Final Dissertation Tamer Mohamed Abbas Ali Gad PDF

Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management
Hotel Management Department
THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON

HUMAN ELEMENT IN HOTEL INDUSTRY
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of
philosophy in Hotel Management
This Research was done through joint supervision between the Faculty of Tourism and
Hotel Management, Helwan University and Cardiff School of Management, University
of Wales Institute, Cardiff
By
Tamer Mohamed Abbas Ali Gad
B.Sc., Hotel Management, 2002
M.Sc., Hotel Management, 2005
Under the supervision of

Professor/ Ahmed Nour El-Din Elias Professor/ Eleri Jones
Ex. Dean, Faculty of Tourism and Director of Research, Cardiff School
Hotel Management, Helwan of Management, University of Wales
University Institute, Cardiff
2010
Declaration
Declaration
I declare that this work has not previously been accepted in substance for any
degree and is not being concurrently submitted for any other degree. I further
declare that this thesis is the result of my own independent work and
investigation, except where otherwise stated (a list of references is appended).
Finally, I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for
photocopying and for inter-library loan and for the title and abstract to be made
available to outside organisations.
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Tamer Mohamed Abbas Ali Gad (Candidate)
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Prof. Ahmed Nour El-Din Elias (Director of Studies)
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Prof. Eleri Jones (Supervisor)
i
Approval Sheet
Approval Sheet
Title: The Impact of Information Technology on Human Element in Hotel

Industry
Name: Tamer Mohamed Abbas Ali Gad
This thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy in hotel management has been
approved by:
Prof. Ahmed Nour El-Din Elias

Ex. Dean of Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University; Faculty of
Tourism and Hotels, Suez Canal University and Sinai High Institute for Tourism and Hotels
in Ras Sidr
Prof. Eleri Jones

Director of Research, Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff
Prof. Mohamed Hijazi

Professor in Tourism Studies at Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Suez Canal University and
the Dean of Cairo Higher Institute for Language and Management
Dr. Mahmoud Roushdy El Maghraby

Regional Vice President of Finance, Sonesta International Hotels Corporation, Egypt and
Middle East
Committee in charge
Degree conferred / / 2010
ii
Dedication
Dedication
The work is dedicated to my honourable mother, my respectful father and
my dear wife
iii
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
I would like primarily to praise and thank ALLAH, the most Gracious, the
Greatest and the most Merciful, who gave me the ability to complete this work.
In particular, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and sincere thanks to

my supervisor Professor Ahmed Elias for his patience, endless support,
professional guidance and valuable input during this journey. I would like also
to thank my supervisor Professor Eleri Jones for her patience, valuable advice
and support through this work. My thanks are also due to Professor Paul Sander
for his encouraging support and assistance. I would like also to thank Dr. Wafaa
Elias for her assistance.
I would like to express my thanks and appreciation to all hoteliers of budget and
upscale hotels in Wales who have taken part in this research for their time and
valuable information given during the interviews, which has contributed
effectively to the completion of this research.
Indeed, I would like to thank Louise Macphail, the International Student

Support Tutor, for her support and assistance through this work.
I would like also to thank all staff members and colleagues of the Faculty of
Tourism and Hotel Management as well as my colleagues of the Cardiff School
of Management for their cooperation, best wishes and pleasant interaction since
the first day of this journey. They make it worthwhile.
Special thanks go to the Egyptian Culture Centre and Educational Bureau in

London which gave me the opportunity to study in the UK by sponsoring my
research and living expenses during the whole course of this thesis.
Last and by no means least, I am very indebted to my family for their

continuous support. I would like especially to thank my mother, my father, my
wife, my brothers and sisters for their love, unwavering support and
encouragement and my beloved daughter Raneen who has been the source of
my inspiration.
Wales, December 2009
Tamer M. A. Ali Gad
iv
Abstract
Abstract
Despite the recognition of the importance of information and communication
technology (ICT) in the hotel industry, little is known about the factors
underpinning ICT-human interaction in hotels. This study aims to develop a
diagnostic tool to support human resource management at various stages of the
employee life cycle in hotels (recruitment and selection, training, ongoing ICT
support and performance appraisal) to enhance user performance and
satisfaction. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has been adopted in this
study as a theoretical basis to predict and understand the behaviour of users
towards hotel information systems. The critical review of the issues, concepts,
opinions and theories provided the basis for the development of a conceptual
framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
An exploratory single case study was developed to identify the factors

influencing user performance and satisfaction, including the user-related factors,
the organisational-related factors and the system-related factors. A series of
focus groups with information technology (IT) experts, users, IT managers and
IT technical staff were conducted. Based on the theoretical model as well as the
perceptions of the focus group participants, an initial model has been developed
to improve IT-human interaction.
A phenomenological perspective was adopted to investigate technology

adoption in four hotel case studies in Wales, namely four budget hotels using
off-the-shelf systems, four budget hotels using bespoke systems, twelve upscale
hotels using off-the-shelf systems and six upscale hotels using bespoke systems.
Semi-structured interviews, survey and document analysis were used. A cross-
case analysis was undertaken. Results suggested that user computing self-
efficacy, customer service experience, user consultation in system development,
IT training, information system support, ease of system use, system usefulness
and system compatibility have positive effects on user performance and
satisfaction.
A major contribution of this study is related to the development of a best

practice model as well as a strategic action plan for improving IT-human
interaction in hotels. The study showed that the TPB with its main components
(attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control) was still not
adequate to predict and/or explain the behaviour of hotel users in relation to
technology adoption and additional factors needed to be incorporated.
Therefore, four modifications were applied to the TPB to provide additional
insights into users’ behavioural intentions to use hotel information systems.
v
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Declaration i
Approval Sheet ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xiiii
List of Figures xiv
List of Abbreviations vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1-2
1.2 The research problem 1-3
1.3 The scope of the study and rationale 1-3
1.4 The research aim, objectives and questions 1-4
1.5 The research boundaries 1-5
1.6 The structure of the thesis 1-7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 2-2
2.2 Information and communication technology in the hotel industry 2-2
2.2.1 ICT concept 2-2
2.2.2 An overview of ICT in the hotel industry 2-5
2.2.3 The benefits of using ICT in the hotel industry 2-7
2.2.4 Using the hotel ICT for competitive advantage 2-9
2.2.5 The impacts of using ICT in the hotel industry 2-11
2.3 The competing theoretical models (CTMs) and theories for 2-15
understanding technology acceptance in hotels
2.3.1 The theory of reasoned action (TRA) 2-16
2.3.2 The technology acceptance model (TAM) 2-17
2.3.3 The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 2-18
2.3.4 The innovation diffusion theory (IDT) 2-19
2.3.5 The model of personal computer utilisation (MPCU) 2-21
2.3.6 The motivational model (MM) 2-23
2.3.7 The decomposed TPB (DTPB) 2-26
2.3.8 The task-technology fit (TTF) theory 2-29
vi
Table of Contents
2.3.9 The social cognitive theory (SCT) 2-30

2.3.10 The selective TAM (STAM) 2-32
2.3.11The extension of TAM 2-33
2.3.12 The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) 2-35
2.3.13 Similarities and differences among the CTMs: TAM, TPB and DTPB 2-37
2.4 The critical success factors for technology adoption in hotels 2-39
2.4.1 End-user traits 2-39
2.4.2 Organisational traits 2-49
2.4.3 System traits 2-56
2.4.4 ICT usage 2-59
2.5 The impact of hotel ICT on end-user computing satisfaction (EUCS) 2-63
2.5.1 End-user computing satisfaction definitions 2-64
2.5.2 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT quality 2-64
2.5.3 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT beliefs 2-68
2.5.4 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT usage 2-69
2.5.5 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT input-benefits 2-70
2.6 The Impact of hotel ICT on end-user performance 2-74
2.6.1 ICT and performance impacts 2-74
2.6.2 Efficiency (productivity) impact of ICT 2-79
2.6.3 Effectiveness (competitive advantage) impact of ICT 2-87
2.6.4 Service quality impact of ICT 2-91
2.6.5 Decision-making performance impact of ICT 2-101
2.7 A conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 2-109
2.8 Summary 2-110
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH APPROACH

3.2 Overview of research approach 3-2
3.2.1 Qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches 3-2
3.2.2 Inductive and deductive approaches 3-5
3.2.3 Theoretical and practical approaches 3-9
3.3 Theoretical approach 3-10
3.3.1 Research epistemological perspective – constructionism 3-10
3.3.2 Research theoretical perspective – interpretivism/phenomenology 3-12
3.4 Research methodology – case study approach 3-13
3.4.1 Case study approach 3-15
3.4.2 Practical approach: objective two 3-19
3.4.2.1 An exploratory single case study 3-19
vii
Table of Contents
3.4.2.2 Methods for the single case study 3-19

3.4.2.3 Sampling techniques for the single case study 3-21
3.4.2.4 Procedures for the single case study 3-23
3.4.3 Practical approach: objectives three/four 3-24
3.4.3.1 Explanatory multiple case studies 3-24
3.4.3.2 Methods for the multiple case studies 3-29
3.4.3.3 Sampling techniques for the multiple case studies 3-32
3.4.3.4 Procedures for the multiple case studies 3-37
3.5 Data analysis 3-38
3.6 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDA) 3-41
3.7 Validity, reliability and triangulation 3-45
3.8 Ethical considerations 3-48
3.9 Generalisation of results 3-48
3.10 Summary 3-51
CHAPTER FOUR: INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN IT-HUMAN

INTERACTION MODEL
4.2 The critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction 4-2
4.2.1 User traits 4-2
4.3 IT performance and satisfaction impacts 4-43
4.3.1 Productivity impact 4-43
4.3.2 Competitive advantage impact 4-45
4.3.3 Service quality impact 4-47
4.3.4 Decision-making impact 4-50
4.3.5 Financial performance impact 4-53
4.3.6 IT satisfaction impact 4-53
4.4 Inferring the initial model factors 4-54
4.4.1 The critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction 4-54
4.4.2 IT performance and satisfaction impacts 4-56
4.5 Narrating the answers to the research questions 4-57
viii
Table of Contents
4.6 An initial model to improve IT-human interaction 4-59

4.7 Summary 4-60
CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN BUDGET HOTELS:

TWO WELSH CASE STUDIES
5.2 End-user recruitment and selection 5-2
5.2.1 Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems 5-3
5.2.2 Budget hotels using bespoke systems 5-16
5.3 Hotel information systems development 5-28
5.4 Participation and consultation in system development 5-49
5.5 IT training and development 5-56
5.6 End-user IT support 5-82
5.7 End-user motivation 5-93
5.8 An evaluation of the findings in respect of theory of planned behaviour 5-95
(TPB)
5.8.5 Satisfaction impact 5-108
5.8.6 IT barriers confronting budget hotels 5-111
5.8.7 Improving IT-human interaction in budget hotels 5-114
5.10 Web-based human resource functions 5-116
5.11 Inferring the factors in IT-human interaction model 5-122
ix
Table of Contents
5.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in budget hotels 5-130

5.14 Summary 5-131
CHAPTER SIX: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN UPSCALE HOTELS:

TWO WELSH CASE STUDIES
6.2 End-User recruitment and selection 6-2
6.2.1 Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems 6-2
6.2.2 Upscale hotels using bespoke systems 6-13
6.3 Hotel information system development 6-22
6.4 Participation and consultation in system development 6-40
6.6 IT support 6-65
(TPB)
6.9 IT performance and satisfaction impact 6-80
6.8.6 IT barriers confronting upscale hotels 6-88
6.8.7 Improving IT-human interaction in upscale hotels 6-90
x
Table of Contents
6.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels 6-105

6.14 Summary 6-107
CHAPTER SEVEN: AN EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF

TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION ACROSS ALL CASES STUDIED
7.2 Cross-case analysis and discussion 7-2
7.2.1 End-user related factors 7-2
7.2.1.1 End-user computing experience 7-2
7.2.1.2 End-user basic IT skills 7-4
7.2.1.3 End-user computing self-efficacy 7-4
7.2.1.4 End-user customer service experience 7-5
7.2.2 Organisational related factors 7-6
7.2.2.1 Participation and consultation 7-6
7.2.2.2 IT training 7-8
7.2.2.3 IT support 7-14
7.2.2.4 Intrinsic motivation 7-16
7.2.3 System related factors 7-17
7.2.3.1 Ease of system use 7-17
7.2.3.2 System usefulness 7-18
7.2.3.3 System compatibility 7-18
7.2.3.4 System popularity 7-19
7.2.3.5 System flexibility 7-20
7.2.3.6 System reliability 7-20
7.2.4 IT performance and satisfaction impact 7-20
7.2.4.1 Productivity impact 7-20
7.2.4.2 Service quality impact 7-21
7.2.4.3 Satisfaction impact 7-22
(TPB)
7.4 Best practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 7-27
7.5 A strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) to improve IT-human 7-30
interaction in hotels
7.6 Conclusion 7-41
xi
Table of Contents
CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSIONS

8.2 Review of objectives and major findings 8-2
8.2.1 Objective one 8-3
8.2.2 Objective two 8-3
8.2.3 Objective three 8-5
8.2.4 Objective four 8-7
8.2.5 Objective five 8-8
8.3 Contributions of the thesis 8-13
8.3.1 Contributions to theory 8-13
8.3.2 Contributions to practice 8-15
8.4 Limitations of the research and opportunities for further research 8-16
8.5 Personal reflections 8-17
REFERNCES xxv
APPENDICES lxxi
Appendix A: Personal profile questionnaire lxxi
Appendix B: Focus groups schedule lxxii
Appendix C: Semi-structured interviews schedules lxxv
Appendix D: Hotel end-user employees survey lxxix
Appendix E: List of the investigated hotels in Wales lxxxv
Appendix F: Descriptive statistics for the survey scales lxxxvi
Appendix G: Web-based human resource functions lxxxix
ARABIC SUMMARY
xii
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 2.1 The impacts of ICT on employees and organisations 2-13
Table 3.1 The major research methods 3-5
Table 3.2 The main differences between inductive and deductive approaches 3-7
Table 3.3 The epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and methods 3-10
adopted in the study
Table 3.4 The practical objectives involved within the study 3-15
Table 3.5 The profiles of the focus group participants 3-22
Table 3.6 The hotel classification by the Welsh Assembly Government 3-25
Table 3.7 The categories of the investigated Welsh hotels 3-28
Table 3.8 The number of interviewees as indicated by the investigated hotel 3-33
categories
Table 3.9 The profiles of the selected hotel interviewees 3-34
Table 3.10 The number of questionnaire forms distributed and received along the 3-35
different hotel case studies
Table 3.11 The profiles of the questionnaire respondents 3-36
Table 3.12 The types and characteristics of generalisation in social research 3-49
Table 7.1 A strategic action plan to improve IT-human interaction in budget and 7-35
upscale hotels
Table 7.2 The summary of the cross-case analysis, involving: budget and upscale 7-42
hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke systems
xiii
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The research boundaries 1-6
Figure 2.1 The concept of ICT in the hotel industry 2-5
Figure 2.2 The ICT benefits dependency 2-8
Figure 2.3 The ICT competitive strategy – an integrated model 2-10
Figure 2.4 The competitive strategies overview model 2-11
Figure 2.5 The theory of reasoned action (TRA) 2-16
Figure 2.6 The technology acceptance model (TAM) 2-17
Figure 2.7 The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 2-18
Figure 2.8 The information system (IS) diffusion variance model 2-21
Figure 2.9 The theory of interpersonal behaviour (TIB) 2-22
Figure 2.10 The factors influencing the utilisation of personal computers 2-23
Figure 2.11 The integrated model of technology acceptance 2-25
Figure 2.12 The modified expectancy theory model for motivating hotel employees 2-26
Figure 2.13 The decomposed theory of planned behaviour (DTPB) 2-28
Figure 2.14 The task-technology fit (TTF) theory 2-29
Figure 2.15 The combined TAM and TTF theory 2-30
Figure 2.16 The Social cognitive theory (SCT) 2-31
Figure 2.17 The social cognitive theory (SCT) in the IS context 2-32
Figure 2.18 The selective technology acceptance model (STAM) 2-33
Figure 2.19 The extension of the technology acceptance model (ETAM) 2-35
Figure 2.20 The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) 2-36
Figure 2.21 The influence of user age on system use 2-40
Figure 2.22 The influence of user age on computer skill acquisition 2-41
Figure 2.23 The influence of user gender on technology acceptance 2-42
Figure 2.24 The influence of experience on personal computer utilisation 2-43
xiv
List of Figures
Figure 2.25 The basic concept underlying user acceptance models 2-44
Figure 2.26 The combined TTF and technology acceptance model 2-46
Figure 2.27 The Relationships among, participation, involvement and IS success 2-48
Figure 2.28 The influence of user participation on system features 2-49
Figure 2.29 The influence of user participation and involvement on system use 2-51
Figure 2.30 The effects of user involvement and participation 2-52
Figure 2.31 The relationship between user training and ICT usage 2-54
Figure 2.32 The training technology model 2-55
Figure 2.33 The ICT impacts on marketing performance model 2-58
Figure 2.34 The factors influencing ICT usage 2-60
Figure 2.35 The organisational culture factors influencing ICT usage 2-61
Figure 2.36 The relationship between ICT usage and performance 2-62
Figure 2.37 The DeLone and McLean IS success model 2-64
Figure 2.38 The updated DeLone and McLean IS success model 2-65
Figure 2.39 The knowledge management system success model 2-66
Figure 2.40 The impact of IS service quality on user satisfaction 2-66
Figure 2.41 The user satisfaction and SERVQUAL expectation gaps 2-67
Figure 2.42 The impact of technology acceptance and IS quality on user 2-68
satisfaction
Figure 2.43 The relationship between end-user satisfaction and ICT beliefs 2-69
Figure 2.44 The equitable needs fulfilment model 2-72
Figure 2.45 The impact of ICT resources and capabilities on performance 2-77
Figure 2.46 The Nolan ICT investment cycle 2-80
Figure 2.47 The ICT business model 2-83
Figure 2.48 An eclectic ICT productivity paradox model 2-84
Figure 2.49 The impacts of ICT investment on firm productivity 2-86
Figure 2.50 The impacts of ICT capabilities on organisational effectiveness 2-90
xv
List of Figures
Figure 2.51 The dimensions of IS quality 2-91
Figure 2.52 The IS service quality gaps model 2-95
Figure 2.53 The IS Zone of Tolerance (ZOT) SERVQUAL instrument 2-96
Figure 2.54 An integrative IS quality framework 2-97
Figure 2.55 The impact of ICT on service quality 2-98
Figure 2.56 The forces shaping IS perceptions and expectations 2-99
Figure 2.57 A framework for improving IS service quality 2-101
Figure 2.58 The impact of decentralised strategic decision making on performance 2-102
Figure 2.59 The factors influencing decision-making performance 2-104
Figure 2.60 The factors influencing decision-making outcomes 2-107
Figure 2.61 A conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 2-109
Figure 3.1 The wheel of research in terms of induction and deduction approaches 3-6
Figure 3.2 The basic elements of research process 3-9
Figure 3.3 The stages of conducting case study methodology 3-16
Figure 3.4 The sources of evidence for case study research 3-18
Figure 3.5 The classification of Welsh hotels 3-25
Figure 3.6 The four hotel case studies in Wales 3-27
Figure 3.7 The categories of the investigated Welsh hotels 3-28
Figure 3.8 The conducted interviews as indicated by the investigated hotel 3-33
categories
Figure 3.9 The number of questionnaire forms distributed and received along the 3-36
different hotel case studies
Figure 3.10 The component of content analysis 3-39
Figure 3.11 The epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and methods 3-44
adopted in the study
Figure 3.12 The types of generalisation adopted in the study 3-50
Figure 4.1 The user-related factors emerged by the focus group participants 4-54
xvi
List of Figures
Figure 4.2 The organisation-related factors emerged by the focus group 4-55
participants
Figure 4.3 The system-related factors emerged by the focus group participants 4-56
Figure 4.4 The IT performance impacts emerged by the focus group participants 4-56
Figure 4.5 The IT satisfaction impacts emerged by the focus group participants 4-57
Figure 4.6 An initial model to improve IT-human interaction 4-59
Figure 5.1 The hotel end-user employee life cycle 5-2
Figure 5.2 The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of budget 5-15
hotels using off-the-shelf systems
Figure 5.3 The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of budget 5-15
Figure 5.4 The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of budget 5-27
hotels using bespoke systems
Figure 5.5 The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of budget 5-27
Figure 5.6 The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of budget 5-31
Figure 5.7 The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-35
using off-the-shelf systems
Figure 5.8 The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of budget 5-38
Figure 5.9 The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-39
Figure 5.10 The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of budget 5-44
Figure 5.11 The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-45
using bespoke systems
Figure 5.12 The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of budget 5-46
Figure 5.13 The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-47
Figure 5.14 The participation activities emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-51
off-the-shelf systems
xvii
List of Figures
Figure 5.15 The perceived involvement emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-52
Figure 5.16 The participation activities emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-55
bespoke systems
Figure 5.17 The perceived involvement emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-56
Figure 5.18 The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-70
Figure 5.19 The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-81
Figure 5.20 The evaluation of IT support emerged by users of budget hotels using 5-87
Figure 5.21 The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-92
Figure 5.22 The attitude towards use emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-96
Figure 5.23 The subjective norms emerged by users of budget hotels using off-the- 5-97
shelf systems
Figure 5.24 The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-98
Figure 5.25 The attitude towards use emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-98
bespoke systems
Figure 5.26 The subjective norms emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-99
bespoke systems
Figure 5.27 The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of budget hotels 5-100
Figure 5.28 The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-109
Figure 5.29 The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of budget hotels using 5-111
bespoke systems
Figure 5.30 The criteria of recruiting employees emerged by the managers of 5-123
budget hotels
Figure 5.31 The types of hotel systems emerged by the managers of budget hotels 5-124
xviii
List of Figures
Figure 5.32 The criteria of selecting hotel systems emerged by the managers of 5-124
budget hotels
Figure 5.33 The types of end-user participation emerged by the managers of budget 5-125
hotels
Figure 5.34 The types of IT training emerged by the managers of budget hotels 5-126
Figure 5.35 The frequency of IT training emerged by the managers of budget hotels 5-126
Figure 5.36 The types of IT support emerged by the managers of budget hotels 5-127
Figure 5.37 The types of end-user motivation emerged by the managers of budget 5-128
hotels
Figure 5.38 The types of performance impacts emerged by the managers of budget 5-128
hotels
Figure 5.39 The motivators for user satisfaction emerged by the managers of 5-129
budget hotels
Figure 5.40 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in budget hotels 5-131
Figure 6.1 The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of upscale 6-11
Figure 6.2 The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of upscale 6-12
Figure 6.3 The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of upscale 6-21
Figure 6.4 The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of upscale 6-21
Figure 6.5 The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of upscale 6-25
Figure 6.6 The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of upscale 6-27
Figure 6.7 The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of upscale 6-28
Figure 6.8 The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of upscale 6-30
Figure 6.9 The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of upscale 6-34
xix
List of Figures
Figure 6.10 The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of upscale 6-35
Figure 6.11 The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of upscale 6-37
Figure 6.12 The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of upscale 6-39
Figure 6.13 The participation activities emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-42
Figure 6.14 The perceived involvement emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-43
Figure 6.15 The participation activities emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-45
Figure 6.16 The perceived involvement emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-46
Figure 6.17 The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-56
Figure 6.18 The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-64
Figure 6.19 The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-69
Figure 6.20 The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of upscale hotels 6-72
Figure 6.21 The attitude towards use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using 6-75
Figure 6.22 The subjective norms emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off- 6-76
the-shelf systems
Figure 6.23 The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of upscale 6-77
Figure 6.24 The attitude towards use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using 6-78
bespoke systems
Figure 6.25 The subjective norms emerged by the users of upscale hotels using 6-79
bespoke systems
Figure 6.26 The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of upscale 6-79
xx
List of Figures
Figure 6.27 The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of upscale hotels using 6-87
Figure 6.28 The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of upscale hotels using 6-88
bespoke systems
Figure 6.29 The criteria of recruiting employees emerged by the managers of 6-99
upscale hotels
Figure 6.30 The types of hotel systems emerged by the managers of upscale hotels 6-99
Figure 6.31 The criteria of selecting hotel systems emerged by the managers of 6-100
upscale hotels
Figure 6.32 The types of end-user participation emerged by the managers of 6-101
upscale hotels
Figure 6.33 The types of IT training emerged by the managers of upscale hotels 6-101
Figure 6.34 The frequency of IT training emerged by the managers of upscale 6-102
hotels
Figure 6.35 The types of IT support emerged by the managers of upscale hotels 6-103
Figure 6.36 The types of end-user motivation emerged by the managers of upscale 6-103
hotels
Figure 6.37 The types of performance impacts emerged by the managers of upscale 6-104
hotels
Figure 6.38 The motivators for user satisfaction emerged by the managers of 6-105
upscale hotels
Figure 6.39 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels 6-106
Figure 7.1 The reasons and solutions for end-user computing anxiety 7-5
Figure 7.2 The barriers and benefits for end-user participation and consultation 7-7
Figure 7.3 The barriers and benefits for conducting on-the-job training 7-10
Figure 7.4 The barriers and benefits for conducting off-the-job training 7-11
Figure 7.5 The used methods to measure training effectiveness 7-11
Figure 7.6 The frequency of IT training 7-12
Figure 7.7 The barriers and solutions for IT training 7-13
Figure 7.8 The barriers and solutions for off-site IT support 7-15
xxi
List of Figures
Figure 7.9 The motivators for end-user computing satisfaction 7-22
Figure 7.10 The barriers and solutions for IT performance and satisfaction 7-23
Figure 7.11 The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 7-24
Figure 7.12 The modified theory of planned behaviour (MTPB) 7-27
Figure 7.13 The process of developing a best practice model to improve IT-human 7-28
Figure 7.14 The process of people, organisation and system interaction 7-28
Figure 7.15 A best practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 7-29
Figure 7.16a A strategic action plan flowchart to improve IT-human interaction in 7-31
hotels
Figure 7.16b A strategic action plan flowchart to improve IT-human interaction in 7-32
hotels
Figure 7.16c A strategic action plan flowchart to improve IT-human interaction in 7-33
hotels
Figure 7.16d A strategic action plan flowchart to improve IT-human interaction in 7-34
hotels
Figure 8.1 The summary of the theoretical and practical objectives 8-2
xxii
List of Abbreviations
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IT Information technology
TPB Theory of Planned Behaviour
HIS Hotel Information System
IS Information System
CTMs Competing Theoretical Models
TAM Technology Acceptance Model
TRA Theory of Reasoned Action
IDT Innovation Diffusion Theory
MPCU Model of Personal Computer Utilisation
MM Motivational Model
DTPB Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour
TTF Task Technology Fit
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
STAM Selective Technology Acceptance Model
UTAUT Unified Theory of Technology Acceptance and Use of Technology
BI Behavioural Intention
A Attitude
SN Subjective Norms
TIB Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour
ETM Expectancy Theory of Motivation
SDT Self-Determination Theory
IMTA Integrated Model of Technology Acceptance
AB Attitudinal Beliefs
NB Normative Beliefs
xxiii
CB Control Beliefs
MC Motivation to Comply
PF Perceived Facilitation
CSE Computing Self-efficacy
EUCS End-user Computing Satisfaction
ATTC Attitude Towards Technology Change
ISD Information System Development
EUCS End-User Computing Satisfaction
RBV Resource-Based View
SERVQUAL Service Quality
SERVPERF Service Performance
QM Quality Management
ZOT Zone of Tolerance
QM Quality Management
DSS Decision Support System
ESS Expert Support System
CAQDA Computer-assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
ITHIM IT-Human Interaction Model
UWIC University of Wales Institute, Cardiff
QSR Qualitative Solutions and Research
NUD*IST Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorising
HR Human Resource
Std. Dev. Standard Deviation
DDA Disability Discrimination Act
MTPB Modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
SAPF Strategic Action Plan Flowchart
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1-2

