles can be seen in many websites, magazines,
and newspapers today.[24]

The infographics created by Peter Sullivan for The Sunday Times in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s were
some of the key factors in encouraging newspapers to use more infographics. Sullivan is also one of the
few authors who have written about information graphics in newspapers. Likewise, the staff artists at USA
Today, the United States newspaper that debuted in 1982, established the goal of using graphics to make
information easier to comprehend. However, the paper has received criticism for oversimplifying news
stories and for creating infographics that some find emphasizes entertainment over content and data. Tufte
coined the term chartjunk to refer to graphics that are visually appealing to the point of losing the
information contained within them.

With vector graphics and raster graphics becoming ubiquitous in computing in the 21st Century, data
visualizations have been applied to commonly used computer systems, including desktop publishing and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Closely related to the field of information graphics is information design, which is the creation of
infographics.

21st century

By the year 2000, Adobe Flash-based animations on the Internet had made use of many key practices in
creating infographics in order to create a variety of products and games.

Likewise, television began to incorporate infographics into the viewers' experiences in the early 2000s. One
example of infographics usage in television and in pop culture is the 2002 music video by the Norwegian
musicians of Röyksopp, for their song "Remind Me." The video was composed entirely of animated
infographics.[25] Similarly, in 2004, a television commercial for the French nuclear technology company
Areva used animated infographics as an advertising tactic. Both of these videos and the attention they
received have conveyed to other fields the potential value of using information graphics to describe
complex information efficiently.

With the rise of alternatives to Adobe Flash, such as HTML 5 and CSS3, infographics are now created in a
variety of media with a number of software tools.[26]

The field of journalism has also incorporated and applied information graphics to news stories. For stories
that intend to include text, images, and graphics, the system called the maestro concept allows entire
newsrooms to collaborate and organize a story to successfully incorporate all components. Across many
newsrooms, this teamwork-integrated system is applied to improve time management. The maestro system
is designed to improve the presentation of stories for busy readers of media. Many news-based websites
have also used interactive information graphics in which the user can extract information on a subject as
they explore the graphic.

Many businesses use infographics as a medium for communicating with and attracting potential
customers.[27] Information graphics are a form of content marketing[28] and have become a tool for internet
marketers and companies to create content that others will link to, thus possibly boosting a company's
reputation and online presence.[29]

Religious denominations have also started using infographics. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints has made numerous infographics to help people learn about their faith, missionaries,
temples, lay ministry, and family history efforts.[30]
Infographics are finding a home in the classroom as well. Courses that teach students to create their own
infographics using a variety of tools may encourage engagement in the classroom and may lead to a better
understanding of the concepts they are mapping onto the graphics.

With the popularity of social media, infographics have become popular, often as static images or simple
web interfaces, covering any number of topics. Such infographics are often shared between users of social
networks such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Google+ and Reddit. The hashtag #infographic was tweeted
56,765 times in March 2012 and at its peak 3,365 times in a span of 24 hours.

Analysis
The three parts of all infographics are the visual, the content, and
the knowledge.[31] The visual consists of colors and graphics.
There are two different types of graphics – theme, and reference.
These graphics are included in all infographics and represent the
underlying visual representation of the data. Reference graphics are
generally icons that can be used to point to certain data, although
they are not always found in infographics. Statistics and facts
usually serve as the content for infographics and can be obtained
from any number of sources, including census data and news
reports. One of the most important aspects of infographics is that
they contain some sort of insight into the data that they are A chart attempting to depict
presenting – this is the knowledge.[31] business expectations about
emerging technologies as of July
Infographics are effective because of their visual element. Humans 2009.
receive input from all five of their senses (sight, touch, hearing,
smell, taste), but they receive significantly more information from
vision than any of the other four.[32] Fifty percent of the human brain is dedicated to visual functions, and
images are processed faster than text. The brain processes pictures all at once, but processes text in a linear
fashion, meaning it takes much longer to obtain information from text.[2] Entire business processes or
industry sectors can be made relevant to a new audience through a guidance design technique that leads the
eye. The page may link to a complete report, but the infographic primes the reader making the subject-
matter more accessible.[33] Online trends, such as the increasingly short attention span of Internet users, has
also contributed to the increasing popularity and effectiveness of infographics.