1.2 The research problem 1-3
1.3 The scope of the study and rationale 1-3
1.4 The research aim, objectives and questions 1-4
1.5 The research boundaries 1-5
1.6 The structure of the thesis 1-7
Page 1-1
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background
In highly-competitive business environments, information and
communication technology (ICT) has become an essential source of
sustainable competitive advantage and a strategic weapon for the hotel
industry (Connolly, Olsen and Moore, 1998). In particular, Siguaw and
Enz (1999) pointed that ICT has a profound impact on hotels because a
large amount of information has to be processed and communicated
among internal and external customers. Therefore, the ability to make a
full exploitation of the hotel technologies to improve the efficiency of
operations and customer service will be the key to future success in the
hotel industry (Buhalis, 1995; Siguaw and Enz, 1999). In that sense, Law
and Jogaratnam (2005) reported that a new challenge for hotel managers
in the 21st century is to integrate the new, complex and varied services
and technologies into their existing business operations.
In addition, Siguaw and Enz (1999) implied that the hotel industry
extensively relies on ICT to improve employees’ productivity and
efficiency and subsequently to improve customer satisfaction. Further,
Camison (2000) reported that using ICT can result in having advantages
in competition, decreasing costs, gaining time, enhancing service quality
and acquiring and sharing information. In a similar vein, Byars and Rue
(2004) reported that ICT is also used in employee training, succession
planning and compensation management.
On the other hand, Law and Jogaratnam (2005) argued that hotel
technologies are useful when they make hotel employees more productive
and better able to serve their customers. Therefore, when managers
consider the decision to invest in ICT in an organisation, it is important to
cultivate and nurture a sense of “user satisfaction” among the employees
with the ICT systems. Otherwise, it would be difficult to fully leverage
the potential of the ICT capabilities as a result of the investment (Lo and
Darma, 2000).
Page 1-2
1.2 The research problem

Thompson and Richardson (1996) implied that technologies are designed,
developed and implemented with little or no attention either to the needs
of employees or to the impact that the technologies might have on the
workforce. Clegg, Axtell, Damodaran, Farbey, Hull, Lloyd-Jones,
Nicholls, Sell and Tomlinson (1997) reported that poor anticipation of
user requirements; a failure to involve users appropriately; inadequate
attention to business needs and goals; poor management generally could
be possible barriers confronting technology adoption in organisations.
Buhalis and Main (1998) pointed that the lack of training; the short-term
operational focus of managers; the perceived cost of software and
hardware; the feel of dependency on technology experts could be other
possible barriers confronting technology adoption in the hotel industry.
In addition, several studies (e.g. Ross, Beath and Goodhue, 1996; Lee and
Miller, 1999; Roepke, Agarwal and Ferratt, 2000; Hasan, 2003) showed
that new ICT would not be fully accepted if barriers of human factors are
overlooked, such as unwilling to change, lack of information and
technology (IT) skills and lack of IT support. Further, other researchers
(Law and Lau 2000; Singh and Kasavana, 2005) reported that hotel
managers might resist accepting new technologies, fearing that
technologies might change their ability to provide hotel guests with the
personal attention that characterizes a typical hotel business. Therefore,
this thesis will explore the way that hoteliers deal with each of these
issues and how they can make a full exploitation of technology.
1.3 The scope of the study and rationale

Baker and Riley (1994) reported that the impact of technological change
on human behaviour has not been extensively studied and has not
received sufficient attention in academic literature. In particular, Hoof,
Collins, Combrink and Verbeeten (1995) implied that researchers
examined the nature and knowledge of IT as a construct in the
Page 1-3
manufacturing and service industries (e.g. banks). However, few studies

have been conducted in the context of the hotel environment. Although
the hotel industry is a labour-intensive sector and hotel managers are
willing to increase technology investment to enhance their business thrust
on employee productivity.
Despite the recognition of the importance of ICT in the hotel industry,

there is little research on the factors underpinning the IT-human
interaction in hotels. Thus, to understand this key issue, this thesis aims to
construct a best practice model as well as a strategic action plan to
improve IT-human interaction in hotels. In particular, these tools can be
used to heighten hotel managers’ awareness of the most important critical
success factors for implementing technology in their organisations.
1.4 The research aim, objectives and questions

The aim of this study is to develop a diagnostic tool to use in support of
human resource processes (recruitment and selection, ongoing IT support,
IT training and performance appraisal) to help hotel managers to enhance
user performance and satisfaction. To reach this overall aim, the thesis
has five specific objectives:
(1) Undertake a critical review of literature on IT performance and
computing satisfaction with a particular emphasis on issues relating to
user traits, organisational traits and system traits aiming to develop a
conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
(2) Identify the discrete measures underpinning user traits, organisational

traits and system traits impacting on IT usage and user perceptions of
performance and satisfaction aiming to develop an initial model to
improve IT-human interaction.
(3) Investigate technology adoption in the different stages of the

employee life cycle in four Welsh case studies of budge and upscale
Page 1-4
hotels aiming to develop a model to improve IT-human interaction in

hotels.
(4) Develop a diagnostic tool that can be used to help managerial

decision-making at the different stages of the employee life cycle in
hotels.
(5) Make recommendations to improve IT-human interaction in hotels

with particular emphasis on IT performance and end-user computing
satisfaction.
The background information and the purpose of the study raise key
questions that the study seeks to address, as follows:
(1) What are the challenges facing technology adoption in hotels?
(2) What are the critical success factors for making a full exploitation of
technology in hotels?
(3) How could technology impact end-user employees’ performance and
satisfaction in hotels?
(4) How best can IT-human interaction in hotels be improved?
1.5 The research boundaries

There are specific boundaries of this research (see Figure 1.1). In
particular, the technology adoption was investigated in budget and
upscale hotels in Wales. More specifically, four Welsh case studies were
developed, namely budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems, budget
hotels using bespoke systems, upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
and upscale hotels using bespoke systems. This study also investigate
technology adoption from the prespectives of two stakeholders, namely
hotel managers and end-user employees. The theory of planned behaviour
(TPB) has been adopted in this study as a theoretical basis to predict and
understand the behaviour of users towards hotel information systems
(HIS).
Page 1-5
Figure 1.1: The research boundaries
Theory of
Technology
planned
adoption
behaviour
Managers Budget hotels
End-user Upscale
employees hotels
Wales, UK
1.6 The structure of the thesis

This thesis comprises of eight chapters. The first chapter is the
introduction which provides the preliminary framework of the study and
sets the scene for the later chapters. Specifically, it addresses the research
problems and provides the rationale for undertaking this research. It
identifies the overall research aim, specific objectives and questions
which this study seeks to achieve. It outlines the boundaries of the
research and briefly explains the dissertation’s structure.
The second chapter is the literature review which provides the theoretical
framework of the study aiming to achieve enhanced understanding of
technology adoption in hotels. It is divided into five sections. The first
section explores ICT in the hotel industry, its concept, benefits, uses to
create competitive advantage and ends with the human side of ICT. The
second section considers the different theories which can be used to
enhance the understanding of human behaviour towards technology
adoption. The third section focuses on the factors influencing end-user
Page 1-6
performance and satisfaction, including end-user traits, organisation

traits, system traits and ICT usage. The fourth section concentrates on the
impacts of ICT on end-user employees’ satisfaction, including end-user
satisfaction definitions, its relationship with quality, ICT beliefs, ICT
usage and ICT input-benefits. The fifth section focuses on the impacts of
ICT on end-users performance, including productivity, work
effectiveness, service quality and decision-making performance impacts.
The literature review concludes with the development a unified
conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
The third chapter is entitled the research approach which identifies and
rationalizes the research approach adopted in the current study. It presents
the thesis’s epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and
methods. The chapter provides justification for the research strategy,
sampling procedures and the methods used to meet the research
objectives. It also looks at the data analysis process and considers issues
of research validity, reliability and triangulation. It finally discusses the
potential for generalisation.
The fourth chapter is entitled initial development of an IT-human

interaction model. In this chapter, a series of focus groups with different
ranges of IT experts, IT managers, end-user employees and technical staff
were conducted to identify the discrete measures underpinning user traits,
organisational traits and system traits impacting on IT usage and user
perceptions of performance and satisfaction. It concludes with the
development of an initial model to improve IT-human interaction.
The fifth chapter is entitled technology adoption in budget hotels: two

Welsh case studies. It investigates technology adoption in budget hotels
using off-the-shelf hotel information systems and budget hotels using
bespoke hotel information systems. More specifically, it presents
technology adoption in the different stages of employee life cycle,
namely: recruitment and selection; information system development;
Page 1-7
participation and consultation; IT training and development; IT support;

motivation; IT performance and satisfaction impacts. It concludes with
the development of a model to improve IT-human interaction in budget
hotels.
The sixth chapter is entitled technology adoption in upscale hotels: two

Welsh case studies. It investigates technology adoption in upscale hotels
using off-the-shelf hotel information systems and upscale hotels using
bespoke hotel information systems. It also presents technology adoption
in the different stages of employee life cycle. It concludes with the
development of a model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale
hotels.
The seventh chapter is entitled an evaluation and discussion of

technology adoption across all cases studied. It presents an evaluation and
discussion of technology adoption in the four case studies of budget and
upscale hotels in Wales. It develops a cross-case analysis to evaluate and
discuss the findings from the different hotel case studies. It further
evaluates the findings in respect of the theory of planned behaviour
(TPB). It concludes with the development of a best practice model as well
as a strategic action plan to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
Finally, chapter eight is entitled conclusions. It concludes the study of

technology adoption in hotels. It presents a review of the research
objectives and outlines the research major findings. It also highlights the
thesis’ contributions, limitations and opportunities for future research. It
ends with the researcher’s personal reflections on the research process.
Page 1-8
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 Information and communication technology in the hotel industry 2-2

2.2.1 ICT concept 2-2
2.2.2 An overview of ICT in the hotel industry 2-5
2.2.3 The benefits of using ICT in the hotel industry 2-7
2.2.4 Using the hotel ICT for competitive advantage 2-9
2.2.5 The impacts of using ICT in the hotel industry 2-11
2.3 The competing theoretical models (CTMs) and theories for understanding 2-15
technology acceptance in hotels
2.4 The critical success factors for technology adoption in hotels 2-39
2.4.1 End-user traits 2-39
2.4.4 ICT usage 2-59
2.5 The impact of hotel ICT on end-user computing satisfaction (EUCS) 2-63
2.5.1 End-user computing satisfaction definitions 2-64
2.5.2 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT quality 2-64
2.5.3 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT beliefs 2-68
2.5.4 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT usage 2-69
2.5.5 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT input-benefits 2-70
2.6 The Impact of hotel ICT on end-user performance 2-74

2.6.1 ICT and performance impacts 2-74
2.6.2 Efficiency (productivity) impact of ICT 2-79
2.6.3 Effectiveness (competitive advantage) impact of ICT 2-87
2.6.4 Service quality impact of ICT 2-91
2.6.5 Decision-making performance impact of ICT 2-101
2.7 A conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 2-109
2.8 Summary 2-110
Page 2-1
Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the literature review of the thesis. It explores
information and communication technology (ICT) in the hotel industry, its
concept, benefits, uses to create competitive advantage and ends with the
human side of ICT. This chapter also explores the competing theoretical
models (CTMs) and theories for understanding technology acceptance in
hotels. It focuses on the factors influencing end-user performance and
satisfaction, including end-user traits, organisational traits, system traits and
ICT usage. It concentrates on the impact of ICT on end-users satisfaction,
including end-user satisfaction definitions, its relationship with quality, ICT
beliefs, ICT usage and ICT input-benefits. This chapter also focuses on the
impact of ICT on end-user performance, including productivity, work
effectiveness, service quality and decision-making performance impacts.
Finally, the chapter presents a developed conceptual framework to improve
IT-human interaction.
2.2. Information and communication technology in the hotel industry
2.2.1 ICT Concept

Peacock (1995) defined technology in terms of three interrelated
dimensions. Firstly, the physical artefacts that one touches/feels and uses to
do his/her job, e.g. monitors, keyboards and software. Secondly, the skills
and knowledge that enabling the use of those artefacts, e.g. human ICT
skills. Thirdly, the organisational context that forces the use of artefacts and
skills, e.g. organisation environment. Similarly, Werthner and Klein (1999)
defined ICT as the tools, skills and knowledge needed to process
information electronically. This general definition covers hardware,
software, netware and humanware that comprehend methods and tools to
analyse, design, implement, evaluate and use computer systems. To that end,
Page 2-2
the ICT concept encompasses two dimensions, ICT resources and ICT
capabilities (Werthner and Klein, 1999).
According to Makadok (2001), ICT resource is used in the general sense to

refer indistinctly to inputs, assets and competencies. Bharadwaj (2000) as
well as Barney (2001) classified ICT resources into three different
categories, technological ICT resources, human ICT resources and ICT-
enabled intangibles. These categories are discussed, as follows:
 Technological ICT resources: Ross, Beath and Goodhue (1996) classified

the technological ICT resources into, ICT infrastructures and specific
business applications. ICT infrastructures are the physical ICT assets, i.e.
communication technologies and databases (Sethi, Pant and Sethi, 2003).
Specific business applications are used with the infrastructure, i.e. Fidelio
in front office (Broadbent and Weill, 1997).
 Human ICT resources: Barney (2001) classified human ICT resources

into two critical dimensions, technical ICT skills and managerial ICT
skills. Technical ICT skills, such as programming and maintenance of
systems (Dehning and Richardson, 2002). Managerial ICT skills, which
include abilities such as effective management of information system (IS)
functions, coordination and interaction with user community and
leadership skills (Ray, Muhanna and Barney, 2005).
 ICT-enabled intangibles: Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2003) demonstrated that

ICT-enabled intangibles are the intangible benefits of ICT, such as
improved customer service, enhanced product quality and increased
market responsiveness.
On the other hand, ICT capabilities refer to “an organisation‟s ability to

assemble, integrate and deploy valued resources” (Russo and Fouts, 1997,
Page 2-3
p.540). In that sense, Bharadwaj (2000, p.172) defined ICT capability as

“the interaction of ICT infrastructure, human ICT resources and ICT-enabled
intangible resources to create a competitive advantage”. For example, a
flexible ICT infrastructure, when combined with strong human ICT skills,
becomes an effective organisational capability. She also maintained that
firms can differentiate themselves on the basis of their ICT resources. A
firm‟s ICT infrastructure, its human ICT skills and its ability to leverage ICT
for intangible benefits create a firm-wide ICT capability. To that end, Ross,
Beath and Goodhue (1996) claimed that strong ICT staff, a reusable
technology base and a flourishing partnership between ICT and business
management leads to strong ICT capability.
In addition, Ray, Muhanna and Barney (2005) classified ICT capabilities

into: shared knowledge and flexible ICT resources. They defined shared
knowledge as “the knowledge that the IT manager possesses about the
customer service process, the knowledge that the line manager possesses
about the potential opportunities to apply technology to improve customer
service and the common understanding between the IT manager and line
manager regarding how technology can be used to improve performance”
(Ray, Muhanna and Barney 2005, p.632). Sambamurthy, Bharadwaj and
Grover (2003, p.241) defined flexible ICT infrastructure as “a shared set of
capital resources that provide the foundation on which specific ICT
applications are built”.
Therefore, this study aims to identify the critical success factors relating to
hotel technological and human ICT resources as well as to identify the major
ICT-enabled intangibles. Further, this study aims to develop a tool to create
an ICT capability. The concept of ICT in the hotel industry is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Page 2-4
Figure 2.1: The concept of ICT in the hotel industry
2.2.2 An overview of ICT in the hotel industry

According to Cho and Olson (1998), the hotel industry has identified
effective implementation of ICT as a vital component of the effort to
promote and achieve its goals for successful description, promotion,
distribution and delivery of hotel products and services. Singh and Kasavana
(2005) argued that hotels have been slow adopters of new technology as
compared with other service industries. Chathoth (2007) maintained that
hotels have been slow to implement new technology since the average firm
in the industry has implemented new based-technology products and
services several years after the technology was first introduced to the market.
Buhalis and Main (1998) stated that the hotel industry, particularly full-
service hotel firms, has yet to fully accept ICT change to become more
efficient in the service production functions. However, Law and Lau (2000)
argued that hotel managers are often resistant to accept new technologies,
fearing that technologies might change their ability to provide hotel guests
Page 2-5
with the personal attention that characterizes a typical hotel business. For
Law and Jogaratnam (2005), a new challenge for hotel managers in the 21st
century is to integrate the new, complex and varied services and technology
systems into their existing business operations.
Several authors (Baker, Bradley and Huyton, 2000; Aksu and Tarcan, 2002)
classified hotel ICT applications into four types, front-office applications,
back-office applications, restaurant and banquet management systems and
guest-related interface applications:
1. Front-office applications: including reservation systems, check-in/check-

out, room status and housekeeping management, in-house guest
information functions, and guest-accounting modules.
2. Back-office applications: including personnel, purchasing module,
accounting modules, inventory modules, sales and catering, generating
financial reports, and updating statistics.
3. Restaurant and banquet management systems: including menu
management system (recipe management), sales analysis (sales
forecasting, menu item pricing), beverage control system, and cost
control.
4. Guest-related interface applications: including call accounting system,
electronic locking system, energy management systems, guest operated
devices (e.g. in-room entertainment and vending) and auxiliary guest
services (e.g. automated wake-up call system, voice mail).
According to David, Grabski and Kasavana (1996) as well as Ham, Kim and
Jeong (2005), front-office applications, back-office applications and
restaurant and banquet management systems were found to significantly
affect the performance of upscale hotels. Front-office applications were the
Page 2-6
most significant ICT applications affecting performance of upscale hotels,

followed by restaurant and banquet management systems and back-office
applications. Whereas, they concluded that guest-related interface
applications were not significant in affecting the performance of upscale
hotels. Therefore, this study will focus only on the impacts of hotel front-
office applications on end-user employees.
2.2.3 The benefits of using ICT in the hotel industry

The benefits of using ICT in hotels are various and include performance
improvements, employee productivity and efficiency, work effectiveness,
improved service quality, improved decision making and increased
revenues. Fink and Kazakoff (1997) demonstrated that hotels can obtain
extensive benefits from ICT, for example, efficiency gains (e.g. the
automation of clerical procedures), increased management effectiveness (e.g.
in decision-making) and improved business performance (e.g. by entering
into strategic alliances with other firms).
In addition, Huo (1998) mentioned the benefits of productivity, reduced

costs and increased revenues. Gilbert, Powell Perry and Widijoso (1999)
reported the benefits of performance improvements, productivity and
efficiency, improved decision making and reduced costs. Namasivayam, Enz
and Siguaw (2000) pointed the benefits of productivity and efficiency,
improved service quality and increased revenues. Tesone (2006)
demonstrated the efficiency, reduced costs and improved service quality
benefits. Lee, Barker and Kandampully (2003) only identified the benefits of
work effectiveness and improved service quality. Similarly, other
researchers (Wong, 1991; Main, 1994; Reeken, 1997; Main, 2001; Sahadev
and Islam, 2005; Varini and Murphy, 2005) only mentioned efficiency and
improved service quality benefits. To that end, Lam, Cho and Qu (2007)
pointed the benefits of productivity and improved service quality.
Page 2-7
Davenport (1993) classified the ICT benefits into, automational,

informational, sequential, tracking, analytical, geographical, integrative,
intellectual and disintermediation benefits. Automational benefits: ICT
eliminates human labour and produces a more structure process.
Informational benefits: ICT organises and produces information. Sequential
benefit: ICT enables changes. Tracking benefits: ICT enables a high degree
of tracking and monitoring. Analytical benefits: ICT helps in analysis of
information and decision making. Geographical benefits: ICT helps to
overcome time and geographical barriers. Integrative benefits: ICT helps in
reintegrating split work tasks into organisation-wide databases. Intellectual
benefits: ICT is served as an intellectual source. Disintermediation benefits:
ICT is used to establish automated exchanges.
Dhillon (2005) revealed that ICT system has few benefits on its own. But,
the most ICT benefits are derived from employees training and educational
programmes besides providing suitable organisational environment. The ICT
benefits dependency is shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: The ICT benefits dependency
Formal
Training/Education
Program
Some ICT benefits can
be linked to formal
training and education Organisational
programmes Environment
ICT The informal

organisational
System
environment affords
Has few the business changes
ICT benefits where most ICT
on its own benefits are
embedded
Dhillon (2005, p.505)
Page 2-8
According to Paraskevas and Buhalis (2002), ICT can be used as a tool for
enhancing hotel employees‟ efficiency by: (1) improving information
processing (e.g. through guest history, arrivals and departures lists), (2)
developing planning and control (through effective use of reports generated),
(3) enhancing some work processes (by eliminating routine tasks), (4) saving
time and effort in a number of administrative functions (e.g. guest
accounting, reservations, marketing) and (5) reducing costs (predominantly
labour costs).
2.2.4 Using the hotel ICT for competitive advantage

According to Olsen and Connolly (2000), hotels generally view ICT as a key
resource and critical in providing competitive advantage and positioning in
the market place. Gratzer and Winiwater (2003) and Jones and Murphy
(2004) reported that new ICTs are changing the economy and the way
business is conducted in various forms. In particular, ICT forces hotels to
find new ways to expand the markets in which they compete, to attract and
retain customers by designing products and services to their needs and to
restructure their business strategy to gain competitive advantage.
Gratzer and Winiwater (2003) maintained that to gain competitive advantage

over rivals, a hotel must either provide equal value to the customer, but
perform activities more efficiently than its competitors (lower cost), or
perform activities in a unique way that creates buyer value and commands a
premium price (differentiation). In this regard, Rivard, Raymond and
Verreault (2006) revealed that ICT can play two critical roles to create
competitive advantage. First, ICT helps firms to gain competitive advantage
by changing the competitive forces that collectively determine industry
profitability by contributing to either lowering costs or enhancing
differentiation. Second, ICT also is used to leverage firm capabilities, e.g.
ICT infrastructure, ICT human resources and ICT intangibles. Figure 2.3
Page 2-9
illustrates the ICT role to create competitive advantage and increase

profitability.
Figure 2.3: The ICT competitive strategy – an integrated model
Threats of Barriers to Power of Competitive Power of

substitutes entry suppliers rivalry buyers
ICT support for Industry

innovative Forces
differentiation
ICT support for Market

marketing ICT Support for
Strategy Performance
differentiation
ICT support for

low costs
ICT support for

organisational
competencies
ICT support for ICT Support for Profitability

marketing Firm Assets
competencies
ICT support for

technological
competencies
Rivard, Raymond and Verreault (2006, p.36)
Mckeown and Philip (2003) reported that there are a range of competitive
strategies which hotels adopt to create competitive advantage. These
strategies include organisational learning, process improvement, e.g. total
quality management (TQM) and benchmarking and use of ICT. Piccolo
(2004) argued that ICT alone does not create competitive advantage. But,
hotels should identify which ICTs can create competitive advantage in
combination with their human ICT resources. Figure 2.4 illustrates the
competitive strategies overview model.
Page 2-10
Figure 2.4: The competitive strategies overview model
Processes
Inputs Results
(Competitive Strategies)
Strategy Organisational Development Growth

(Product strategy) - Structure
(Transformation strategy) - Competencies
- Learning
- Culture
Funding Process improvement Profitability
(Investment) - TQM
(Capital restructuring) - Benchmarking
- Reengineering
People ICT
(Management & - Enabling process Delivery & Quality
workforce) redefinition
Mckeown and Philip (2003, p.22)
2.2.5 The impacts of using ICT in the hotel industry

According to Thompson and Richardson (1996), ICT failure occurs when
technologies are designed, developed, and implemented with little or no
attention to the needs of employees or to the impact that the technologies
might have on the workforce. For Roepke, Agarwal and Ferratt (2000), new
ICTs would not be fully accepted if barriers of human factors are ignored.
Hasan (2003) revealed that such human barriers include, ignoring
employees‟ willingness, abilities and manager support during designing new
ICT. In this regard, Clegg et al. (1997) identified the major reasons for ICT
failure in hotels as follows: (1) poor anticipation of user requirements, (2) a
failure to involve users appropriately, (3) inadequate attention to business
needs and goals, (4) poor project management and (5) poor management
generally. To that end, Varini and Murphy (2005) pointed that hotel ICT
failure can be critical with impacts on customers‟ satisfaction, service
quality, employees‟ satisfaction and performance and market share.
Page 2-11
In addition, Davenport (1993) stated that ICT is only useful if it helps people
do their work better and differently. Pfeffer (1994) pointed that creating ICT
business value through people means working with them, not replacing
them, eliminating the scope of their activities or viewing them as a cost to be
minimised. Kirk and Pine (1998) highlighted that the definition of
technology that can have the most relevance to hotel industry should
incorporate the human element, since technology can not be considered in
isolation of people. Thus, ICT alone does not produce sustainable
performance advantages to firms, but they should use ICT to leverage
intangible, complementary human and business resources (Powell and Dent-
Micallef 1997; Medlik and Ingram, 2000; Knox and Maklan 1998).
Inherently, Devenport (1999) argued that technology alone cannot change
the culture and transform the company. He claimed that the necessary
transformation requires a basic change in human habits, attitudes, values and
expectations. To that end, Bruque and Medina (2002) confirmed that a high
level of co-ordination between human, management resources and
technology is needed to achieve the optimal combined effect.
Jones (1988) identified three changes in the human activities as results of

adopting ICT in the hotel industry. First, the computerised systems enable
monitoring of labour productivity. Second, many of the administrative and
clerical roles became highly efficient, producing more accurate information
and a greater throughput of paperwork with considerably fewer staff. Third,
the introduction of computer technology into the front-of-house activities
has reduced the clerical work, so that receptionists for example are left free
to focus on the more qualitative, service aspects of their role.
In addition, O‟Connor (2000) as well as Dedrick and Kraemer (2005)

identified the impacts of ICT on employees as: (1) improved employees
morale, if the new ICT is presented in a positive action, (2) motivated
Page 2-12
employees, which in turn should increase productivity if they are provided

with better tools to do their jobs, (3) reduced employees
confusion/misunderstandings regarding tasks and (4) ICT enables the
developing of multi-skilled employees and as a result They should need less
retraining on the basic operating skills if they change departments.
Moreover, Lucas (1999) reported that ICT might have several impacts on
individuals, nature of the work, interpersonal relations, interdepartmental
relations and organisational structure. The impacts of ICT on individuals and
organisations are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: The impacts of ICT on employees and organisations
ICT impacts Examples
The impact on the  ICTs can affect the identity and stress level of employees.
individuals  ICTs can affect the status and satisfaction of employees.
 ICTs can lead to improved efficiency of communication.
 ICTs can lead to decreased face-to-face contact between employees.
 ICTs can lead to an increase of total volume of communication.
 ICTs can provide methods for monitoring and controlling work.
 ICTs can increase the extent of control of managers.
The impact on the  ICTs can improve the quality of work.

nature of the work  ICTs permit increased specialisation of skills.
 ICTs can alter the physical and temporal boundaries of the work.
The impact on  ICTs can reduce the quantity and quality of social interaction.
interpersonal relations  ICTs can affect the volume of communications among employees.
The impact on inter-  ICTs can affect the degree of interdepartmental conflict,
departmental relations interdependence and definition of boundaries.
The impact on  ICTS can facilitate changes in the definition of physical organisational
organisational boundaries.
structure  ICTs can improve the ability of the organisation to accommodate
structures changes.
Adapted from Lucas (1999)
Page 2-13
In order to improve the impacts of ICT on hotel employees, Pervan (1997)

recommended that all hotel employees need to develop appropriate
knowledge and understand the use of ICT, as follows: (1) develop ICT
resources, (2) facilitate organisational learning to make effective use of ICT,
(3) educate senior management in relation to ICT to support resource
allocation and understanding of the strategic impact of ICT and (4) increase
understanding of the role of ICT. In this regard, Bharadwaj (2000) identified
the following points: (1) integrate the ICT and business planning process
more effectively, (2) develop reliable and cost effective applications that
support the business needs of the firm faster than competition, (3)
communicate and work with business units more effectively and (4)
anticipate future business needs of the firm and innovate valuable new
product features before competitors.
Page 2-14
2.3 The competing theoretical models (CTMs) and theories for

understanding technology acceptance in hotels
It has become an important issue for both managers and researchers to better
understand how employees‟ personal evaluations of hotel information
system (HIS) can affect their normal routine usage (Heart, Pliskin,
Schechtman and Reichel, 2001). Huh, Kim and Law (2009) stated that after
Davis developed the technology acceptance model (TAM), it has been
widely applied in acceptance behaviour across a broad range of IT/IS. They
also argued that despite the increasing use of IT/IS in the hospitality
industry, only a few studies have recently applied the TAM and its extended
versions to understand and to explain the acceptance behaviour of IT/IS (e.g.
Kaplanidou and Vogt, 2006; Kim, Lee and Law, 2008). In a similar vein,
some recently-conducted studies in understanding the acceptance behaviour
of IT/IS showed that the application of the TAM and related theories in
hospitality setting is in its infancy stage (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009).
Huh, Kim and Law (2009) believed that it is crucial to examine the extent to
which existing competing theoretical models (CTMs) and theories can
explain employees‟ HIS acceptance accurately. Thus, in this study twelve
CTMs and theories were examined, including:
1. The theory of reasoned action (TRA);
2. The technology acceptance model (TAM);
3. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB);
4. The innovation diffusion theory (IDT);
5. The model of personal computer utilisation (MPCU);
6. The motivational model (MM);
7. The decomposed TPB (DTPB);
8. The task-technology fit (TTF) theory;
9. The social cognitive theory (SCT);
Page 2-15
10. The selective TAM (STAM);

11. The extension of TAM;
12. The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT).
2.3.1 The theory of reasoned action (TRA)

The TRA was proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). TRA comprises three
general constructs: behavioural intention (BI), attitude (A) and subjective
norm (SN) as demonstrated in Figure 2.5. According to Miller (2005), TRA
suggests that a person‟s behavioural intention depends on the person‟s
attitude about the behaviour and subjective norms (BI = A + SN).
Behavioural intention “measures a person‟s relative strength of intention to
perform behaviour” (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.302). Attitude is “an
individual‟s overall positive or negative evaluation of a particular behaviour
after the evaluation of the perceived consequences of an act” (Fishbein and
Ajzen, 1975, p.302). Subjective norm is “a person‟s perception that most
people who are important to him/her think he/she should or should not
perform the behaviour in question” (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.302). Lam,
Cho and Qu (2007) believed that individuals who perceive that others expect
that they should use the system will have a high score on intentions to use
the system, even when they may personally not feel positive about the
system.
Figure 2.5: The theory of reasoned action (TRA)
Attitude
towards Use
Behavioural Actual Usage

Intention to Use
Subjective
Norms
Ajzen and Fishbein (1975, p.302)
Page 2-16
2.3.2 The technology acceptance model (TAM)

The TAM was firstly proposed by Davis (1986) to predict and to explain an
individual‟s IT/IS acceptance (Davis, 1986; Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw,
1989; Wang and Qualls, 2007). TAM adapts the Ajzen and Fishbein‟s theory
of reasoned action (TRA) as a basis for specifying the casual linkage flow in
a sequence from beliefs, attitude towards use and behavioural intention to
use IT/IS. To represent the antecedents of user acceptance, the TAM focused
on two factors, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness as shown in
Figure 2.6 (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989; Adam, Nelson
and Todd, 1992). Perceived ease of use is “the degree to which a person
believes that use of a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis,
Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989, p.320). Perceived usefulness is “the degree to
which a person believes that use of a particular system would enhance
his/her job performance” (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989, p.320).
However, TAM does not include the TRA‟s subjective norms construct as it
was found non-significant (Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw, 1989).
Figure 2.6: The technology acceptance model (TAM)
External Acceptance
Technology PerceivedModel (TAM)
Variables Usefulness
Perceived Attitude Behavioural Actual

Ease of Use towards Use Intention to Use Usage
Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989, p.985)
In the context of hotels, Liao and Landry (2000) suggested that short-term
and long-term satisfaction with information systems is related to employees‟
perception of system usefulness in facilitating their daily tasks. Further,
Lam, Cho and Qu (2007) believed that high-perceived usefulness of a
Page 2-17
system can help reinforcement of employees and gain their high

performance. Huh, Kim and Law (2009) pointed that in the hospitality
setting, the TAM suggests that employees are more willing to accept HIS if
HIS is perceived to be easy to understand, learn or operate and is perceived
to have associated benefits, such as maximising their productivity, efficiency
and customer satisfaction and minimizing the time to complete a task. They
also reported that as HIS usage is free of effort and it has useful functions,
employees are likely to believe that HIS usage is useful for their job.
2.3.3 The theory of planned behaviour (TPB)

The TPB is an extension of Ajzen and Fishbein‟s (1980) TRA. The main
goal of the TPB is the prediction and understanding of human behaviour.
The TPB postulates that behavioural intention to use is jointly determined by
three factors, which are: attitude towards use, subjective norms and
perceived behavioural control (see Figure 2.7). Each antecedent is in turn
generated by a number of beliefs and evaluations (Huh, Kim and Law,
2009). Perceived behavioural control “reflects perceptions of internal and
external constraints on behaviour” (Ajzen, 1991, p.185). Huh, Kim and Law
(2009) declared that in the employees‟ HIS acceptance context, perceived
behavioural control describes employees‟ perception of the availability of
skills, knowledge, resources and experiences necessary for using HIS.
Figure 2.7: The theory of planned behaviour (TPB)
Attitude
towards Use
Subjective Behavioural Actual

Norms Intention to Use Usage
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Ajzen (1991, p.185)
Page 2-18
In the context of hotels, the TPB predicts that the more favourable an
individual evaluates a particular behaviour, the more likely the individual
will intend to perform that behaviour (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009). Further,
the more an individual perceives that others significantly think he/she should
engage in the behaviour, the greater the individual‟s level of motivation to
comply with those others (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009). Taylor and Todd,
(1995) declared that SN may be more important in an organisational setting
as in hotel because users may feel some social pressure to use the IT. In
hotels, social pressure for operative employees is likely to come from
managers (Law and Jogaratnam, 2005). Similarly, Lam, Cho and Qu (2007)
believed that managers‟ perspectives generally affect adoption and
application of IT in hotels. To that end, Huh, Kim and Law (2009)
maintained that hotel employees are more willing to accept HIS if they have
a positive attitude towards the use of HIS, want to comply with other
important people‟s (e.g. peers and supervisors) opinions on the use of HIS
and have the requisite skill, knowledge, resource and experience.
2.3.4 The innovation diffusion theory (IDT)

The innovation diffusion theory (IDT), sometimes is called diffusion of
innovation, was introduced by Rogers (1983; 1995). Diffusion is “the
process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels
over time among the members of a social system” (Rogers, 1995, p.15).
Innovation is “an idea perceived as new by the individual” (Rogers, 1995,
p.15). The IDT consists of six major components: innovation characteristics,
individual user characteristics, adopter distribution over time, diffusion
networks, innovativeness and adopter categories and the individual adoption
process (Rogers, 1983; Moore and Benbasat, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1995).
Individuals are seen as possessing different degrees of willingness to adopt
innovations. In this regard, Rogers (1983, 1995) identified five categories of
Page 2-19
individual innovativeness (from earliest to latest adopters): innovators, early

adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. The rate of adoption of
innovations is determined by five factors: relative advantage, compatibility,
trialability, observability and complexity (Rogers, 1983, 1995).
In the IS context, Moore and Benbasat (1991) expanded upon the five
factors impacting the adoption of innovations presented by Rogers (1983),
generating eight factors, which are: relative advantage, ease of use, image,
visibility, compatibility, result demonstrability, trialability and voluntariness.
Relative advantage is “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
being better than its precursor” (Moore and Benbasat, 1991, p.195). Ease of
use is “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being ease to use”
(Moore and Benbasat, 1991, p.195). Image is “the degree to which use of an
innovation is perceived to enhance one‟s image or status in one‟s social
system” (Moore and Benbasat, 1991, p.195). Visibility is “the degree to
which one can see others using the system in the organisation” (Moore and
Benbasat, 1991, p.195). Compatibility is “the degree to which an innovation
is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, needs and past
experiences of potential adopters” (Moore and Benbasat, 1991, p.195).
Result demonstrability is “the tangibility of the results of using the
innovation, including their observability and communicability” (Moore and
Benbasat, 1991, p.195). Trialability is “the degree to which an innovation
may be experimented with before adoption” (Moore and Benbasat, 1991,
p.195). Voluntariness of use is “the degree to which use of the innovation is
perceived as being voluntary or of free will” (Moore and Benbasat, 1991,
p.195). To that end, Agarwal and Prasad (1998) developed an IS diffusion
variance model. This model is composed of three factors which are technical
compatibility, technical complexity and relative advantage. This model is
demonstrated in Figure 2.8.
Page 2-20
Figure 2.8: The information system (IS) diffusion variance model
Technical Compatibility
Technical Complexity IS implementation

(Ease of Use) success (Adoption,
Infusion)
Relative Advantage
(Perceived Need)
Agarwal and Prasad (1998, p.210)
2.3.5 The model of PC utilisation (MPCU)

Triandis (1980) has proposed the theory of interpersonal behaviour (TIB)
that incorporates many of the same concepts and contructs of the TRA.
Triandis (1980) made a distinction between beliefs that link emotions to the
act (occurring at the moment of action) and beliefs that link the act to future
consequences. This theory suggests that affect, perceived consequences,
social factors, facilitating conditions and habits are the primary determinants
of behaviour. Thus, attitudes involve what peopte believe (cognitive), feel
(affective) and how they would like to behave (behavioural) towards an
attitude object (Triandis, 1971, 1980). More specifically, behavioural
intentions are determined by feelings people have towards the behaviour
(affect), what they think they should do (social factors) and by the expected
consequences of the behaviour. Behaviour, in turn, is influenced by what
people have usually done (habits), by their behavioural intentions and by
facilitating conditions. Figure 2.9 demonstrates the factors influencing
behaviour as postulated by the TIP.
Page 2-21
Figure 2.9: The theory of interpersonal behaviour (TIB)
Social Factors
Habit Affect
Hierarchies
Intentions Behaviour
Perceived
Consequences
Facilitating
conditions
Triandis (1980, p.210)
In the IS context, Thompson, Higgins and Howell (1991;1994) developed

the MPCU using a subset of Triandis‟s (1980) theory of interpersonal
behaviour. They examined the direct effects of job-fit, complexity, social
factors, affect, perceived consequences and facititating conditions on
behavior. Job-fit, near-term consequence, is “the extent to which an
individual believes that using a technology can enhance the performance of
his or her job” (Thompson, Higgins and Howell 1991, p.129). Complexity,
near-term consequence, is “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
relatively difficult to understand and use” (Thompson, Higgins and Howell
1991, p.128). Long-term-consequences are “outcomes that have a pay-off in
the future” (Thompson, Higgins and Howell 1991, p.129). Affect towards
use is “feelings of joy, elation, or pleasure, or depression, disgust,
displeasure, or hate associated by an individual with a particular act”
(Thompson, Higgins and Howell 1991, p.127). Social factors are “the
individual‟s internalisation of the reference group‟s subjective culture and
specific interpersonal agreements that the individual has made with others,
in specific social situations” (Thompson, Higgins and Howell 1991, p.126).
Facilitatitig conditions are “provision of support for users of PCs may be
Page 2-22
one type of facilitating conditions that can influence system utilisation”