When designing the visual aspect of an infographic, a number of considerations must be made to optimize
the effectiveness of the visualization. The six components of visual encoding are spatial, marks, connection,
enclosure, retinal properties, and temporal encoding.[4] Each of these can be utilized in its own way to
represent relationships between different types of data. However, studies have shown that spatial position is
the most effective way to represent numerical data and leads to the fastest and easiest understanding by
viewers.[3] Therefore, the designers often spatially represent the most important relationship being depicted
in an infographic.

There are also three basic provisions of communication that need to be assessed when designing an
infographic – appeal, comprehension, and retention.[34] "Appeal" is the idea that communication needs to
engage its audience. Comprehension implies that the viewer should be able to easily understand the
information that is presented to them. And finally, "retention" means that the viewer should remember the
data presented by the infographic. The order of importance of these provisions depends on the purpose of
the infographic. If the infographic is meant to convey information in an unbiased way, such as in the
domains of academia or science, comprehension should be considered first, then retention, and finally,
appeal. However, if the infographic is being used for commercial purposes, then appeal becomes most
important, followed by retention and comprehension. When infographics are being used for editorial
purposes, such as in a newspaper, the appeal is again most important but is followed first by comprehension
and then retention.[34]

However, the appeal and the retention can in practice be put together with the aid of a comprehensible
layout design. Recently, as an attempt to study the effect of the layout of an infographic on the
comprehension of the viewers, a new Neural Network-based cognitive load estimation method was applied
on different types of common layouts for the infographic design.[35] When the varieties of factors listed
above are taken into consideration when designing infographics, they can be a highly efficient and effective
way to convey large amounts of information in a visual manner.

Data visualization
Data visualizations are often used in infographics and may make up the entire infographic. There are many
types of visualizations that can be used to represent the same set of data. Therefore, it is crucial to identify
the appropriate visualization for the data set and infographic by taking into consideration graphical features
such as position, size, shape, and color. There are primarily five types of visualization categories – time-
series data, statistical distributions, maps, hierarchies, and networking.[3]

Time-series

Time-series data is one of the most common forms of data

visualization. It documents sets of values over time. Examples of
graphics in this category include index charts, stacked graphs, small
multiples, and horizon graphs. Index charts are ideal to use when
raw values are less important than relative changes. It is an
interactive line chart that shows percentage changes for a collection
of time-series data based on a selected index point. For example,
stock investors could use this because they are less concerned with
the specific price and more concerned with the rate of growth. A stacked graph showing the
Stacked graphs are area charts that are stacked on top of each other, changing distribution of processor
and depict aggregate patterns. They allow viewers to see overall families in TOP500 supercomputers
patterns and individual patterns. However, they do not support since 1996
negative numbers and make it difficult to accurately interpret trends.
An alternative to stacked graphs is small multiples. Instead of
stacking each area chart, each series is individually shown so the overall trends of each sector are more
easily interpreted. Horizon graphs are a space efficient method to increase the data density of a time-series
while preserving resolution.[3]

Statistical

Statistical distributions reveal trends based on how numbers are distributed. Common examples include
histograms and box-and-whisker plots, which convey statistical features such as mean, median, and
outliers. In addition to these common infographics, alternatives include stem-and-leaf plots, Q–Q plots,
scatter plot matrices (SPLOM) and parallel coordinates. For assessing a collection of numbers and focusing
on frequency distribution, stem-and-leaf plots can be helpful. The numbers are binned based on the first
significant digit, and within each stack binned again based on the second significant digit. On the other
hand, Q–Q plots compare two probability distributions by graphing quantiles against each other. This
allows the viewer to see if the plot values are similar and if the two are linearly related. SPLOM is a
technique that represents the relationships among multiple variables.
It uses multiple scatter plots to represent a pairwise relation among
variables. Another statistical distribution approach to visualize
multivariate data is parallel coordinates. Rather than graphing every
pair of variables in two dimensions, the data is repeatedly plotted on
a parallel axis, and corresponding points are then connected with a
line. The advantage of parallel coordinates is that they are relatively A histogram graph showing the
compact, allowing many variables to be shown simultaneously.[3] numerical distribution of petal
lengths(cm) recorded from Iris flower
data set
Maps