(Thompson, Higgins and Howell 1991, p.129), as shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: The factors influencing the utilisation of personal computers
Long-Term
Consequences Affect towards
of PC Use PC Use
Social Factors
Job Fit with Utilisation of Influencing PC
PC Use PCs Use
Facilitating
Complexity of
Conditions for
PC Use
PC Use
Thompson, Higgins and Howell (1991, p.131)
2.3.6 The motivational model (MM)

There are a number of theories that seek to explain human motivation. The
expectancy theory of motivation (ETM), originally developed by Vroom
(1964), is a theory explaining the process individuals use to make decisions
on various behavioural alternatives. The motivational force for a behaviour,
action or task is a function of three distinct perceptions: expectancy,
instrumentally and valence (Vroom, 1964; Chen and Lou, 2002; Chiang and
Jang, 2008). Expectancy is “the perceived probability that effort will lead to
good performance (Chiang and Jang, 2008, p.314). Instrumentality is “the
perceived probability that good performance will lead to desired outcomes”
(Chiang and Jang, 2008, p.314). Valence refers “the value the individual
personally places on rewards” (Chiang and Jang, 2008, p.314). Self-
determination theory (SDT), introduced by Deci and Ryan (1985),
distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Intrinsic
motivation “refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or
enjoyable” (Ryan and Deci, 2000, p.55). Extrinsic motivation “refers to
Page 2-23
doing something because it leads to a separate outcome” (Ryan and Deci,

2000, p.55).
In the IS context, Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1992) applied the ETM and
SDT to explore the factors that influence technology acceptance. Intrinsic
motivation is defined as “the perception that users will want to perform an
activity for no apparent reinforcement other than the process of performing
the activity per se” (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1992, p.1112). Extrinsic
motivation is defined as “the perception that users will want to perform an
activity because it is perceived to be instrumental in achieving valued
outcomes that are distinct from the activity itself, such as improved job
performance, pay or promotions” (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1992,
p.1112).
In addition, Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1992) found that extrinsic

motivation (operationalised as perceived usefulness), intrinsic motivation
(operationalised as perceived enjoyment) and perceived ease of use are
positively related to behavioural intention to use computers. Perceived
enjoyment is defined as “the extent to which the activity of using the
computer perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any
performance consequences that may be anticipated” (Davis, Bagozzi and
Warshaw, 1992, p.1113). Similarly, Venkatesh (1999) as well as Venkatesh,
Speier and Morris (2002) found that the use of an intrinsic motivator during
training could help create positive user perceptions of IS applications. To
that end, Venkatesh, Speier and Morris (2002) as well as Fagan, Neill and
Wooldridge (2008) assumed a linkage between intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation. They demonstrated that intrinsic motivation can
increase time spent on tasks, result in more productive work, increase
cognitive processing and enhanced extrinsic motivation perceptions. They
also revealed that users who enjoy the process of using technology may tend
Page 2-24
to underestimate its difficulty and find it easier to use. They developed an

integrated model of technology acceptance, as demonstrated in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: The integrated model of technology acceptance
Extrinsic
motivation
Intrinsic Behavioural
motivation intention to use
Perceived ease
of use
Venkatesh, Speier and Morris (2002, p.304)
In the context of hotels, several researcher (e.g. Jex and Elacqua, 1999;
Wong, Siu and Tsang, 1999; Chiang and Jang, 2008; Maroudas, Kyriakidou
and Vacharis, 2008) believed that the nature of hotel work, its low pay and
its long working hours contribute to the high employees‟ turnover. Thus, to
effectively address turnover problem, employee motivation could be an on-
going and critical issue for hotel managers. Chiang and Jang (2008)
developed a modified expectancy theory model for hotel employee
motivation (Figure 2.12). They declared that hotel employees are motivated,
as follows: (1) if hotel employees believe that their effort will lead to desired
performance (expectancy), (2) if hotel employees believe that good
performance will lead to desired outcomes, such as self-fulfilment, self-
esteem (intrinsic instrumentality) or pay, bonus, promotion (extrinsic
instrumentality) and (3) if hotel employees receive a reward or outcome that
motivates them to work, such as feelings of accomplishment (intrinsic
valence) monetary rewards (extrinsic valence).
Page 2-25
Figure 2.12: The modified expectancy theory model for motivating hotel employees
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Instrumentality Instrumentality
Expectancy Work Motivation
Intrinsic Valence Extrinsic Valence
Chiang and Jang (2008, p.320)
2.3.7 The decomposed theory of planned behaviour (DTPB)

The DTPB was first created by Taylor and Todd (1995), the DTPB focuses
on identifying various belief factors that influence attitude towards use,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Taylor and Todd, 1995;
Lin, 2007). These belief factors are: attitudinal beliefs (AB), normative
beliefs (NB) and control beliefs (CB). In terms of the attitudinal beliefs,
Taylor and Todd (1995) stated that attitude (A) is equated with the
attitudinal belief (AB) that performing a behaviour will lead to a particular
outcome, weighted by an evaluation of the desirability of that outcome (E).
For example, an individual may believe that using IT will result in better job
performance (AB) and may consider this a highly desirable outcome (E).
The DTPB decomposed attitude towards use by incorporating (1) perceived
ease of use, (2) perceived usefulness and (3) compatibility, which serve as
antecedents of attitude towards use (Taylor and Todd, 1995; Lin, 2007,
Morosan and Jeong, 2008).
Regarding the normative beliefs, Taylor and Todd (1995) stated that
subjective norm is formed as the individual‟s normative belief (NB)
Page 2-26
concerning a particular referent, weighted by the motivation to comply with

that referent (MC). For example, an individual may believe that his/her peers
think that one should use IT (NB) but that complying with the wishes of
peers is relatively unimportant for the individual (MC). Taylor and Todd
(1995) as well as Huang and Chuang (2007) viewed subjective norms as
including two influences: (1) peers‟ influence and (2) superiors‟ influence.
In this regard, Burnkrant and Page (1988) revealed that peers and superiors
have a profound effect on employees‟ technology acceptance.
As regards the control beliefs, Taylor and Todd (1995) stated that perceived
behavioural control is formed as the sum of the control beliefs (CB)
weighted by the perceived facilitation (PF) of the control belief in either
inhibiting or facilitating the behaviour. For example, an individual may feel
that he/she does not have the skill to use IT (CB) and that skill level is
important in determining usage (PF). Several researchers (e.g. Hung and
Chang, 2005; Huang and Chuang, 2007; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009)
decomposed perceived behavioural control into the dimensions of (1) self-
efficacy and (2) technical support. Self-efficacy refers to “People's judgments
of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to
attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p.391; Martochio
and Dulebohn, 1994, p.358). In other words, CSE is not concerned only
with the skills one has but also with judgments of what one can do with
whatever skills one possesses. McDonald and Siegall (1992, p.467) defined
computer self-efficacy (CSE) as “the belief in one‟s ability to successfully
perform a technologically sophisticated new task”. In addition, Hasan (2003,
p.445) defined CSE as “one‟s interest and willingness to use and interact
with ICT”. The decomposed TPB is demonstrated in Figure 2.13.
Page 2-27
Figure 2.13: The decomposed theory of planned behaviour (DTPB)
Perceived
Ease of Use
Perceived Attitude
Usefulness towards Use
Compatibility
Peer Influence
Subjective Behavioural Actual

Superior Norms Intention to Use Usage
Influence
Self-efficacy
Perceived
Behavioural
Technical Control
Support
Taylor and Todd (1995, p.155)
In the context of hotels, Huh, Kim and Law (2009) believed that employees
who consider HIS to be compatible with their work style are more likely to
express a high willingness to use HIS. Further, Lame, Cho and Qu (2007)
reported that in hotels, managers‟ perspectives generally affect adoption of
IT. In the employees‟ HIS acceptance context, the expectations of peers and
superiors may be expected to differ in a hotel‟s organisational setting. Thus,
measures of subjective norms should consider the different interpersonal
influences (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009). In the employees‟ HIS acceptance
context, self-efficacy refers to “employees‟ self-assessment of their
capabilities to use HIS” (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009, p.124). Meanwhile,
technical support reflects the assistance of the information system
department with HIS difficulties and availability of network of support (i.e.
knowledgeable peers, superiors and support personnel) as declared by
Huang and Chuang (2007). To that end, Huh, Kim and Law (2009) believed
Page 2-28
that higher levels of CSE and technical support would lead to higher levels
of behavioural intention to use HIS.
2.3.8 The task-technology fit (TTF) theory

Goodhue and Thompson (1995) developed the TTF theory that extends the
TAM by considering how the task affects use. The TTF theory holds that IT
is more likely to have a positive impact on individual performance and be
used if the capabilities of the IT match the tasks that the user must perform
(Goodhue and Thompson, 1995). They further explained that if the
individuals find that the technology can help them perform well, they will
perceive it as useful and important to them. The TTF theory is shown in
Figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14: The task-technology fit (TTF) theory
Task Performance
Characteristics Impacts
Task –
Technology Fit
Technology Utilisation
Characteristics
Goodhue and Thompson (1995, p.215)
In the context of hotels, Task-technology fit is “the degree to which a

technology can assist an employee in performing his/her portfolio of
services or tasks on the job” (Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007, p.51). The higher the
degree of the fit, the better the performance may result. Specifically, TTF
corresponds to the relationship of matching among task characteristics,
employee abilities and functionalities of technology in hotels (Lam, Cho and
Page 2-29
Qu, 2007). Added to that, several researchers (Klopping and McKinney,

2004; Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007) combined the TAM and TTF theory as
Figure 2.15: The combined TAM and TTF theory
Task-Technology
Fit
Perceived
Usefulness
TAM
Perceived Behavioural Actual

Ease of Use Intention to Use Usage
Klopping and McKinney (2004, p.38)
2.3.9 The social cognitive theory (SCT)

The SCT, introduced by Bandura (1977), provides a framework for
understanding, predicting and changing human behaviour. The SCT
identifies human behaviour as an interaction of personal factors, behaviour
and the environment (Bandura 1977, 1986) Thus, individuals choose the
environments in which they exist in addition to being influenced by those
environments. Furthermore, behaviour in a given situation is affected by
environmental or situational characteristics, which are in turn affected by
behaviour. Finally, behaviour is influenced by cognitive and personal
factors, and in turn, affects those same factors. This relationship, which
Bandura refers to as “triadic reciprocality”, is shown in Figure 2.16.
Page 2-30
Figure 2.16: The social cognitive theory (SCT)
Behaviour
Personal Factors Environmental

(Cognitive, affective and Factors
biological events)
Bandura (1986, p.50)
In the context of IS, Compeau and Higgins (1995) as well as Compeau,

Higgins and Huff (1999) developed a model, based on Bandura‟s SCT, to
test the influence of computer self-efficacy, outcome expectations
(performance and individuals), affect and anxiety on computer usage.
Computer self-efficacy (CSE) is “the judgement of one‟s ability to use
technology (e.g. computer) to accomplish a particular job or task” (Compeau
and Higgins, 1995, p.192; Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999, p.147).
Outcome expectations – performance is “the performance-related
consequences of the behaviour, specifically, performce expectations deal
with job-related outcomes such as effeciency and effectiveness” (Compeau,
Higgins and Huff, 1999, p.147). Outcome expectations – personal is “the
personal consequences of the behaviour, specifically, personal expectations
deal with the individual esteem, sense of accomplishmenet or rewards”
(Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999, p.148). Affect, positive affective
response, is “the enjoyment a person derives from using computers”
(Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999, p.148). Anxiety, negative affective
response, is “the feelings of apprehension or anxiety that one experiences
when using computers” (Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999, p.148). This is
Page 2-31
Figure 2.17: The social cognitive theory (SCT) in the IS context
Computer
Encouragement Affect
Self-Efficacy
by Others
Outcome
Others’ Use Expectations Anxiety
(Performance)
Outcome
Organisational Expectations Usage
Support (Personal)
Compeau and Higgins (1995, p.201)
2.3.10 The selective technology acceptance model (STAM)

Al-Gahtani and King (1999) Model, the STAM, was built based on TAM
while introducing several modifications which were not in TAM. The model
external variables are divided into three groups: demographic variables (in
this case just course of the study); end-user background variables (training,
computer experience and computing support); system variables (system
rating or characteristics, compatibility and image). The model belief
variables (cognitive response) are the three user perceptions about the
system‟s characteristics: relative advantage or usefulness; ease of use;
enjoyment. The model affective response are user attitude toward using the
system and end-user computing satisfaction (EUCS). End-user computing
satisfaction is conceptualized as “the affective reactions of individuals
towards the use of computer applications in general” Al-Gahtani and King
(1999, p.278). The STAM is shown in Figure 2.18.
Page 2-32
Figure 2.18: The selective technology acceptance model (STAM)
Course
Attitude
End-User
Computing
Experience Relative
Advantage
Training
Usage
Enjoyment
Support
End-User Computing
Compatibility Satisfaction
Ease of Use
Image
System
Rating
Al-Gahtani and King (1999, p.279)
2.3.11 The extension of the technology acceptance model (ETAM)

Venkatesh and Davis (2000) developed a theoretical extension of the
technology acceptance model, referred to as TAM2. TAM2 encompasses
social influence processes (subjective norms, Voluntariness and image) and
cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result
demonstrability and perceived ease of use) as determinants of perceived
usefulness and usage intentions. In the context of social influence processes,
Voluntariness is defined as “the extent to which potential adopters perceive
the adoption decision to be non-mandatory” (Agarwal and Prasad, 1997).
Venkatesh and Davis (2000) found that subjective norm had a significant
effect on user intention in mandatory settings but not in voluntary settings.
This social influence is known as compliance. Further, they pointed that
Page 2-33
subjective norm can influence intention indirectly through perceived

usefulness. This social influence is known as internalisation. In the TAM2,
if a superior or co-worker suggests that a particular system might be useful,
a person may come to believe that it actually is useful, and in turn form an
intention to use it. This influence will occur whether the context of system
use is voluntary or mandatory.
In addition, Moore and Benbasat (1991, p.195) defined image as “the degree
to which use of a technological innovation is perceived to enhance one‟s
status in one‟s social system”. In this regard, TAM2 theorizes that subjective
norm will positively influence image because if important members of a
person‟s social group at work believe that he/she should perform a behaviour
(e.g. using a system), then performing it will tend to elevate his/her standing
within the group. This social influence is known as identification.
Identification will occur whether the context of system use is voluntary or
mandatory (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000). However, several researchers
(Hartwick and Barki, 1994; Agarwal and Prasad, 1997; Venkatesh and
Davis, 2000) argued that the direct effect of subjective norm on intentions
for mandatory usage contexts will be strong prior to implementation and
during early usage, but will weaken over time as increasing direct experience
with a system provides a growing basis for intentions towards ongoing use.
To that end, job relevance is defined as “an individual‟s perception

regarding the degree to which the target system is applicable to his/her job”
(Venkatesh and Davis, 2000, p.191). Result demonstrability is defined as
“the tangibility of the results of using the innovation” (Moore and Benbasat,
1991, p.203). In this regard, Venkatesh and Davis (2000) believed that
effective systems can fail to gain user acceptance if people have difficulty
attributing gains in their job performance. The ETAM is demonstrated in
Figure 2.19.
Page 2-34
Figure 2.19: The extension of the technology acceptance model (ETAM)
Experience Voluntariness
Subjective
norm
Perceived
Image
usefulness
Intention to Usage
Job relevance use behaviour
Perceived
Output quality ease of use
TAM
Result
demonstrability
Venkatesh and Davis (2000, p.188)
2.3.12 The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)

Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis (2003) formulated a unified model that
integrates elements across eight models. The eight models reviewed were the
theory of reasoned action, the technology acceptance model, the
motivational model, the theory of planned behaviour, a model combining the
technology acceptance model and the theory of planned behaviour, the
model of PC utilisation, the innovation diffusion theory and the social
cognitive theory. The same authors identified four constructs that play a
significant role as direct determinants of user acceptance and usage
behaviour: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and
facilitating conditions. Figure 2.20 illustrates the effects of these constructs
on user acceptance and usage behaviour.
Performance expectancy is defined as “the degree to which an individual

believes that using the system will help him or her to attain gains in job
Page 2-35
performance” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.447). The five constructs that

pertain to performance expectancy are perceived usefulness, extrinsic
motivation, job-fit, relative advantage and outcome expectations. Effort
expectancy is defined as “the degree of ease associated with the use of the
system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.450). Three constructs capture the
concept of effort expectancy: perceived ease of use, complexity and ease of
use. Social influence is defined as “the degree to which an individual
perceives that important others believe he or she should use the new system”
(Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.451). Social influence is represented as subjective
norm, social factors and image. Facilitating conditions are defined as “the
degree to which an individual believes that an organisational and technical
infrastructure exists to support use of the system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003,
p.453). Facilitating conditions include three constructs: perceived
behavioural control, facilitating conditions and compatibility.
Figure 2.20: The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)
Performance Expectancy:
- perceived usefulness
- extrinsic motivation
- job-fit
- relative advantage
- outcome expectations
Effort Expectancy:
- perceived ease of use
- complexity
- ease of use Behavioural Use
Intention Behaviour
Social Influence:
- subjective norm
- social factors
- image
Facilitating Conditions:
- perceived behavioural control
- facilitating conditions
- compatibility
Gender Age Experience Voluntariness of

Use
Vkatesh et al. (2003, p.447)
Page 2-36
2.3.13 Similarities and differences among the CTMs: TAM, TPB and
DTPB
Prior studies (e.g. Taylor and Todd, 1995; Hung and Chang, 2005; Lin,
2007; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009) on the CTMs comparison have reported
some similarities and differences among TAM, TPB and DTPB. A
comparison of the three CTMs revealed the following two similarities:
 The three CTMs are grounded from social psychology and have been used
to understand the determinants of users‟ behavioural intention to use IT/IS
(Taylor and Todd, 1995; Hung and Chang, 2005).
 Each CTM can predict and explain users‟ acceptance of IT/IS in an
individual way (Lin, 2007).
On the other hand, there are five notable differences among the three CTMs:
 The TAM, first proposed by Davis (1986), is an adoption of the Ajzen and
Fishbein‟s (1980) TRA; the TPB extends the TRA to explain behavioural
conditions not entirely under volitional control (Ajzen, 1988); the DTPB
deconstructs belief structures of the TPB into several factors (Taylor and
Todd, 1995).
 To represent the antecedents of user acceptance, the TAM focuses on two
factors, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness (Davis, 1989); the
TPB stresses the influence of attitude towards use, subjective norms and
perceived behavioural control beliefs on behavioural intention and actual
use (Ajzen, 1988); The DTPB focuses on identifying various belief factors
that influence three determinants of intention (i.e. attitude towards use,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control).
 There are varying degrees of generality among the three CTMs (Huh, Kim
and Law, 2009). TAM assumes that beliefs about perceived ease of use
and perceived usefulness are always primary determinants of users‟
Page 2-37
decision to use the innovation, whereas the beliefs that are involved in the
TPB and DTPB are specific to each situation (Lin, 2007). Thus the TPB
and DTPB are more appropriate to apply across diverse user contexts than
the TAM (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009).
 The TAM does not explicitly include any social variables (i.e. subjective
norms) whereas the TPB and DTPB do. Particularly, the DTPB has
decomposed subjective norms into multidimensional belief constructs
(Huh, Kim and Law, 2009).
 The final major difference between the three CTMs is their treatment of
behavioural control, referring to the skills, resources and opportunities.
The only such variable in the TAM is perceived ease of use. Therefore the
TAM‟s perceived ease of use construct consists of perceived behavioural
control but only the internal control beliefs (Huh, Kim and Law, 2009).
In summary, Taylor and Todd (1995) found that the DTPB is superior to the
TPB and TAM in understanding behavioural intention to use IT. They
revealed that the decomposed TPB may be particularly relevant to providing
guidance during implementation efforts. Moreover, it may provide a linkage
between the study of individual IT usage and the impact of organisational IT
deployment decisions on the value of IT to the firm. In this regard, Hung and
Chang (2005) as well as Lin (2007) stated that, in DTPB, predicted attitude
towards use of HIS is better than the TAM. They mentioned that TAM is
more parsimonious than the DTPB. Similarly, Huh, Kim and Law (2009)
stated that in terms of behavioural intention to use HIS, the DTPB can
provide a better explanation of employees‟ behavioural intention to use HIS
than both the TAM and TPB. They demonstrated that the decomposition of
beliefs can provide additional insights into employees‟ behavioural intention
to use HIS.
Page 2-38
2.4 The critical success factors for technology adoption in hotels

End-user performance and satisfaction are influenced by many factors,
among these factors are: end-user traits, organisational traits, system traits
and the degree of ICT usage. The end-user traits include: end-user age, end-
user gender, end-user computing experience, end-user attitude towards
technology change (ATTC), end-user computing self-efficacy, end-user
computing anxiety and end-user involvement. The organisational traits
include: user participation in ICT design, ICT training, facilitating
conditions, social factors. System traits include: perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, perceived compatibility and perceived enjoyment.
These factors will be discussed in turns:
2.4.1 End-user traits
2.4.1.1 End-user age

Prior research has shown that ICT adoption and use is associated with
individual-level factors such as age, gender and prior ICT experience (Davis,
and Davis, 1990; Harrison and Rainer, 1992). More specifically, several
researchers (e.g. Morris and Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000;
Venkatesh et al., 2003) reported that younger users perceive technology as
being more useful and more easy to use, compared to older users. Thus,
younger users have greater intentions and willingness to use technology,
compared to older users. Similarly, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005)
found that employees who are younger reported higher levels of ICT usage.
To that end, Morris and Venkatesh (2000) pointed that younger users‟
technology usage decisions are more strongly influenced by their attitude
towards using the technology. In contrast, older users are more strongly
influenced by their subjective norms and perceived behavioural control,
although the effect of subjective norms diminishes over time (Figure 2.21).
Page 2-39
Figure 2.21: The influence of user age on system use
Attitude
towards Using
Age Subjective System Use

Norms
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Morris and Venkatesh (2000, p.379)
In addition, several researchers have published articles reporting a negative

relationship between age and computer performance (Dyck and Smither,
1994; Marquie, Jourdan-Boddaert and Huet, 2002; Reed, Doty and May,
2005). In a similar vein, Westerman, Davis, Glendon, Stammers and
Matthews (1995) believed that there are specific barriers older employees
confront when using new technology. More specifically, age-related factors
do exit that may inhibit older employees‟ abilities to use computer
technology, such as age-related differences in cognitive processes, memory
and learning styles. Similarly, Kelley and Charness (1995) reported that
word processing and information retrieval may be more difficult for older
employees, resulting in more time needed to complete tasks and more errors.
Several researchers (Maurer, 2001; Chisholm, Carey and Hernandez, 2002;

Reed, Doty and May, 2005) found an indirect effect of age on CSE and
subsequently on computer performance. In this regard, Machin and Fogarty
(2003) as well as Reed, Doty and May (2005) maintained that CSE mediates
the relationship between age and computer performance. In other words, a
positive ATTC may minimize the impact of age on CSE (see Figure 2.22).
Thus, organisations should design effective training focused on beliefs
Page 2-40
instead of abilities (Torkzadeh, Pflughoeft and Hall, 1999; Sheng, Pearson

and Crosby, 2003).
Figure 2.22: The influence of user age on computer skill acquisition
Attitude toward
technological change
(ATTC)
Computer self- Computer skill

User age efficacy (CSE) acquisition
Reed, Doty and May (2005, p.215)
In addition, Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge (2003) are in agreement with Dyck
and Smither (1994) in that less computer experience of older employees may
also affect CSE and lead to lower performance. However, Kok, Lorist,
Cremer and Snel (1994) argued that not all older people show declines in
computer performance. Many older individuals perform at levels equal to or
better than the average performance of younger people. Huuhtanen and
Leino (1992) pointed that learning computer skills requires change in
knowledge and abilities. People react to technological change differently
depending on whether they perceive the change as an opportunity or threat.
In this regard, Cant, O‟Loughlin and Legge (2001) as well as Ashman, Dror,
Houlette and Levy (2003) found no relationship between age and ATTC.
They demonstrated that new technology creates new demands and general
stress for all employees and employees with a positive ATTC may embrace
new technology through their thoughts, feelings and actions.
On the other hand, Bailey and Hansson (1995) argued that some older
employees worry more than younger employees about acquiring new
computer skills. They also maintained that older employees feel their job
security is more threatened by technology than younger employees. More
Page 2-41
specifically, they reported that older employees may face psychological and
technological obstacles and as a result they might have negative ATTC.
Inherently, Reed, Doty and May (2005) proposed that ATTC moderates the
relationship between age and CSE.
2.4.1.2 End-user gender

Several researchers (e.g. Kirchmeyer, 1997; Lynott and McCandless, 2000)
pointed that males tend to be highly task-oriented and, therefore, they have
high performance expectancies, compared to females. Similarly, Venkatesh
and Morris (2000) as well as Venkatesh et al. (2003) revealed that male
users perceive technology as being more useful and more easy to use,
compared to female users. Thus, male users have greater intentions and
willingness to use technology, compared to female users. Similarly,
Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) found that male employees reported
higher levels of IT usage. To that end, Venkatesh et al. (2003) believed that
female users tend to be more sensitive to others‟ opinions and therefore find
social influence to be more salient when forming an intention to use new
technology (Figure 2.23).
Figure 2.23: The influence of user gender on technology acceptance
Perceived
Usefulness TAM
Perceived Behaviour Behaviour

Ease of Use Intention
Subjective
Norms
Gender Experience
Venkatesh and Morris (2000, p.118)
Page 2-42
2.4.1.3 End-user computing experience

End-user computing experience is defined as “the user‟s accumulation of
knowledge about using the computer for various purposes to obtain what
he/she wants” (Lee, Chung and Kim, 2004, p.461). Thompson, Higgins and
Howell (1994) revealed that the end-user computing experience positively
impacts utilisation of technology (see Figure 2.24). Similarly, Al-Gahtani
and King (1999) developed a model based on the TAM. They claimed that
the end-user computing experience is an external variable that affects three
user beliefs, usefulness, ease of use and enjoyment. They also implied that
these beliefs affect the attitude toward using the system and end-user
satisfaction. Further, it has been found that computer training and experience
are positively impact CSE and, in turn, job outcomes (Solberg, 1998; Sheng,
Pearson and Crosby, 2003). In a similar vein, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris
(2005) found that the end-user computing experience has a positive impact
on ICT usage. To that end, Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) reported that end-
user computing experience affects the individual decision-making
performance.
Figure 2.24: The influence of experience on personal computer utilisation
Experience
with PCs
Long-Term
Consequences Affect towards
of PC Use PC Use
Social Factors
Job Fit with Utilisation of Influencing PC
PC Use PCs Use
Facilitating
Complexity of
Conditions for
PC Use
PC Use
Thompson, Higgins and Howell (1994, p.172)
Page 2-43
In addition, several researchers (e.g. Morris and Venkatesh, 2000; Seyal,

Rahim and Rahman, 2000; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000; Venkatesh et al.,
2003) reported that users with greater computing experience perceive
technology as being more easy to use, compared to users with limited
computing experience. Other researchers (e.g. Agarwal and Prasad, 1997;
Karahanna, Straub and Chervany, 1999; Venkatesh and Davis, 2000)
reported that users in the early stages of computing experience are more
likely to comply with others‟ expectations. However, this normative pressure
will decline over time as increasing computing experience provides a more
helpful basis for user intention to use the technology (Venkatesh and Morris,
2000). To that end, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) pointed that older
employees are less likely to have had prior computer experience, compared
to younger employees.
2.4.1.4 End-user attitude towards technological change (ATTC)

According to Venkatesh et al. (2003) user acceptance of new technology is
often described as one of the most mature areas in the contemporary IS
literature. They also stated that research in this area has resulted in several
theoretical models, with roots in IS, psychology and sociology. Researchers
are confronted with a choice among a multitude of models and find that they
must “pick and choose” constructs across the models or choose a “favoured
model” and largely ignore the contributions from alternative models. Figure
2.25 illustrates the basic concept underlying user acceptance models.
Figure 2.25: The basic concept underlying user acceptance models
Individual reactions
Intentions to use ICT Actual use of ICT
to use ICT
Venkatesh et al. (2003, p.427)
Page 2-44
Several researchers (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen 1991; Davis, Bagozzi
and Warshaw, 1989) found significant relationships between user attitude,
intention to use and ICT usage. They claimed that the computer usage is
determined by user behavioural intention (BI) and user attitude towards
using the system (A). Further, Al-Gahtani and King (1999) pointed that user
ATTC has positive impacts on ICT usage and end-user satisfaction.
Similarly, Devaraj, Fan and Kholi (2002) found that user ATTC positively
impacts user satisfaction and user performance. In a similar vein, Reed, Doty
and May (2005) implied that user ATTC has a positive impact on user CSE.
To that end, Pijpers and Montfort (2005) mentioned a significant
relationship between user ATTC and intention to use the system.
2.4.1.5 End-user computing self-efficacy

Stajkovic and Luthans (1998) found a positive relationship between CSE
and computer-related outcomes. More specifically, researchers have
demonstrated that CSE influences the acquisition of new computer skills
(Ertmer, Evenbeck, Cennamo and Lehman, 1994), the willingness to use
computers (Henry and Stone, 1995) and other job outcomes, such as
satisfaction, absenteeism, productivity and service quality (McDonald and
Siegall, 1992). Similarly, several researchers (e.g. Compeau and Higgins
1995; Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005; Hung and Chang, 2005; Huang
and Chuang, 2007) found that CSE has a positive impact on ICT usage. Lee,
Chung and Kim (2004) revealed that CSE affects the individual decision-
making performance. Lam, Cho and Qu (2007) claimed that CSE has a
positive impact on user attitude and behaviour intention to use ICT.
Conversely, Beckham, Rice, Talton and Helms (1994) as well as Thatcher
and Perrew (2002) mentioned a negative relationship between CSE and
computer anxiety. They maintained that people with higher CSE
Page 2-45
experienced lower levels of physical disabilities, pain and anxiety. Figure

2.26 illustrates the impact of CSE on user behavioural intention to use ICT.
Figure 2.26: The combined TTF and technology acceptance model
Perceived ICT Attitude

Beliefs
Task-technology Self-efficacy Behavioural

Fit Intension
Subjective Norm
Lam, Cho and Qu (2007, p.56)
Compeau and Higgins (1995) as well as Compeau, Higgins and Huff (1999)
identified three relevant dimensions of CSE judgments: CSE magnitude,
CSE strength and CSE generalisability. CSE magnitude can be interpreted to
reflect the level of task difficulty one believes is attainable. Individuals with
a high CSE magnitude might be expected to perceive themselves as able to
accomplish more difficult computing tasks than those with lower judgments
of CSE magnitude. Alternatively, CSE magnitude might be determined in
terms of support levels required to undertake a task. Individuals with a high
magnitude of CSE might judge themselves as capable of operating with less
support and assistance than those with lower judgments of CSE magnitude.
CSE strength refers to the level of confidence an individual has regarding
his or her ability to perform computing tasks. CSE generalisability reflects
the degree to which the judgment is limited to a particular domain of
activity. Thus, individuals with high CSE generalisability would expect to be
competently able to use different software packages and different computer
systems, while those with low CSE generalisability would perceive their
capabilities as limited to particular software packages or computer systems.
Page 2-46
2.4.1.6 End-user computing anxiety

End-user computing anxiety is defined as “an individual‟s apprehension
when he/she is faced with the situation of using computers” (Simonson,
Maurer, Montag-Torardi and Whitaker, 1987, p.231). Similarly, Compeau,
Higgins and Huff (1999, p.148) defined computer anxiety as “the feelings of
apprehension or anxiety that one experiences when using computers”. In this
regard, Compeau and Higgins (1995) as well as Compeau, Higgins and Huff
(1999) pointed that end-user computing anxiety has a negative impact on
ICT usage. To that end, Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) revealed that the end-
user computing anxiety affects the user decision-making performance. They
maintained that the end-user computing anxiety is a negative affective
reaction toward computer use.
2.4.1.7 End-user involvement

Power (2004) claimed that there is a clear link established between effective
management of human resources and effective design and implementation of
ICT. In this regard, he suggested that the development of a participative
culture coupled with the involvement of employees, will be more effective
than solely focusing on the capabilities of the technologies. As well, he
maintained that such involvement in ICT design leads to performance
improvements and as a result provides an intangible source for competitive
advantage. In IS, user involvement has traditionally referred to participation
in the system development process and has been measured as a set of
activities that users or their representatives have performed (Baroudi, Olson
and Ives, 1988; Franz and Robey, 1986; Doll and Torkzadeh, 1990).
Noyes, Starr and Frankish (1996, p.67) defined user involvement as

“consulting users”. Besides, Kujala (2003, p.1) defined user involvement as
“a general term describing direct contact with user and covering many
Page 2-47
approaches”. However, Hartwick and Barki (1994) differentiated between

user participation and user involvement. User participation is defined as
“the behaviours, assignments and activities that users or their representatives
perform during the information system development (ISD) process”
(Hartwick and Barki, 1994, p.441). User involvement, on the other hand,
refers to “the extent to which a person believes that a system possesses two
characteristics, importance and personal relevance” (Hartwick and Barki,
1994, p.442).
Further, Barki and Hartwick (1994) as well as Hartwick and Barki (1994)
claimed that users who are active in the system development process (i.e.
users who are highly participated) are quite likely to develop beliefs that the
system is both important and personally relevant (i.e. users who are highly
involved) and the feeling that the system is good (i.e. users who have a
positive attitude towards the system). In this regard, they reported that the
effect of user participation on intentions and system use is mediated by the
psychological constructs of involvement, attitude concerning use and
subjective norms. Similarly, McGill and Klobas (2008) revealed that user
participation and involvement positively impact user satisfaction as
Figure 2.27: The Relationships among, participation, involvement and IS success
System Individual
Quality Impact
Perceived User
System Quality Satisfaction
Perceived
User User Individual
Participation Involvement Impact
McGill and Klobas (2008, p.30)
Page 2-48
2.4.2 Organisational traits
2.4.2.1 End-user participation

According to Lynch and Gregor (2004) systems that are most successful in
terms of impact are those where users have a strong influence on system
design. On the contrary, systems that do poorly are those where the users
have little or no influence on design. Accordingly, they identified two
factors influencing the degree of user participation, which are:
 Type of user participation: the types of user participation are consultative,
representative and consensus. In consultative participation, design
decisions are made by the systems group but influenced by the needs of
the users. In representative participation, all levels and functions of the
affected user group are represented in the design team. In consensus
participation, an attempt is made to involve all users through
communication and consultation.
 Depth of user participation: the depth of user participation is indicated

by three factors: (1) the stages of the development process where users
were involved, (2) the frequency of interactions with users and (3)
whether the users had any voice in the development process. Figure 2.28
illustrates the influence of user participation on system features.
Figure 2.28: The influence of user participation on system features
Types of user participation

- consultative
- representative
- consensus
Degree of influence
Depth of user participation
- Stage in development process
- Frequency of interactions
- Voice/views considered
Lynch and Gregor (2004, p.292)
Page 2-49
Barki and Hartwick (1994) as well as Hartwick and Barki (1994) have
identified three distinct dimensions of user participation: overall
responsibility, user-IS relationship and hands-on activity. Overall
responsibility refers to “user activities and assignments reflecting overall
leadership or accountability for the system development project” (Hartwick
and Barki, 1994, p.442). For example when users being responsible for
selecting hardware or software. User-IS relationship refers to “development
activities reflecting user-IS communication and influence”. For example
when users being informed by the IS staff during various stages of ISD
(Hartwick and Barki, 1994, p.442). Hands-on activity refers to “specific
physical design and implementation tasks performed by users” (Hartwick
and Barki, 1994, p.442). For example when users create a manual for user
procedures and design a user training programme (Figure 2.29).
Figure 2.29: The influence of user participation and involvement on system use
User
Participation
Overall
Responsibility
Attitude towards Attitude
the System Concerning Use
User-IS Intention System
Relationship to Use Use
Subjective Norm
User Involvement
Concerning Use
Hands-On
Activity
Hartwick and Barki (1994, p.445)
Beyer and Holtzblatt (1999) as well as Kujala (2003) identified four

approaches of user participation: user-centred design, participatory design,
ethnography and contextual design. The goal of user-centred design is the
development of useful and usable products by bringing the design team into
Page 2-50
direct contact with potential users, as opposed to hearing or reading about

them through human intermediaries. Participatory or co-operative design is
focused on participating users by analysing the organisational requirements
and planning appropriate social and technical structures to support both
individual and organisational needs. Ethnography design is focused on
describing human activities and culture with an emphasis on social aspects
of human co-operation. Contextual design is focused on studying people in
their work and redesigning the work processes by changing role structures,
supporting tasks and eliminating unnecessary steps.
Concerning the benefits of user participation and involvement in ICT design,

Damodaran (1996) and Seddon and Kiew (1996) identified three benefits,
increased sales, increased user productivity and increased user performance.
McKeen and Guimaraes (1997) mentioned other three benefits, increased
user accountability for the system‟s design, reduced employee resistance to
change and increased job satisfaction. Wilson, Bekker, Johnson and Johnson
(1997) claimed that increased user satisfaction, decreased training costs and
decreased user support are other benefits of user participation. Several
researchers (e.g. Blili, Raymond and Rivard, 1998; Torkzadeh and Doll,
1999; Mahmood, Burn, Gemoets and Jacquez, 2000; Torkzadeh and Lee,
2003; Bowen and Lawler, 2006) mentioned only user satisfaction. Foster
and Franz (1999) pointed only increased user acceptance. Blackburn,
Scudder and Wassenhove (2000) mentioned only improved productivity.
Further, Kujala (2003) added four benefits, improved levels of acceptance of
the system, greater understanding of the system by user, increased
participation in decision-making in the organisation and improved quality of
the system. To that end, Hess, Fuller and Mathew (2006) believed that user
involvement in ICT decisions has a positive impact on decision-making
Page 2-51
performance and user satisfaction. The effects of user participation and

involvement are shown in Figure 2.30.
Figure 2.30: The effects of user involvement and participation
Product Development
Performance
User Participation
and Involvement in System Quality
ICT Quality of requirements
- Fit with user needs
- Usability
User Satisfaction
Kujala (2003, p.12)
On the other hand, Clegg et al. (1997) identified substantial barriers to

successful user participation and involvement in ICT, as follows: (1) lack of
understanding user needs, (2) sets of expectations regarding the limited role
of users, (3) the pressure to deliver systems to tight deadliness, (4) the use of
structured methods that militate against user involvement, (5) the lack of
established methods and tools that promote and foster user participation, (6)
the bad relationships between system developers and users and (7) the
unwillingness of managers to ICT change. In a similar vein, Wilson et al.
(1997) mention other barriers of user involvement and participation in ICT
design, as follows: (1) users have to be educated about design, (2) users may
be unaware of implementation constraints, (3) designers may spend lots of
time contacting users and arranging meetings, (4) limited time for the first
phase of the design, (5) users may be very busy, (6) some users may lack
confidence or motivation and may be reluctant to talk to the designers, (6)
some users do not understand the task model used and (7) some problems
may arise when users demand changes in a late stage of development.
Page 2-52
Summing up, in order to overcome the barriers of user participation and

involvement in ICT design, Clegg et al. (1997) suggested that a substantial
investment of time, effort and money is required to overcome participation
barriers, in particular in the fields of education and training. In addition,
Wagner and Piccoli (2007) suggested that it is not enough to involve users,
but software design teams must give careful consideration to user
participation. They also suggested that software design team should enact a
system development life cycle to involve users.
2.4.2.2 ICT training

According to Klein, Conn and Sorra (2001), ICT training programmes
provide potential users with information about available support resources,
project implementation time and opportunities to gain a sense of mastery
over the new software. In this regard, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005)
maintained that ICT training is a key ingredient for successful
implementation and user acceptance of new technology. Marler, Liang and
Dulebohn (2006) mentioned various benefits of ICT training, as follows: (1)
to introduce some basic technical and organisational aspects of the new
system, (2) to guide the users to teach themselves how to use the system in
performing their particular jobs and (3) to facilitate employees‟ intention to
use the system prior to implementation. To that end, Seyal, Rahim and
Rahman (2000) as well as Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) claimed that
the amount of user training and perceived quality of user training have
positive impacts on ICT usage. This model is shown in Figure 2.31.
Page 2-53
Figure 2.31: The relationship between user training and ICT usage
Amount of User Co-Workers’ Perceived

Training Training Quality
Perceived Quality of Amount of ICT Co-Workers’ Computer

User Training Usage Self-Efficacy
Computer Self-Efficacy Co-Workers’ ICT Usage
Job type Age Gender

Computer
Experience
Control Variables
Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005, p.165)
In addition, Lee, Kim and Lee (1995; 2006) found that ICT training has
positive impacts on computer skills, performance and new technology
acceptance. Further, Agarwal and Prasad (1999) noted that ICT training
positively improves end-users‟ perceptions of the system usefulness and
eventually influences perceived performance. In a similar vein, Venkatesh et
al. (2003) mentioned that ICT training has a positive impact on end-users‟
perceptions of the system‟s ease of use. Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth
(2006) pointed that ICT training improves end-users‟ perception of the
system‟s ease of use and eventually positively influencing perceived
performance and end-user satisfaction. To that end, Marler, Liang and
Dulebohn (2006) developed a training technology model. This model shows
that the extent of user training and the users‟ positive reactions towards
training (i.e. perceived learning; training enjoyment; training effectiveness)
have positive impacts on users‟ perceptions of system usefulness and ease of
system use. The training technology model is shown in Figure 2.32.
Page 2-54
Figure 2.32: The training technology model
Ease of Use
Extent of User
Training
Intention to Use
Usefulness
ICT
Training Reactions
- Perceived learning
- Training enjoyment
- Training effectiveness
Employee
Resources
Marler, Liang and Dulebohn (2006, p.724)
On the other hand, Clegg et al. (1997) mentioned two constraints of ICT
training: (1) ICT training is often provided after the system is in operation
and (2) users are trained in how to operate the technology rather than in how
to do the job better. In this regard, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005)
identified other two constraints of ICT training: (1) ICT training is often the
first expense cut when corporations need to tighten their spending and (2)
managers often perceive ICT training to be a solution that will increase user
acceptance and usage of ICT, although there may be other non-training
barriers to ICT usage. To that end, Law and Jogaratnam (2005) added other
three constraints of ICT training: (1) ICT training is time consuming, (2)
inconsistency of user‟s computer knowledge and (3) most ICT training
happens on the job, as a result skills are passed over from one employee to
another in an unstructured manner, which easily leads to inconsistent
standards of ICT utilisation.
2.4.2.3 Social factors (Subjective norms)

Several researchers (e.g. Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen, 1991; Thompson,
Higgins and Howell, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1995; Rosenberg, 1997; Huang
and Chuang, 2007) found a significant relationship between social factors
Page 2-55
and user performance and satisfaction. In this regard, other researchers (e.g.
Venkatesh and Davis, 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2003; Lam, Cho and Qu,
2007; Carmeli, Sternberg and Elizur, 2008; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009)
reported that the social factors construct plays a significant role as a direct
determinant of user acceptance and ICT usage. Similarly, Lam, Cho and Qu
(2007) believed that individuals who perceive that others expect that they
should use the system will have a high score on intentions to use the system,
even when they may personally not feel positive about the system.
2.4.2.4 Facilitating conditions (IT support)

Several researches (e.g. Thompson, Higgins and Howell, 1991; 1994; Taylor
and Todd, 1995; Venkatesh et al., 2003; Huang and Chuang, 2007; Huh,
Kim and Law, 2009) showed a significant relationship between facilitating
conditions and ICT usage. Furthermore, Al-Gahtani and King (1999)
revealed that IT support positively impacts user satisfaction. Lee, Chung and
Kim (2004) revealed that facilitating conditions affect the individual
decision-making performance. Further several studies (e.g. DeLone and
McLean, 2003; Chakrabarty, Whitten and Green, 2008; Halawi, McCarthy
and Aronson, 2008) revealed that information quality and system quality
positively impact system usage and end-user satisfaction. Besides, Stone,
Good and Baker-Eveleth (2006) claimed that information quality and system
quality have positive effects on user beliefs, system usage, end-user
satisfaction and performance.
2.4.3 System traits