Maps are a natural way to represent geographical data. Time and

A cartogram showing the final
electoral results of the 2008 US
presidential election
region can be represented by a circle and the size/color is directly proportional to other information, such as
population size.[3]
space can be depicted through the use of flow maps. Line strokes
are used with various widths and colors to help encode information.
Choropleth maps, which encode data through color and
geographical region, are also commonly used. Graduated symbol
maps are another method to represent geographical data. They are
an alternative to choropleth map and use symbols, such as pie charts
for each area, over a map. This map allows for more dimensions to
be represented using various shapes, sizes, and colors. Cartograms,
on the other hand, completely distort the shape of a region and
directly encode a data variable. Instead of using a geographic map,
regions are redrawn proportionally to the data. For example, each

Hierarchies

Many data sets, such as spatial entities of countries or common

structures for governments, can be organized into natural
hierarchies. Node-link diagrams, adjacency diagrams, and enclosure
diagrams are all types of infographics that effectively communicate
hierarchical data. Node-link diagrams are a popular method due to
the tidy and space-efficient results. A node-link diagram is similar to
a tree, where each node branches off into multiple sub-sections. An
alternative is adjacency diagrams, which is a space-filling variant of
the node-link diagram. Instead of drawing a link between
hierarchies, nodes are drawn as solid areas with sub-sections inside A treemap showing the exports of
of each section. This method allows for size to be easily represented Uganda, without the colour groupings
than in the node-link diagrams. Enclosure diagrams are also a labelled
space-filling visualization method. However, they use containment
rather than adjacency to represent the hierarchy. Similar to the
adjacency diagram, the size of the node is easily represented in this model.[3]

Networks

Network visualization explores relationships, such as friendships and cliques. Three common types are
force-directed layout, arc diagrams, and matrix view. Force-directed layouts are a common and intuitive
approach to network layout. In this system, nodes are similar to charged particles, which repel each other.
Links are used to pull related nodes together. Arc diagrams are one-
dimensional layouts of nodes with circular arcs linking each node.
When used properly, with good order in nodes, cliques and bridges
are easily identified in this layout. Alternatively, mathematicians and
computer scientists more often use matrix views. Each value has an
(x,y) value in the matrix that corresponds to a node. By using color
and saturation instead of text, values associated with the links can
be perceived rapidly. While this method makes it hard to view the
path of the nodes, there are no line crossings, which in a large and
highly connected network can quickly become too cluttered.[3] Infographic with a title and colour
groupings labelled
While all of these visualizations can be effectively used on their
own, many modern infographics combine multiple types into one
graphic, along with other features, such as illustrations and text.
Some modern infographics do not even contain data visualization,
and instead are simply a colorful and succinct ways to present
knowledge. Fifty-three percent of the 30 most-viewed infographics
on the infographic sharing site visual.ly did not contain actual
data.[37]

Comparison infographics Arc diagram representing the

mathematical Farey sequence
Comparison infographics are a type of visual representation that
focuses on comparing and contrasting different elements, such as
products, services, options, or features. These infographics are
designed to help viewers make informed decisions by presenting
information in a clear and concise manner. Comparison
infographics can be highly effective in simplifying complex data
and highlighting key differences between multiple items.

Tools
[36]
Infographics can be created by hand using simple everyday tools A social network visualization.
such as graph paper, pencils, markers, and rulers. However, today
they are more often created using computer software, which is often
both faster and easier. They can be created with general illustration software.

Diagrams can be manually created and drawn using software, which can be downloaded for the desktop or
used online. Templates can be used to get users started on their diagrams. Additionally, the software allows
users to collaborate on diagrams in real time over the Internet.

There are also numerous tools to create very specific types of visualizations, such as creating a visualization
based on embedded data in the photos on a user's smartphone. Users can create an infographic of their
resume or a "picture of their digital life."[38]

See also
A picture is worth a thousand words Digital dashboard
Argument map Data Presentation Architecture
Charts Data visualization
 Edugraphic Technical illustration
Graphic design Isotype (picture language)
Graphic image development Timeline
Graphic organizers Visualization (graphic)
Information design News Illustrated
List of information graphics software Maestro Concept
Scientific visualization Family tree
Statistical graphics