2.4.3.1 Ease of system use
Several researchers (e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989; Venkatesh and
Davis, 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2003) found that perceived ease of system use
has positive impacts on user attitude, intention to use and ICT usage.
Page 2-56
Further, Al-Gahtani and King (1999) as well as Somers, Nelson and Karimi
(2003) pointed that perceived ease of use has positive impacts on user
attitude, ICT usage and subsequently end-user satisfaction. Moreover,
Devaraj, Fan and Kholi (2002) as well as Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth
(2006) maintained significant relationships between perceived ease of use,
user attitude, ICT usage, end-user satisfaction and performance. To that end,
Klopping and McKinney (2004) as well as Lam, Cho and Qu (2007) claimed
significant relationships between perceived ease of use, user attitude and
intention to use the system.
2.4.3.2 System usefulness

Several researchers (e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989; Venkatesh and
Davis, 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2003) demonstrated that perceived system
usefulness (extrinsic motivation) has positive impacts on user attitude,
intention to use and ICT usage. In this regard, Al-Gahtani and King (1999)
as well as Somers, Nelson and Karimi (2003) pointed that perceived system
usefulness has positive impacts on user attitude, ICT usage and subsequently
end-user satisfaction. Further, Devaraj, Fan and Kholi (2002) as well as
Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth (2006) maintained significant relationships
between perceived system usefulness, user attitude, ICT usage, end-user
satisfaction and performance. To that end, Klopping and McKinney (2004)
as well as Lam, Cho and Qu (2007) claimed significant relationships
between perceived system usefulness, user attitude and intention to use the
system. This is demonstrated in Figure 2.33.
Page 2-57
Figure 2.33: The ICT impacts on marketing performance model
Individual Traits
Organisational
Traits Ease of
System Use
Information
Quality Organisational
End-user’s
System Performance
Satisfaction
Use Impacts
System/service (Attitude)
Quality
Perceived
Usefulness
Industry Traits
Tasks Performed
Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth (2006, p.467)
2.4.3.3 Compatibility (Task-technology fit)

Several researchers (e.g. Thompson, Higgins and Howell, 1991; 1995;
Agarwal and Prasad, 1998; Venkatesh et al., 2003) found that perceived
compatability has a positive impact on system usage. Further, other
researchers (e.g. Goodhue and Thompson, 1995; Al-Gahtani and King,
1999; Klopping and Mckinney, 2004; Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007; Huh, Kim
and Law, 2009) claimed that the technology will have a positive impact on
individual performance and satisfaction if it is well utilised and fitted well
with the task it supports. In other words, if the individuals find that the
technology can help them perform well, they will perceive it as useful and
important to them.
Page 2-58
2.4.3.4 System enjoyment

Several researchers (e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1992; Venkatesh
1999; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Venkatesh, Speier and Morris, 2002; Fagan,
Neill and Wooldridge, 2003; Chiang and Jang, 2008) found that perceived
system enjoyment (intrinsic motivation) has a positive impact on user
intention to use the system. In a similar vein, Al-Gahtani and King (1999)
revealed that perceived system enjoyment positively impacts user attitude,
user satisfaction and subsequently system usage.
2.4.4 ICT usage

According to Burton-Jones and Straub (2006), ICT usage at any level of
analysis comprises three elements: a user (the subject using the IS), a system
(the IS used), and a task (the function being performed). Accordingly, they
defined ICT usage as “a user‟s employment of a system to perform a task”
(Burton-Jones and Straub, 2006, p.659). In this regard, Carmeli, Sternberg
and Elizur (2008, p.176) defined ICT usage as “the attitudes and behaviours
towards IS and their impact on processes and outcomes”.
With regards to the factors influencing ICT usage, Seyal, Rahim and
Rahman (2000) identified two factors influencing ICT usage, which are:
end-user parameter and organisational parameters. End-user parameters
include computer experience, computer training, educational level and
ownership of personal computer. Organisational parameters include size of
organisation, type of business and profitability of organisation. Figure 2.34
illustrates these factors influencing ICT usage.
Page 2-59
Figure 2.34: The factors influencing ICT usage
Organisational End-user
Parameters Parameters
Size of Computer
Organisation Experience
Computer
Type of Training
ICT Usage
Business
Educational
Level
Profitability of
Organisation Ownership of
PC
Seyal, Rahim and Rahman (2000, p.5)
In addition, Carmeli, Sternberg and Elizur (2008) identified three basic

factors influencing end-user creative behaviour and ICT usage, these factors
are: behaviour modality, referent and object. Behaviour modality is a general
factor that includes five elements, cognitive behaviour (belief), affective
behaviour (satisfaction), instrumental behaviour (action), values
(importance) and norms (desired). Referent refers to the end-user‟s
interaction with co-workers, supervisors, managers and ICT staff. Object is a
general factor that includes two elements, creative behaviour/work and ICT.
Figure 2.35 illustrates the factors influencing ICT usage. In other words,
users are more likely to use ICT: (1) if they belief that ICT is easy to use,
useful and important to them and (2) if they comply with other referents‟
(i.e. colleagues; managers; ICT staff) desires to use ICT.
Page 2-60
Figure 2.35: The organisational culture factors influencing ICT usage
Behaviour Modality
- Cognitive (belief)
The assessment of - Affective (satisfaction)
- Instrumental (action) Behaviour by
employee (x) of the
- Value (importance)
- Norms (desired)
Objects Referent
- Respondent
- Creative work Toward - Colleagues
- ICT - Manager
- ICT staff
High
or ICT Usage
Low
Carmeli, Sternberg and Elizur (2008, p.176)
Several researchers (e.g. Al-Gahtani and King, 1999; Khalil and Melkordy,
1999; McGill, Hobbs and Klobas, 2003; Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth,
2006) found a positive relationship between end-user satisfaction and ICT
usage. However, Baroudi, Olson and Ives (1988) suggested three models for
the relationship between end-user satisfaction and system usage: (1)
satisfaction and usage are not related, (2) usage influences satisfaction and
(3) satisfaction influences usage. To that end, Lo and Darma (2000) found
that end-user satisfaction has a greater effect on ICT usage than the effect of
ICT investment. For that, they suggested that in order to maximise the
potential of the ICT capabilities of an organisation (ICT usage), senior
managers must raise the satisfaction level of the users to ensure better
utilisation of the ICT capabilities rather than increase the ICT investment.
On the other hand, Lucas and Spitler (1999) proposed a negative relationship
between ICT usage and performance. They claimed that users who perform
poorly may respond by increasing their use of the ICT in the hope that it will
Page 2-61
help them achieve higher performance. Conversely, Lo and Darma (2000)

maintained that ICT usage and end-user satisfaction contribute positively to
employee performance. They also confirmed that the effect of end-user
satisfaction is greater than that of ICT usage. Similarly, Burton-Jones and
Straub (2006) mentioned a positive relationship between ICT usage and
performance. They claimed this relationship when a user employs features of
the systems that fit the task. Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth (2006) revealed
that ICT usage has positive effects on end-user satisfaction and performance.
To that end, Burton-Jones and Gallivan (2007) pointed that ICT usage
(individual or collective) has a positive impact on performance (individual
or collective). Figure 2.36 illustrates the relationship between ICT usage and
performance.
Figure 2.36: The relationship between ICT usage and performance
Collective action
Collective ICT Collective Task
Usage 3 Performance
Collective learning
Collective Collective
Individual assignment Individual assignment
enactment 2 and enactment 4 and
enactment enactment
Individual action
Individual ICT Individual Task
Usage 1 Performance
Individual learning
Burton-Jones and Gallivan (2007, p.662)
Page 2-62
2.5 The impact of hotel ICT on end-user computing satisfaction (EUCS)

Lo and Darma (2000) pointed that when managers consider the decision to
invest in ICT in an organisation, it is important to develop and raise a sense
of end-user satisfaction among the employees with the ICT systems.
Otherwise, it would be difficult to fully leverage the potential of the ICT
capabilities as a result of the investment. They also claimed that merely
putting more money in equipment or software, does not necessarily lead to
increase usage of ICT systems. Somers, Nelson and Karimi (2003) reported
that over the past decade, organisations have made significant investments in
enterprise resource planning systems. The realisation of benefits from these
investments depends on supporting effective use of ICT and satisfying end-
users. They also claimed that end-user satisfaction is one of the most
important determinants of success of those systems. Similarly, Au, Ngai and
Cheng (2008) maintained that end-user satisfaction is one of the most
widely-used measures in assessing the success of an IS. They explained that
IS require people to exploit their capabilities before producing organisational
benefits. To that end, they pointed that end-users should both willing and
able to use the new ICT.
2.5.1 End-user computing satisfaction definitions

Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, p.261) defined EUCS as “the affective attitude
towards a specific computer application by someone who interacts with the
application directly”. Further, Somers, Nelson and Karimi (2003, p.597)
defined EUCS as “the extent to which users perceive that IS is available to
them and meets their information requirements”. Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008,
p.46) defined EUCS as “the end-user‟s overall affective and cognitive
evaluation of the entire end-user IS experience”. To that end, Lo and Darma
(2000, p.37) defined hotel EUCS as “the employees‟ attitude towards the use
of computer facilities as they perform their daily duties in the hotel”. They
Page 2-63
also explained that EUCS is measured the extent to which organisational IS

meet the end-user‟s needs with regards to information content, accuracy,
timeliness, format and ease of use.
2.5.2 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT quality

DeLone and McLean (2003, p.10) identified three types of IS successes,
which are: technical success, semantic success, and effectiveness success.
Technical success is “the accuracy and efficiency of the communication
system that produces information”. Semantic success is “the success of the
information in conveying the intended meaning”. Effectiveness success is
“the effect of the information on the receiver”. Also, they revealed that
„System quality‟ was used to measures technical success, „information
quality‟ was used to measure semantic success and „system use, user
satisfaction, individual and organisational impacts‟ were used to measure
effectiveness success. The DeLone and McLean IS success model is shown
in Figure 2.37.
Figure 2.37: The DeLone and McLean IS success model
System Use
Quality
Individual Organisational
Impact Impact
Information User
Quality Satisfaction
DeLone and McLean (1992, p.68)
According to DeLone and McLean (2003), System quality was measured in

terms of ease-of-use, functionality, reliability, flexibility, data quality,
portability, integration and importance. Information quality was measured in
terms of accuracy, timeliness, completeness, relevance and consistency.
Page 2-64
System use was measured as frequency of use, time of use, number of

accesses, usage pattern and dependency. Individual impacts were measured
in terms of job performance, decision-making performance, job effectiveness
and quality of work environment. Rai, Lang and Welker (2002) and DeLone
and McLean (2003) claimed that a high quality (system quality, information
quality and service quality) will be associated with more use, more user
satisfaction and positive net benefits. In another circumstance, more use of a
poor quality system would be associated with more dissatisfaction and
negative net benefits. This relationship between quality and end-user
satisfaction is shown in Figure 2.38.
Figure 2.38: The updated DeLone and McLean IS Success Model
Information
Quality
Intention to
Use
Use
System Quality Net Benefits
User Satisfaction
Service Quality
DeLone and McLean (2003, p.24)
In addition, Halawi, McCarthy and Aronson (2008) reported that knowledge

quality, system quality and service quality have positive impacts on EUCS.
In other words, users are more likely to be satisfied with the system: (1) if
they are quite knowledgeable with the system, (2) if they use high quality
system and (3) if they have positive perceptions of service quality. Figure
2.39 illustrates the knowledge management system success model.
Page 2-65
Figure 2.39: The knowledge management system success model
Knowledge
Quality
Intention to Use
Knowledge
System Management
Quality Systems
Success
User Satisfaction (KMSS)
Service
Quality
(SVQ)
Halawi, McCarthy and Aronson (2008, p.124)
Chakrabarty, Whitten and Green (2008) found a strong positive relationship

among IS service quality, IS relationship quality and EUCS. The IS
relationship quality is operationally defined as “a relationship between IS
department and user that involves high levels of trust, commitment, quality
communication, cultural similarity and balanced interdependence between
entities in the service partnership” (Chakrabarty, Whitten and Green, 2008,
p.3), as shown in Figure 2.40.
Figure 2.40: The impact of IS service quality on user satisfaction
System Information Knowledge &

Quality Quality Involvement
End-User
Satisfaction
Reliability Trust
Responsibility Commitment
IS service IS relationship
Tangible Quality Quality Culture
Assurance Interdependenc
e
Empathy Communication
Chakrabarty, Whitten and Green (2008, p.8)
Page 2-66
In addition, Jiang, Klein, Carr (2002) found a positive relationship between

IS service quality and EUCS. Users are more likely to be satisfied with the
system if they have high perceptions of service quality regarding IS staff
reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. Figure 2.41 demonstrates
the relationship between service quality and EUCS.
Figure 2.41: The user satisfaction and SERVQUAL expectation gaps
SERVQUAL End-User
Expectation Satisfaction
Gaps
Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy
R1 RS1 A1 E1 S1
R2 RS2 A2 E2 S2
R3 RS3 A3 E3 S3
E4
Reliability Empathy
R1 - IS units do what they promise. E1 - IS units give customers individual attention.
R2 - IS units are dependable. E2 - IS units have skilled IS employees.
R3 - IS units provide their services on time. E3 - IS units have customers‟ best interest at heart.
Responsiveness E1 - IS employees understand the customers‟ needs.
RS1 - IS employees give prompt service to customers. Employee Satisfaction
RS2 - IS employees are always willing to help customers. A1 – IS employees‟ understanding of systems.
RS3 - IS employees respond quickly to customers‟ requests. A2 - Attitude of IS employees.
Assurance A3 - Communication with IS employees.
A1 - IS employees are confidence.
A2 - IS employees are courteous with customers.
A3 - IS employees have knowledge to do their job well.
Jiang, Klein and Carr (2002, p.158)
To that end Devaraj, Fan and Kohli (2002) found also a positive relationship
among IS service quality, technology acceptance and EUCS. In other words
users are more likely to be satisfied if they have positive ATTC (technology
acceptance) and if they use high quality systems (see Figure 2.42).
Page 2-67
Figure 2.42: The impact of technology acceptance and IS quality on user satisfaction
Reliability
Responsiveness
IS service
Tangible Quality
Assurance
End-User End-User
Empathy Performance
Satisfaction
Ease of use
Technology
Acceptance
Usefulness
Devaraj, Fan and Kohli (2002, p.327)
2.5.3 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT beliefs

Al-Gahtani and King (1999) reported that the two belief variables, system
usefulness and ease of use, are important in indicating the role of EUCS.
They claimed a positive relationship between these two belief variables and
EUCS. In other words, users are more likely to be satisfied if the system is
easy to use and useful. Similarly, Somers, Nelson and Karimi (2003) as well
as Doll, Deng, Raghunathan, Torkzadeh and Xia (2004) found a positive
relationship among system usefulness (content; accuracy; format;
timeliness), ease of system use and EUCS. They reported that users are more
likely to be satisfied with the system: (1) if the system provides precise
information to users, (2) if the system is accurate, (3) if the system output is
presented in a useful format, (4) if the information is provided in time and
(5) if the system is easy to use. The relationship between ICT beliefs
(perceived usefulness; perceived ease of use) and EUCS is shown in Figure
2.43.
Page 2-68
Figure 2.43: The relationship between end-user satisfaction and ICT beliefs
End-User
satisfaction
Content Accuracy Format Timeliness Ease of

Use
C1 C2 C3 C4 A1 A2 F1 F2 T1 T2 E1 E2
Second-order construct First-order construct Observed items

Structural weight Item-factor loading
Content Format
C1- The system provides precise information to user. F1- The output is presented in a useful format.
C2- The information content meet user needs. F2- The information is clear.
C3- The system provides reports that user needs. Timeliness
C4- The system provides sufficient information to user. T1- The information is provided in time.
Accuracy T2- The system provides up-to-date information.
A1- The system is accurate. Ease of use
A2- The user is satisfied with the accuracy of the system E1- The system is user friendly
E2- the system is easy to use.
Doll et al. (2004, p.230)
2.5.4 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT usage

Several researchers (e.g. Al-Gahtani and King, 1999; Khalil and Melkordy,
1999; McGill, Hobbs and Klobas, 2003; Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth,
2006) found a positive relationship between EUCS and system usage. They
claimed that greater satisfaction with the system should encourage its usage.
DeLone and McLean (2003) argued that EUCS and system use affect each
other and there is a reciprocal relationship between them. However, Yuthas
and Young (1998) argued that examining EUCS and system usage measures
is not an acceptable alternative to measuring performance directly.
Although, EUCS, system usage and performance are correlated, the
Page 2-69
relationship among them is not sufficiently strong to permit their use as

substitutes for one another.
In addition, Baroudi, Olson and Ives (1988) suggested three models for the
relationship between EUCS and system usage:
 The dominant or traditional model: satisfaction and usage are not related;
 Usage influences satisfaction: as system usage increases it leads to
increased EUCS. This model is based on the belief that system usage
leads users to be more familiar with the system and to discover new uses
for it which will, in turn, lead to enhanced EUCS with the system;
 Satisfaction influences usage: the more satisfied the user is with the
system the more he/she will be tending to use it. This model assumes that
if a system meets a user‟s needs, satisfaction with the system should
increase, which should further lead to greater use of that system.
2.5.5 End-user computing satisfaction and ICT input-benefits

Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008, p.48) defined end-user input as “what a user
may need to invest or sacrifice in using the IS in the hope of obtaining a
desirable benefit”. Woodroof and Kasper (1998) implied that the end-user
inputs may include cognitive or intellectual effort in learning to use IS and
physical effort and time. Alter (1999) claimed that other end-user inputs
(negative impacts) of using IS may consist of extra work load and work
stress. To that end, Boddy, Boonstra and Kennedy (2002) pointed that end-
user inputs may be a reduction in social contact and a gradual reduction in
the recognition of the user‟s of non-ICT experiences and traditional skills.
On the other hand, Torkzadeh and Doll (1999, pp.330-1) identified four
dimensions for individual positive impacts (system benefits/outputs), which
are: task productivity, task innovation, customer satisfaction, and
Page 2-70
management control. Task productivity is “the extent to which an application

improves the user‟s output per unit of time”. Task innovation is “the extent
to which an application helps users to create and to try out new ideas in their
work”. Customer satisfaction is “the extent to which an application helps
users to create value for the firm‟s internal or external customers”.
Management control is “the extent to which an application helps to regulate
work processes and performance”.
Concerning IS benefits, Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008) claimed that the IS
fulfils three categories of IS end-users‟ needs, which are: work performance
fulfilment, relatedness fulfilment, and self-development fulfilment. Work
performance fulfilment refers to “the user needs that are fulfilled from using
an IS at the workplace in carrying out assigned job duties” (Au, Ngai and
Cheng, 2008, p.47). These are the basic and fundamental needs of end-users.
Examples of such needs include the improvement of work efficiency,
functional effectiveness, better decision-making, higher productivity and
service quality (O‟Brien, 2004). Relatedness fulfilment includes “all the
socially oriented needs of the end-user that require interactions with other
human beings” (Au, Ngai and Cheng, 2008, p.47). Examples of such needs
include recognition and status, social relations and more power and control
over colleagues (Alter, 1999). Finally, self-development fulfilment refers to
“end-user self-growth, self-advancement and work promotion that are
brought from using information systems” (Rosenberg, 1997, p.88).
According to Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008), an end-user satisfaction with an

IS depends not only on the levels of different needs being fulfilled (i.e.
benefits received) but also whether the effort (i.e. IS inputs) required to fulfil
each category of those needs is worthy or not. The ratio between benefits
and inputs is referred to as equitable needs fulfilment. In other words, when
perceived benefits are more than the inputs required, it is likely that the end-
Page 2-71
user will be satisfied and vice versa (Au, Ngai and Cheng, 2002). Figure
2.44 illustrates the equitable needs fulfilment model.
Figure 2.44: The equitable needs fulfilment model
IS performance
Equitable
Relatedness
Fulfilment
Equitable Work End-User IS

Performance
Fulfilment Satisfaction
Equitable Self-
development
Fulfilment
IS performance
Expectation
Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008, p.47)
In addition, several researchers (e.g. Li, 1997; Somers, Nelson and Karimi,
2003) studied the relationship between IS outputs and EUCS. They
identified five critical success factors for EUCS, which are: accuracy of
output, reliability of output, relationship between users and the IS staff,
user‟s confidence in the system and the timeliness of output. Thus,
information that is timelier, more accurate, and more relevant can lead to
improvement in business performance, reducing costs, improving decision
performance, improving process efficiency, increasing EUCS and increasing
customer satisfaction. Boddy, Boonstra and Kennedy (2002) claimed that an
end-user will feel dissatisfied if his/her own inputs are greater than the
benefits achieved. However, Mahmood et al. (2000) argued that the inputs
and benefits for IS end-users are either not clearly specified or too narrowly
defined. For example, Goodhue (1998) and Woodroof and Kasper (1998)
Page 2-72
identified only physical effort and time as the major inputs of IS end-users
with the use of the system.
Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008, p.46) defined IS performance as “the perceived
outcome from IS use”. Gelderman (1998) and Iivari (2005) found a positive
relationship between perceived performance and satisfaction. They claimed
that the higher the performance level of an IS, the higher the level of EUCS.
In the words of Szajna and Scamell (1993, p.494), IS performance
expectation is “a set of beliefs held by the end-user of IS associated with the
eventual performance of IS and with their performance using the system”.
Several authors (Ryker, Nath and Henson, 1997; Bhattacherjee, 2001;
Mahmood et al., 2000) found a strong positive correlation between
expectations, improved performance and end-user satisfaction levels. They
claimed that the higher the levels of expectations with regard to IS
performance, the higher the levels of EUCS.
To that end, Au, Ngai and Cheng (2008) concluded that IS performance is
the most critical factor affecting EUCS. Therefore, managers need first of all
to ensure that an IS is technically sound, with a good support service
provided to end-users. Also, managers need to ensure that an IS has the
needed functions to fulfil the work performance needs of the employees as
well as be aware of the importance of workers‟ social interaction needs at
work.
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2.6 The Impact of hotel ICT on end-user performance
2.6.1 ICT and performance impacts

2.6.1.1 ICT business value
Devaraj and Kohli (2003, p.132) defined the term ICT business value as “the
organisational performance impacts of ICT including productivity
enhancement, competitive advantage, profitability improvement, cost
reduction and other measures of performance”. Melville, Kraemer and
Gurbaxani (2004, p.287) also defined ICT business value as “the
organisational performance impacts of ICT at both the intermediate process
level and the organisation-wide level and comprising both efficiency impacts
and competitive advantage impacts”.
According to Bharadwaj (2000), the ICT business value is viewed from four
perspectives, which are: the microeconomic-based view, the process-based
view, the resource-based view and the digital option view. The
microeconomic-based view believes that ICT investment creates excess
return over other types of capital investments (Dewan and Min, 1997;
Siegel, 1997; Lehr and Lichtenberg, 1999). The process-based view believes
that ICT investment creates competitive advantages by improving
operational efficiency which in turn, under the appropriate conditions, leads
to better firm-level performance (Mooney, Gurbaxani and Kraemer, 1996).
The resource-based view believes that ICT investment improves firm
performance by creating sustainable competitive advantage via the firm
strategic resources and capabilities (Bharadwaj, 2000; Sambamurthy,
Bharadwaj and Grover, 2003). The digital option view believes that ICT
investment creates value by creating options and flexibility for firms in the
increasingly competitive and uncertain market environment (Benaroch and
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Kauffman, 2000; Taudes, Feurstein and Mild, 2000; Sambamurthy,

Bharadwaj and Grover, 2003).
In addition, Orlikowski and Iacono (2001) identified five conceptualisations

of the ICT artefact, which are: tool view, proxy view, ensemble view,
computational view and nominal view. In the tool view, ICT is viewed as an
engineered tool that does what its designers intended, for example
productivity enhancement and work effectiveness. In the proxy view, ICT is
conceptualised by its essential characteristics which are defined by the end-
users, for example usefulness and ease of use. The ensemble view is focused
on the interaction of people and technology in both the development and use
of ICT. Computational view is concerned with data modelling and systems
development. The nominal view is using technology in name but not in fact.
2.6.1.2 The relationship between ICT resources and performance

Concerning the relationship between the technological ICT resources (i.e.
ICT infrastructures; specific business applications) and performance, several
researchers (Siegel, 1997; Bharadwaj, Bharadwaj and Konsynski, 1999;
Lehr and Lichtenberg, 1999; Hitt, Wu and Zhou, 2002; Barczak, Sultan and
Hultink, 2007) found a positive association between aggregate measures of
the technological ICT resources and organisational performance. On the
other hand, Stiroh (2001) found mixed or inconclusive evidence concerning
the relationship between the technological ICT resources and organisational
performance.
With regards to the relationship between the human ICT resources (i.e.
technical ICT skills; managerial ICT skills) and performance, Mata, Fuerst
and Barney (1995) demonstrated that human ICT resources has been posited
to confer not only operational performance improvements such as
productivity but also competitive advantage. They concluded that
Page 2-75
managerial ICT skills, but not technical ICT skills, are valuable and able to
confer sustainable competitive advantage. In a similar vein, Bharadwaj
(2000) found that human ICT resources are completely linked to ICT
capabilities, which are found to be positively related to firm performance.
Besides, Santhanam and Hartono (2003) confirmed the same relationship
between human ICT resources and performance and suggested
improvements in operational efficiency.
In addition, Bharadwaj, Bharadwaj and Konsynski (1999) as well as

Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2003) found a positive association between ICT
resources and financial performance measures. Whereas, Barua, Kriebel and
Mukhopadhyay (1995) as well as Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2000) argued that
operational improvements gained from applying ICT within the organisation
may not translate to financial measures of performance.
2.6.2.3 The relationship between ICT capabilities and performance

Bharadwaj (2000) suggested that if firms can combine ICT related resources
to create a unique ICT capability, it can result in superior firm performance.
She also maintained that the average performance of firms, identified as
possessing superior ICT capability, was significantly superior to the average
performance of a matched set of firms. Santhanam and Hartono (2003)
pointed that a firm‟s ability to effectively leverage its ICT investments by
developing a strong ICT capability can result in improved firm performance.
Nelson and Cooprider (1996) noted that increasing levels of shared

knowledge between ICT staff and line groups are linked with increased
operational and service performance. In a similar vein, Armstrong and
Sambamurthy (1999) found that shared knowledge between ICT staff and
business executives influences ICT usage. To that end, Ray, Muhanna and
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Barney (2005) reported that shared knowledge is an important ICT

capability that enables the organisation to conceive, effectively implement
and use ICT applications to improve process performance.
In addition Ray, Muhanna and Barney (2005) reported that flexible ICT
infrastructure facilitates rapid development and implementation of an ICT
application that enhance process performance by enabling the organisation
to respond quickly to take advantage of emerging opportunities or to
neutralise competitive threats. Figure 2.45 illustrates the impact of ICT
resources and capabilities on performance.
Figure 2.45: The impact of ICT resources and capabilities on performance
Shared Knowledge
Technological
ICT resources
Human ICT Relative Process

resources Performance
ICT-enabled
intangibles
Flexible ICT
Infrastructure
Ray, Muhanna and Barney (2005, p.632)
2.6.2.4 The impacts of ICT on performance

Barney (2001) demonstrated that in order to measure the impacts of ICT on
firm performance, the resource-based view (RBV) is required. The RBV
links the performance of organisations to resources and skills that are firm-
specific, rare, and difficult to imitate or substitute in order to improve firm
efficiency, effectiveness and create competitive advantage. Melville,
Kraemer and Gurbaxani (2004, p.295) classified the performance into,
business process performance and organisational performance. The business
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process performance is “the operational efficiency of specific business

processes, measures of which include customer satisfaction, flexibility and
information sharing”. Organisational performance is “the overall firm
performance, including productivity, efficiency, competitive advantage,
profitability, market value, etc”.
Mata, Fuerst and Barney (1995) reported that investment in ICT are easily
duplicated by competitors, investment per se do not provide any sustained
advantages. Rather, it is how firms leverage their investments to create
unique ICT resources and skills that determine a firm‟s overall effectiveness.
Soh and Markus (1995) argued that ICT investment is a necessary but not
sufficient condition for superior firm performance. Hu and Quan (2005)
pointed that the impact of ICT investments on firm performance is the result
of interactions among three processes: the ICT conversion process in which
ICT investments become ICT assets, the ICT use process in which ICT
assets create impacts and the competitive process in which ICT impacts are
converted into firm performance.
Ray, Muhanna and Barney (2005) identified two types of performance

effects of ICT: an absolute performance effect and a relative performance
effect. In the absolute performance effect, ICT can create value for a firm by
improving the efficiency and quality of processes in an absolute sense. In the
relative performance effect, ICT can create sustained competitive advantage
to a firm by providing a valuable ICT capability which competitors would
have difficulty imitating. Further, Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2003) as well as
Melville, Kraemer and Gurbaxani (2004) identified two performance
measures: efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency measures emphasize the
usage of internal perspective metrics (i.e. productivity enhancement and cost
reduction) in the assessment of a given business process. In contrast,
effectiveness measures indicate the achievement of organisational objectives
Page 2-78
in relation to a firm‟s external environment and may be obvious in the

attainment of competitive advantage. Hartman, Fok, Fok and Li (2002)
pointed that many organisations adopt sophisticated ICT systems to improve
their performance. They also maintained that ICT is used as a means to
increase productivity, reduce costs, enhance the organisation‟s competitive
advantage, improve service quality and improve decision-making quality.
These performance measures will be discussed in more details in the next
sections.
2.6.2 Efficiency (productivity) impact of ICT

2.6.2.1 Productivity definitions
According to David, Grabski and Kasavana (1996, p.65) productivity is “the
ratio of output units to input units in a system”. For example, an organisation
that produces more output units with fewer input units is considered more
productive than a firm with a smaller ratio of output to input volume.
Johnston and Jones (2004, p.205) defined productivity as “a function of the
ratio of operational outputs to inputs over a period of time where inputs are
materials, customers and staff costs and outputs include service, revenue and
customer satisfaction”. They also claimed that productivity is a complex and
a wider area which includes utilisation, efficiency, effectiveness, quality and
other performance dimensions. To that end, Kilic and Okumus (2005, p.317)
defined employee productivity as “a function of the ratio of employee inputs
such as time effort and cost to employee outputs such as satisfaction,
experience and value”.
2.6.2.2 ICT productivity paradox

Motiwalla and Fairfield-Sonn (1998) claimed that the ICT productivity
paradox occurs when measurement of worker productivity does not go up
consistently with advancing ICT investment. Bruque and Medina (2002)
Page 2-79
identified five perspectives that may serve as a basis for understanding the
causes of the ICT productivity paradox, they are: the Nolan Cycle, strategic
necessity hypothesis, transaction cost economics, the ICT-complementary
resources, the business model approach and finally the ICT assessment
model. These causes of ICT productivity paradox are discussed below:
1. The Nolan Cycle:

Nolan (1981, quoted in Bruque and Medina, 2002, p.80) developed a model
to measure the strategic impacts of ICT investments. This model is
composed of six stages, initiation, expansion, control, integration,
information management and maturity. Initiation stage is characterised by a
high level of uncertainty surrounding the potential performance of the
technology and incompatibility between equipment and processes. In
expansion stage, the uncertainty is still found, but ICT begins to show
visible results. In control stage, procedures are put into place to control
spending occurred during the previous stages. Integration stage is
characterised by the Integration of the different technologies and
improvement of the system performance. In information management and
maturity stages, the technology provides support for company processes and
strategy. These stages are shown in Figure 2.46.
Figure 2.46: The Nolan ICT investment cycle
ICT Investment
Management
Information
Integration
Expansion
Initiation
Maturity
Control
Time
Nolan (1981, quoted in Bruque and Medina, 2002, p.80)
Page 2-80
With regard to the Nolan model, McAfee (2001) and Bruque and Medina
(2002) suggested that the organisation can only obtain economic or
competitive advantages from its investment in technologies in the control,
integration and information management stages. On the other hand, Medina-
Garrido and Bruque-Camara (2002) reported that the effects of ICT
productivity paradox appear on initiation, expansion and maturity stages.
2. The Strategic Necessity Hypothesis:

According to Clemons and Raw (1992), the strategic necessity hypothesis
provides a valid explanation for the ICT productivity paradox causes. They
reported that the ICT productivity paradox appears when the decisions of
ICT innovation do not correspond strictly to issues of economic or financial
profitability, but are made to remain technologically up-to-date as
competitors. Bruque and Medina (2002) maintained that to avoid the ICT
productivity paradox, the strategic necessity hypothesis introduces some
modifications to the reasons for which organisations become interested in
ICT. They also suggested that organisations should avoid implementing new
ICT with intension of quickly obtaining a positive return on investment or
just to imitate competitors.
3. The Importance of Transactions:

Amit and Zott (2001) pointed that the ICT productivity paradox occurs
whenever technology is implemented and: (1) fails to achieve a reduction in
transaction costs and/or (2) reduces transaction costs but not enough to
balance the ICT costs incurred and as a result the investment in technology
fails to deliver the expected benefits. Similarly, Bruque and Medina (2002)
suggested that a company can prevent the ICT productivity paradox by
evaluating the impacts of the new ICT on business transactions. They also
Page 2-81
noted that if the investment in technology does not lead to a reduction in

transaction costs, the company should opt for an alternative strategy.
4. ICT-Complementary Resources:
Ross, Beath and Goodhue (1996) suggested that human resource,
technological resource and relational resource help to reduce the ICT
productivity paradox and sustain positive effects of technology on
performance. Human resource refers to the degree of motivation among
technical personnel and their capacity to resolve business problems using the
technological skills acquired in training. Technology resource refers to the
existence of technical infrastructures and databases shared throughout the
organisation. Relational resource refers to the involvement of non-technical
staff in ICT design.
In the words of Powell and Dent-Micallef (1997), ICT alone does not
produce sustainable performance advantages to firms, but firms should use
ICT to leverage intangible, complementary human and business resources.
Inherently, Davenport (1999) argued that technology alone cannot change
the culture and transform the company. He claimed that the necessary
transformation requires a basic change in human habits, attitudes, values and
expectations. To that end, Bruque and Medina (2002) confirmed that a high
level of co-ordination between human, management resources and
technology is needed to achieve the optimal combined effect.
5. The Business Model Approach:

Amit and Zott (2001) developed a business model to measure the impacts of
ICT on business performance. They stated that the ICT value is introduced
through the following four stages: (1) create new ICT transaction structures,
(2) improve the ICT efficiency, (3) enhance the human, management and
Page 2-82
ICT relationships and (4) improve performance and increase end-users

satisfaction and loyalty. These ICT creating-value stages are shown in
Figure 2.47.
Figure 2.47: The ICT business model
New ICT Transaction:

- New ICT content
ICT Switching Cost:
- New participants
- Loyalty programs
- Customer integration
ICT Value:
- Performance
- Satisfaction
ICT Efficiency:
- Simplicity
ICT Complementarities: - Speed
- Human resources - Economies of scales
- Managerial resources
- Technologies
Amit and Zott (2001, p.504)
6. An ICT assessment model:

Bruque and Medina (2002) proposed an eclectic ICT productivity paradox
model. This model integrates the five perspectives of the Nolan cycle, the
strategic necessity hypothesis, transaction cost economics, ICT-
complementary resources and business model approach. They used a “+” or
“–” sign in their model to show a positive or a negative impact of the ICT on
performance. This proposed model is shown in Figure 2.48.
Page 2-83
Figure 2.48: An eclectic ICT productivity paradox model
ICT implementation Decreasing

as a competitive information
strategy costs
Decreasing
negotiation
(+) (+) costs
(+)
Strategic necessity Decreasing

hypothesis
(+/-) Transaction Costs
(+)
Nolan Stage Nolan Stage Decreasing
(+/-) (+/-)
guarantee
costs
Improved firm
performance
(+/-) (Technology paradox (+/-)
avoiding)
Nolan Stage Nolan Stage

(+/-) (+/-)
Positive effect of
Business model
complementary (+/-)
ICT-resources suitability
(+)
(+) (+) (+) (+)
(+) (+)
New ICT
Relational Enhancement Switching Reducing transaction
Human Technology Asset Fit of human, costs and searching structure
Resource Asset Fit managerial improving costs and
Fit and ICT customer improving
relations loyalty speed
Internal perspective External perspective
Bruque and Medina (2002, p.90)
2.6.2.3 The impacts of ICT on productivity

Anandrajan, Igbaria and Anakwe (2000) pointed that ICT investments lead
to increased employees‟ productivity. Sorensen and Buatsi (2002) argued
that the degree in which the ICT affects employees‟ productivity remains
less clear since a variety of components must be utilised effectively to ensure
Page 2-84
quality. To that end, Hu and Quan (2005) noted that in many industries ICT
investments indeed lead to increased productivity while in other industries
productivity also leads to increased ICT investment. They also claimed that
the impacts of ICT investments on productivity are moderated by the
employees‟ skills and capabilities.
In addition, several researchers (Barua and Lee, 1997; Rai, Patnayakuni and
Patnayakuni, 1997; Francalanci and Galal, 1998; Mahmood, Mann, Dubrow
and Skidmore, 1998; Lehr and Lichtenberg, 1999; Devaraj and Kohli, 2000;
Menon, Lee and Eldenburg, 2000; Kudyba and Diwan, 2002; Kohli and
Devaraj, 2003) who studied the effects of using ICT on productivity and
performance found a positive relationship between ICT investment and
productivity and performance; while other researchers reject this relationship
(Weil, 1992; Barua, Krieble and Mukhopadhyay, 1995; David, Grabski and
Kasavana, 1996; Shafer and Byrd, 2000; Strassmann, 2002). Ham, Kim and
Jeong (2005) argued that the relationship between ICT investment and firm
performance and productivity is complex and multi-faceted.
On the other hand, several researchers (Siguaw and Enz, 1999; Sircar,
Turnbow and Bordoloi, 2000; Hu and Plant, 2001; Shin, 2001; Hitt, Wu and
Zhou, 2002) reported that the relationship between ICT and performance and
productivity is a circular casual relationship. They claimed that investments
in ICT lead to better performance and better performance in turns leads to
higher ICT investment. Hu and Quan (2005) maintained that ICT
investments create positive impact on the performance and productivity of a
firm through improving the efficiency and effectiveness of business
processes. In addition, they implied that firm performance and productivity
could also have a positive impact on the level of ICT investments as better
performing and highly productive firms tend to invest more in ICT. The
impact of ICT investment on firm productivity is shown in Figure 2.49.
Page 2-85
Figure 2.49: The impacts of ICT investment on firm productivity
Products
Information
Intensity
ICT Business Employee Firm

Investments Processes Productivity Productivity
Value Chain
Information
Intensity
Hu and Quan (2005, p.43)
According to Baker and Riley (1994) and Poon (2006), ICT can enhance the
efficiency of employees and subsequently improve productivity. Sigala,
Airey, Jones and Lockwood (2004) revealed that hotel productivity gains
increase not from ICT investment per se, but from the full exploitation of the
ICT networking and informalionalisation capabilities. Kilic and Okumus
(2005) countered that although various forms of ICT are widely used in
many areas in hotels, such as front office, sales, marketing, accounting, etc.,
but some managers might lack knowledge about the potential benefits of
using ICT to improve productivity. Ham, Kim and Jeong (2005) claimed that
improving productivity is the primary role of ICT in the lodging industry.
They pointed that hotel ICT has several impacts, as follows: (1) improve
productivity, (2) reduce operating costs, (3) increase positive word of mouth,
(4) increase levels of repeat business, (5) increase occupancy percentage and
(6) increase annual sales amount.
Montealegre (1999) as well as Siguaw, Enz and Namasivayam (2000a; b)

maintained that to improve employees‟ productivity hotels should choose an
appropriate ICT type that fits well with the employees‟ skills and
Page 2-86
capabilities. For Sigala, Lockwood and Jones (2001), higher integration and
exploitation levels of ICT were related to higher employees‟ productivity
benefits. Ham, Kim and Jeong (2005) claimed that hotel employees are a
key element in any analysis of ICT applications since hotel employees are
uniquely positioned to assess increases or decreases in hotel performance
due to their involvement with the implementation of ICT applications. To
that end, Abouzeedan and Busler (2006) claimed that the key to high
employees‟ performance and productivity lies in the understanding and
management of five categories of inter-linked factors, which are: strategic
factors, cultural factors, organisational and operational factors, performance
review factors and equity factors.
2.6.3 Effectiveness (competitive advantage) impact of ICT

According to Farrell (2003) ICT is considered to be a source of various
capabilities that can provide potential competitive advantages for a firm. For
Melville, Kraemer and Gurbaxani (2004), firms making investments in
strategic ICT (ICT for competitive advantage) in order to achieve
sustainability via their established technology base and performance
improvements. Moreover, they reported that in subsequent years those firms
tend to be more productive and more profitable than their industry rivals.
2.6.3.1 ICT resources and competitive advantage

Mata, Fuerst, and Barney (1995) pointed that since investments in ICT are
easily duplicated by competitors, therefore investments per se do not provide
any sustained advantages. Rather, it is how firms leverage their investments
to create unique ICT resources and skills that determine a firm‟s overall
effectiveness. In this regard, Bharadwaj (2000) claimed that ICT resources
and skills lead to different patterns of ICT use and effectiveness. Ray,
Muhanna, and Barney (2005) maintained that valuable ICT resources may
Page 2-87
be used to improve the absolute or relative firm performance. In the first

case, ICT resources enable firms to increase the efficiency and service
quality of a process compared to the process without these ICT resources. In
the second case, ICT resources explain variance in the performance of a
process across competing firms depends on how rare and costly to imitate
these resources.
In addition, Brown, Gatian and Hicks (1995) reported that a firm‟s

technological ICT resource is a key source for attaining long-term
competitive advantage. Powell and Dent-Micallef (1997) argued that ICT
systems are unlikely to serve as a source of competitive advantage due to the
fact that physical ICT infrastructure can be purchased or duplicated fairly
easily by competitors. Weill and Broadbent (1998) as well as Barney (2001)
argued that merely purchasing ICT systems will not ensure competitive
advantage, because it is the socially complex link between ICT and other
parts of the organisation that serves as the source of the advantage. To that
end, Bharadwaj (2000) pointed that technological ICT resources that enable
firms to (1) identify and develop key applications rapidly, (2) share
information across products, services and locations, (3) implement common
transaction processing and supply chain management across the business and
(4) exploit opportunities for synergy across business units, can be used to
obtain competitive advantage.
On the other hand, Mata, Fuerst, and Barney (1995) claimed that human ICT
resources are difficult to acquire and complex to imitate, thereby serving as
sources of competitive advantage. They also argued that technical ICT skills
confer a temporary competitive advantage, while, managerial ICT skills
confer a sustainable competitive advantage for firms. They maintained that
managerial ICT skills are rare and firm specific and therefore likely to serve
as sources of sustained competitive advantage. In this regard, Bharadwaj
Page 2-88
(2000) demonstrated that valuable human ICT resources (technical and

managerial ICT skills) are able to create competitive advantage for the firm
when these resources are able to (1) integrate the ICT and business planning
processes more effectively, (2) develop reliable and cost effective
applications that support the business needs of the firm faster than
competitors, (3) communicate and work with business units more efficiently
and (4) anticipate future business needs of the firm and innovate valuable
new product features before competitors.
Ross, Beath and Goodhue (1996) pointed that a combination of

technological ICT resources and human ICT resources influence a firm‟s
ability to deploy ICT for strategic competitive advantage. Brynjolfsson and
Hitt (2000) maintained that firms must not only customise technological
systems and deploy and maintain them, but also must manage teams of ICT
and non-ICT resources that together generate greater value than they do
alone. Similarly, Carr (2003) stated that when complementarities exist
between technological ICT resources and human ICT resources, they are
likely to lead to temporary competitive advantage. To that end, Melville,
Kraemer and Gurbaxani (2004) claimed that technological ICT resources or
human ICT resources do not confer a competitive advantage by itself.
Rather, they proposed that competitive advantage can result from the
appropriate combination of them.
2.6.3.2 ICT capabilities and competitive advantage