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34. Jason Lankow, Josh Ritchie, Ross Crooks (2012). Infographics: The Power of Visual
Storytelling
35. Majooni, Azam; Masood, Mona; Akhavan, Amir (2017-04-03). "An eye-tracking study on the
effect of infographic structures on viewer's comprehension and cognitive load". Information
Visualization. 17 (3): 257–266. doi:10.1177/1473871617701971 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F
1473871617701971). S2CID 51871538 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5187153
8).
36. Grandjean, Martin (2014). "La connaissance est un réseau" (http://www.cairn.info/resume.ph
p?ID_ARTICLE=LCN_103_0037). Les Cahiers du Numérique. 10 (3): 37–54.
doi:10.3166/lcn.10.3.37-54 (https://doi.org/10.3166%2Flcn.10.3.37-54).
37. Van Slembrouck, Paul, "Analyzing the Top 30 Infographics on Visually", June 2012. [6] (htt
p://blog.visual.ly/top-30-viral-infographics/)
38. Aparicio, Manuela; Costa, Carlos J. (2015). "Data visualization". Communication Design
Quarterly Review. 3: 7–11. doi:10.1145/2721882.2721883 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2721
882.2721883). S2CID 39594890 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39594890).

Further reading
Heiner Benking (1981–1988) Requisite inquiry and time-line: computer graphics-
infographics http://benking.de/infographics/ see there: Computer Graphics in the
Environmental Sector – Possibilities and Limitations of Data-visualisation (https://independe
nt.academia.edu/HeinerBenking/Papers/1775909/Moglichkeiten_und_Grenzen_der_Daten
prasentation_durch_Computergrafik_im_Umweltbereich) this citation in chapter 3: technical
possibilities and human potentials and capacities, "a picture is more than 10.000 words",
and "10.000 miles equal 10.000 books".
Sullivan, Peter. (1987) Newspaper Graphics. IFRA, Darmstadt.
Jacques Bertin (1983). Semiology of Graphics. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Translation by William Berg of Semiologie Graphique. Paris: Mouton/Gauthier-Villars, 1967.
William S. Cleveland (1985). The Elements of Graphing Data. Summit, NJ: Hobart Press.
ISBN 978-1-58465-512-1
Heiner Benking (1993), Visual Access Strategies for Multi-Dimensional Objects and Issues
(http://www.benking.de/ceptualinstitute/education.htm) / "Our View of Life is too Flat (http://be
nking.de/ceptualinstitute/12theses.htm)", WFSF, Turku, FAW Report TR-93019 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=A-RGtwAACAAJ)
William S. Cleveland (1993). Visualizing Data. Summit, NJ: Hobart Press. ISBN 978-0-
9634884-0-4
Sullivan, Peter. (1993) Information Graphics in Colour. IFRA, Darmstadt.
John Emerson (2008). Visualizing Information for Advocacy: An Introduction to Information
Design (http://backspace.com/notes/2008/02/an-introduction-to-information-design.php).
New York: OSI.
Paul Lewi (2006). "Speaking of Graphics" (http://www.datascope.be/sog.htm).
Hankins, Thomas L. (1999). "Blood, Dirt, and Nomograms: A Particular History of Graphs".
Isis. 90 (1): 50–80. doi:10.1086/384241 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F384241).
 JSTOR 237474 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/237474). S2CID 144376938 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:144376938).
Robert L. Harris (1999). Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference.
Oxford University Press.
Eric K. Meyer (1997). Designing Infographics. Hayden Books.
Edward R. Tufte (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Edition, Cheshire,
CT: Graphics Press.
Edward R. Tufte (1990). Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Edward R. Tufte (1997). Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and
Narrative. Cheshire,
Edward R. Tufte (2006). Beautiful Evidence. Cheshire. CT: Graphics Press.
John Wilder Tukey (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley.
Veszelszki, Ágnes (2014). Information visualization: Infographics from a linguistic point of
view. (https://www.academia.edu/8563903/Veszelszki_%C3%81gnes_2014_Information_Vi
sualization_Infographics_from_a_Linguistic_Point_of_View_VL4) In: Benedek, András −
Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): The Power of the Image Series Visual Learning, vol. 4. Frankfurt: Peter
Lang, pp. 99−109.
Sandra Rendgen, Julius Wiedemann (2012). Information Graphics. Taschen Publishing.
ISBN 978-3-8365-2879-5
Jason Lankow, Josh Ritchie, Ross Crooks (2012). Infographics: The Power of Visual
Storytelling (http://www.columnfivemedia.com/book). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-31404-3

External links
Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics and Data
Visualization (https://web.archive.org/web/20140414221920/http://www.datavis.ca/milestone
s/)
Visual Display of Quantitative Information (https://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/)

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