Bharadwaj (2000) reported that a firm‟s ICT infrastructure, its human ICT
skills and its ability to leverage ICT for intangible benefits serve as firm-
specific resources, which in combination create a firm-wide ICT capability.
Duliba, Kauffman and Lucas (2001) claimed that firm‟s ICT capability can
indeed provide competitive advantage and enhance a firm‟s performance. In
Page 2-89
this regard, Santhanam and Hartono (2003) pointed that competitors may
easily duplicate investments in ICT resources by purchasing the same
hardware and software and hence ICT resources per se do not provide
sustained competitive advantage. Rather, it is the manner in which firms
leverage their ICT investments to create unique capabilities that impacts a
firm‟s overall effectiveness. Barczak, Sultan and Hultink (2007) argued that
the failure to invest in ICT resources and capabilities can put a firm at a
competitive disadvantage in terms of the performance of the service process.
According to Marshall, Prusak and Shpilberg (1996) few organisations are

able to manage effectively both the technological and social aspects of
knowledge management for competitive advantage. For Matusik and Hill
(1998), the relationship between organisational knowledge and competitive
advantage is moderated by the firm‟s ability to integrate, transfer and apply
knowledge between employees. To that end, Gold, Malhotra and Segars
(2001) revealed that the firm ICT knowledge capabilities lead to increased
organisational effectiveness. Figure 2.50 illustrates the impacts of ICT
capabilities on organisational effectiveness.
Figure 2.50: The impacts of ICT capabilities on organisational effectiveness
Technology
Knowledge
Structure Infrastructure
Capability
Culture
Organisational
Effectiveness
Acquisition
Conversion
Knowledge Process
Capability
Application
Protection
Gold, Malhotra and Segars (2001, p.193)
Page 2-90
2.6.4 Service quality impact of ICT
2.6.4.1 Dimensions of IS quality

According to Stylianou and Kumar (2000), IS quality can be categorised
into: infrastructure quality, software quality, data quality, information
quality, administrative quality and service quality. Infrastructure quality is
the quality of hardware that is fielded and maintained by IS. Software quality
is the quality of applications software built, maintained or supported by IS.
Data quality is the quality of the data entering the various IS. Information
quality is the quality of the output resulting from the IS. Administrative
quality is the quality of the management of the IS function – includes the
quality of budgeting, planning and scheduling. Finally, service quality is the
quality of the service component of the IS function – includes the quality of
customer support processes such as those related to a help desk. Figure 2.51
illustrates these dimensions of IS quality.
Figure 2.51: The dimensions of IS quality
Enterprise Quality
Infrastructure
Quality
Service Software
Quality Quality
IS Quality of
Quality Business
Processes
Supported by
Administrative Data IS
Quality Quality
Information
Quality
Stylianou and Kumar (2000, p.100)
Page 2-91
2.6.4.2 IS service quality definitions

According to Pitt, Berthon and Lane (1998, p. 192), user‟s IS service quality
is “the difference between what he or she expects and what he or she
perceives themselves to be receiving from the IS department”. They also
demonstrated that if the expectations equal the perceptions, the user is
technically satisfied. When the perceptions exceed the expectations, the user
is more than satisfied and can even be excited and delighted. On the other
hand, when the expectations exceed the perceptions, the user is dissatisfied
and there is a service quality problem.
Stylianou and Kumar (2000, p.101) defined IS service quality as “the

perceived quality of IS products and services in the eyes of the
stakeholders”. They demonstrated that IS stakeholders include individuals or
groups concerned with the production, delivery, management and support of
IS products and services (in-process stakeholders) as well as internal and
external customers who consume those products and services (end-of-
process stakeholders).
2.6.4.3 Information systems service quality measures

According to Jiang, Klein, Tesch and Chen (2003), a combination of
measurements regarding expectations for service and perception of that
service provision allows for examination of a gap in service delivery.
Stylianou and Kumar (2000) argued that implementing a comprehensive
quality measures in the IS area may be complicated by many factors and
obstacles. They explained that the quality of the IS function is multifaceted
and judged differently by different stakeholders. Therefore, management of
IS quality can be difficult. On the whole, IS SERVQUAL, IS SERVPERF
and IS ZOT SERVQUAL are some of the instruments used to measure the
IS service quality.
Page 2-92
1. IS SERVQUAL instrument
According to Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988) and Kettinger and
Lee (2005), SERVQUAL is an instrument designed to assess both service
expectations and perceptions of deliverables. Inherently, several researchers
(Jiang, Klein and Carr, 2002; Jiang et al., 2003; Hauser and Paul, 2006)
indicated that the SERVQUAL instrument consists of two parts. The first
part consists of 22 statements for measuring expectations. The second part
consists of the same items, but phrased to measure perceptions of the actual
service delivered. Underlying the 22 items are five dimensions used by
customers to evaluate the IS service quality, which include:
 Tangibles: Physical facilities, equipment and appearance of IS service

providers.
 Reliability: The ability of IS service providers to perform the promised
service dependably, accurately and on time.
 Responsiveness: IS service providers‟ willingness to help users and
customers and provide prompt service.
 Assurance: Knowledge and courtesy of IS service providers and their
ability to motivate trust and confidence.
 Empathy: Individualised attention given to users and customers by the IS
service providers.
Jiang et al. (2003) explained that IS service quality is captured by a gap

score (G) indicates perceived quality for a given item, where G = P – E and
P and E represent the average ratings of a dimension‟s corresponding
perception (P) and expectation (E) statements. G is a result of other gaps
within the IS department that offer a framework for understanding barriers to
IS quality service. They also identified five gaps for the IS service quality,
which are:
Page 2-93
 The expectation gap: is a gap between IS manager‟s perceptions of

customer‟s expectations and the customer‟s actual expectations – quite
simply IS managers do not always understand what customers want.
 The performance gap: is a gap between the IS employees‟ perceptions

and customers‟ perceptions of delivered IS service. The SERVPERF – a
performance only service quality measure – is used to measure the
performance gap (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Jiang et al., 2003).
According to Pitt, Berthon and Lane (1998), the performance gap occurs
as a result of the following: (1) IS managers might know what customers
expect, but are unable to set quality standards, (2) The IS employees do
not deliver according to the set standards or (3) the service that is actually
delivered might not live up to promises made by the IS employees.
 Service quality gap from customer‟s perspective: is a gap between

customer‟s expectations and perceptions of delivered IS service
(Kittinger and Lee, 1999; Jiang et al., 2003).
 Service quality gap from IS employee‟s perspective: is a gap between IS

employee‟s expectations and perceptions of delivered IS service (Jiang et
al., 2003).
 The satisfaction gap: is a gap between customers‟ service satisfaction and

IS employees‟ satisfaction (Kittinger and Lee, 1999; Jiang et al., 2003).
The IS service quality gaps model is presented in Figure 2.52.
Page 2-94
Figure 2.52: The IS service quality gaps model
Feedback
Customer:
Service Quality
Customer: Customer:
Expectation Perception
Expectation Performance Satisfaction

Gap Gap Gap
IS Staff: IS Staff:
Expectation Perception
IS staff:
Service Quality
Feedback
Jiang et al. (2003, p. 75)
2. IS Zone of Tolerance (ZOT) SERVQUAL instrument

Jiang, Klein and Carr (2002) reported that over the past decade,
SERVQUAL has gained considerable managerial attentions as a problem-
solving tool for revealing IS service quality strengths and weaknesses.
Kettinger and Lee (2005) argued that SERVQUAL, as adopted for IS, has
been inconsistent in terms of dimensional structure, reliability and validity.
A primary area of criticism concerns SERVQUAL‟s reliance on gap scores
that are derived by calculating the differences between IS users‟ perceived
levels of service and expectations for service.
Kettinger and Lee (2005) provided a new scale for measuring IS service
quality instead of the traditional SERVQUAL measure. The new measure is
called “IS zone of tolerance (ZOT) SERVQUAL”. In this measure, the
Page 2-95
customer expectations of IS service quality exist at two levels, which are (1)
desired service: the level of IS service desired and (2) adequate service: the
minimum level of IS service customers are willing to accept. Defining these
two levels is a “zone of tolerance” (ZOT) that represents the range of IS
service performance a customer would consider satisfactory. In other words,
service expectations of IS customer are characterised by a range of levels,
rather than a single expectation point. The IS ZOT SERVQUAL measure is
presented in Figure 2.53.
Figure 2.53: The IS Zone of Tolerance (ZOT) SERVQUAL instrument
Expected Service
Desired Service
Adequate Service
Perceived
Service Perceived
Superiority Service
Adequacy
Perceived Service
Kettinger and Lee (2005, p.611)
2.6.4.4 The impact of ICT on service quality

Stylianou and Kumar (2000) demonstrated that the impact of ICT
investments on IS service quality may vary depending on many factors, i.e.
environmental factors, organisational factors or departmental factors.
Environmental factors such as competition and industry type.
Organisational factors such as culture, politics and senior management
support. Departmental factors such as differences in leadership style,
employee skills and ICT intensity. Figure 2.54 illustrates an integrative IS
quality framework.
Page 2-96
Figure 2.54: An integrative IS quality framework
Environmental Factors
- Industry type In-Process Non-IS Business Non-IS
- Nature of competition Stakeholders Process Product/services
Organisational Factors Infrastructure Data Administrative

- Culture Quality Quality Quality End-of-
Process Process
- Politics
Resources Stakeholders
- Senior management
support Software Information (Customers)
Service Quality
Quality Quality
Departmental Factors
- Leadership style
In-Process IS Business IS
- Employee skills
Stakeholders Process product/services
- ICT intensity
Stylianou and Kumar (2000, p.100)
Ray, Muhanna and Barney (2005) claimed that valuable, rare and costly to
imitate ICT capabilities such as shared knowledge is a key that affects the
service quality of the firm. Besides, several researchers (Sarin and Mahajan,
2001; Andries, Smulders and Dhondt, 2002; Osei-Bryson and Ko, 2004)
found a positive and direct relationship between ICT usage and quality
performance. Other researchers (Hartman et al., 2002; Lin and Lee, 2006;
Lin, 2007; Kim and Kim, 2008) found that the use of IS is correlated with
overall organisational performance/success, satisfaction with technology and
service quality.
Hartman et al. (2002) claimed that IS maturity and quality maturity have a
positive impact on IS service quality and performance. IS maturity
organisations are “organisations that have adopted IS in a widely base”.
Quality management (QM) maturity organisations are “organisations that
have adopted QM programmes more fully and in better ways qualitatively”.
(Hartman et al., 2002, p.928). Fok, Hartman, Patti and Razek (2000)
demonstrated that, in the IS/QM maturity organisations, users being more
extensive (in terms of the more comprehensive use of IS) and also more
Page 2-97
effective (in terms of the quality of the programmes themselves). Figure 2.55
illustrates the relationship between QM/IS maturity and service quality.
Figure 2.55: The impact of ICT on service quality
Quality Management
Maturity
Culture Organisational
Performance
Information System
Maturity
IS Service
Quality
Hartman et al. (2002, p.931)
2.6.4.5 Improving IS service quality

In the words of Watson, Pitt and Kavan (1998), delivering IS service quality
requires action at three levels: strategic, tactical and operational. At the
strategic level, IS management lays the foundation for service quality by
creating an ICT plan that responds directly to the corporate strategy to
ensure that the system delivered are what customers need. At the tactical
level, IS management must design and implement processes to deliver
service. Processes need to be standardised and assigned to roles to ensure
reliable performance. At the operational level, IS employees must
communicate honestly with customers so that customers‟ expectations and
IS‟s promises match.
Thus, to close the gap between customer expectations and perceptions,

Watson, Pitt and Kavan (1998) identified the following factors to improve
the IS service quality: (1) change the attitude of the IS unit concerning the
importance of IS service quality and customer satisfaction, (2) improve IS
service quality through identifying the causes of poor service and resolving
Page 2-98
these problems, (3) change the attitude of customers to improve their

understanding of the IS unit and its problems, (4) improve communications
with customers through newsletters, bulletin boards, etc., (5) IS employees
should set realistic expectations that could be delivered and (6) IS employees
should increase the attention to service quality. Figure 2.56 illustrates the
forces shaping the perceptions and expectations.
Figure 2.56: The forces shaping IS perceptions and expectations
Change IS unit Change customer Improve customer

attitude attitude communications
Perceptions Expectations
Attention to service Set realistic

Improve IS service
quality expectations
Watson, Pitt and Kavan (1998, p.68)
Stylianou and Kumar (2000) and Jiang et al. (2003) identified a framework
to improve IS service quality as follows: (1) focusing on customer needs and
requirements, (2) improving the relationship between employees and
management, (3) encouraging employees participation and teamwork, (4)
focusing on employees attitude and satisfaction, (5) motivating employees,
(6) providing an effective ICT training, (7) providing constructive
employees feedback, (8) rewarding employees for their achievement and (9)
evaluating the employees IS performance.
In addition, Ramakrishna and Lin (2000) maintained that the ability to

provide high quality service through training and technical support is a
crucial factor that significantly affects end-user perceptions and overall
Page 2-99
operation success. Hauser and Paul (2006) stated that an effective IS

department can provide its users with high quality applications and services
that allow them to deal with rapidly changing business environments.
Inherently, Naidoo and Leonard (2007) claimed that concentrating on
creativity, flexibility and dynamism environment, could improve user
perceptions of IS service quality.
According to Hauser and Paul (2006), organisations which give an

importance to the participation of IS employees and the value of teamwork
will possess higher overall IS service quality scores than organisations with
different dominant attributes. They also claimed that organisations whose
strategic emphasis is towards developing human resources, commitment and
morale values will possess higher IS service quality scores than
organisations with different strategic emphases.
Watson, Pitt and Kavan (1998) claimed that ICT could improve the service
quality by focusing on the following points: (1) link ICT strategy to the
business strategy in order to respond to business and customers‟ needs, (2)
communicate with customers to ensure they have accurate information and
realistic expectations of the IS unit, (3) design standardised service quality
processes to ensure reliable performance, (4) train the IS employees to
improve their skills and attitudes towards service quality and (5) use reward
system to motivate IS employees to improve service quality. Figure 2.57
shows a framework for improving IS service quality.
Page 2-100
Figure 2.57: A framework for improving IS service quality
Corporate Strategy
ICT Strategy
Customer Standardised IS Employees Reward

Communication Processes Training System
Service Quality
Tangibles Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy
Watson, Pitt and Kavan (1998, p.74)
2.6.5 Decision-making performance impact of ICT

According to Skyrius (2001) and Kumar, Selvam, Meenakshi, Kanthi,
Suseela and Kumar (2007), business decision- making environment is a
harmony of decision makers‟ experience, beliefs and perceptions on one side
and ICT decision support tools and techniques on the other side.
2.6.5.1 Strategic decision-making approaches

Andersen (2001) identified two approaches of strategic decision making,
which are: centralised strategic decision making and decentralised strategic
decision making. Centralised strategic decision making is considered as a
strategic planning approach, where top management establishes decision
rules to guide and coordinate the organisation‟s longer term actions, e.g.
goal and strategy formulation. Decentralised strategic decision making is
considered as a social learning process, where managers can take actions
based on their experiences gained in different parts of the organisation. They
Page 2-101
also claimed that decentralised strategic decision making, based on ICT, is

positively impact the organisation performance because ICT increases the
speed and quality of decisions. Figure 2.58 illustrates the affects of
decentralized strategic decision making on performance.
Figure 2.58: The impact of decentralised strategic decision making on performance
Level of Environmental
dynamism and complexity
Decentralised Strategic Organisational

Decision Making: Performance:
- Autonomy - Profitability
- Participation - Sales growth
- Innovation
Strategic Planning
Andersen (2001, p.106)
2.6.5.2 ICT and decision-making performance process

Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) claimed that decision-making performance is
strongly affected by the user‟s schemata and cognitive resonance. On one
hand, User schema is “the mental perceptions about a specific object that
can be organised through experience”. There are two types of schemata:
rational schema and emotional schema. Rational schema depends on a prior
knowledge which has been accumulated through education and professional
experience. Emotional schema is related to describing psychological process
leading into a specific behaviour or satisfaction. On the other hand,
Cognitive resonance is “generated in a decision maker‟s psychology and
mental realm when emotional schema fits well with rational schema” (Lee,
Chung and Kim, 2004, p.459).
Page 2-102
In the words of Lee, Chung and Kim (2004), emotional schema is related to
individual‟s character and culture. Computer anxiety, trust propensity and
individualism are suggested as external variables describing the emotional
schema. Simonson et al. (1987, p.231) defined Computer Anxiety as “an
individual‟s apprehension when he/she is faced with the situation of using
computers”. Computer anxiety is a negative affective reaction towards
computer use. Lee and Turban (2000, p.79) stated that trust propensity is
viewed as “the person‟s general willingness to trust others”. To that end,
Hofstede (1997, p.75) defined individualism as “a negative subjective norm
which indicates that he/she tends to focus on his/her own tastes and interests
despite the influence or pressure coming from external environment such as
society and/or organisation they are working in”.
According to Lee, Chung and Kim (2004), rational schema is related to

addressing professional experience accumulated through long-term learning
and education. This schema can be supported by the three external variables
such as computer self-efficacy, facilitating condition and system experience.
Hasan (2003, p.445) defined computer self-efficacy as “the user‟s interest
and willingness to use and interact with information technology”. Venkatesh
(2000, p.347) defined facilitating condition as “resource availability and
personal ability to facilitate a computer use”. To that end, Lee, Chung and
Kim (2004, p.641) defined system experience as “the user‟s accumulation of
knowledge about using the computer for various purposes to obtain what
he/she wants”. In a similar vein, Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) pointed that
cognitive resonance is strongly affected by a fit among emotional schema
and rational schema. They also claimed that cognitive resonance is
positively influencing four properties of decision making, which are speed,
reliability, confidence and consistency. Figure 2.59 illustrates the factors
influencing decision-making performance.
Page 2-103
Figure 2.59: The factors influencing decision-making performance

CA1
Computer
CA2
Anxiety
CA3
TP1
Trust Emotional
TP2 Propensity Schema
TP3
CR1 CR2
I1
Individualism
I2
Cognitive Decision
CS1
Resonance Performance
CS2
Computer
CS3 Self-efficacy
CR3 CR4
CS4
FC1 Facilitating Rational

Condition Schema
FC2
SE1
SE2
System
Experience
SE3
SE4
Computer Anxiety CS3 - If someone showed me how to do it first.

CA1 - It would bother me to take courses using computers. CS4 - If I had used similar packages before this one.
CA2 - Computers make me feel uncomfortable. Facilitating Condition
CA3 - Computers make me feel uneasy. FC1 - I have the resources necessary to use the system.
Trust Propensity FC2 - I have the knowledge necessary to use the system.
TP1 - It is easy for me to trust a person/thing. System Experience
TP2 - My tendency to trust a person/thing is high. SE1 - I am very skilled at using computers.
TP3 - Trusting someone or something is not difficult. SE2 - I consider myself knowledgeable about computers.
Individualism SE3 - I know much about using computers.
I1 - I prefer looking after myself and my immediate family. SE4 - I know how to find what I want by using computers.
I2 - Having sufficient time for personal life is important to me. Cognitive Resonance
Computer Self-efficacy CR1 - Decision making speed.
I could complete the job using the system …. CR1 - Decision making confidence.
CS1 - If I had seen someone using it before trying it myself. CR1 - Decision making reliability.
CS2 - If I had a lot of time. CR1 - Decision making consistency.
Lee, Chung and Kim (2004, p.466)
Page 2-104
Slovic (2001) and Shiv, Loewenstein, Bechara, Damasio and Damasio

(2005) argued that users‟ emotional feelings are a source of unwanted bias
during decision making and thus need to be properly regulated. Other
researchers (Fredrickson, 2003; Gross and John, 2003) maintained that
users‟ emotional feelings play an adaptive role in decision making. Seo and
Barrett (2007) maintained that users can experience intense emotional
feelings during decision making, while regulating the possible biases
induced by those feelings may positively contribute to their decision making.
Seo and Barrett (2007) identified two types of user emotional feelings:
feeling-as-bias-inducer and feeling-as-decision-facilitator. Feeling-as-bias-
inducer suggests that users‟ feelings make various forms of bias into the
decision-making process that skew their decisions in certain ways. Feeling-
as-decision-facilitator suggests that users‟ affective feelings can improve
decision-making performance by facilitating and enabling decision-making
processes.
In addition, Hess, Fuller and Mathew (2006) and McNamara, Dennis and
Carte (2007) maintained that the concept of user involvement with an ICT
decision aid plays an important role in decision making, as higher levels of
user involvement are believed to positively affect the accuracy of the
decision-making performance. Involvement with an ICT decision aid is
defined as “the degree to which a user is engaged with information
technology” (Hess, Fuller and Mathew, 2006, p.18).
2.6.5.3 ICT and decision-making performance outcomes

In the words of Powell and Dent-Mitcallef (1997), ICT can support more
flexible strategic decision-making processes and lead to new ways of
managing organisations. In addition, Andersen (2001) claimed that ICT can
impose direct performance effects and interact with an organisation‟s
Page 2-105
strategic decision-making approaches in three ways: (1) increase speed and

accuracy that improve decision outcomes, (2) facilitate coordination and
responsiveness and (3) induce learning and innovative behaviours.
In Skyrius‟s (2001) view, ICT should act as: (1) an enhancing instrument for
decision search and analysis as high-level and knowledge-intensive
management activities, (2) a creativity incentive and managerial learning
tool, (3) an instrument for reduction of biased attitudes as well as insurance
from making fatal decisions and (4) an instrument for maintaining,
managing and developing the explicit part of knowledge on decision
making. In a similar vein, Kumar et al. (2007) explained the role of ICT in
decision-making performance as follows: (1) ICT helps reducing
uncertainty, (2) ICT can transform decision data volumes into manageable
levels, (3) ICT has a potential to improve confidence and insure from fatal
decision mistakes, (4) ICT is successful in creating real time solutions to
various decision-making scenarios applicable to business modules and (5)
ICT acts as a facilitator in improving the quality of decision making by
reducing the rationality bounds of human beings.
In addition, Skyrius (2001) and Kumar et al. (2007) claimed that the job of
ICT is to provide guiding and informing points to stimulate the decision
makers‟ concentration. They demonstrated that ICT is recognised to be
helpful in basic tasks, such as organizing and managing data and
information, querying databases, sharing and spreading information,
manipulating flexible models and presenting information in decision-making
processes. Speier and Morris (2003) concluded that decision accuracy and
decision time are the primary outcomes of investigating in ICT. Similarly,
Hess, Fuller and Mathew (2006) revealed that user satisfaction, decision
time and decision quality are other decision-making outcomes from using
ICT. Figure 2.60 illustrates the decision-making outcomes.
Page 2-106
Figure 2.60: The factors influencing decision-making outcomes
Computer Decision-Making
Playfulness Outcomes
- Satisfaction
Gender
- Understanding
Involvement with
ICT Decision Aid - Decision time
Personality
Similarity - Use of decision
aid features
Multimedia - Decision quality
vividness
Hess, Fuller and Mathew (2006, p.19)
2.6.5.4 Improving decision-making performance outcomes

Kumar et al. (2007) claimed that the initial beliefs and feelings of a decision
maker may lead to a biased search for a decision. Seo and Barrett (2007)
maintained that individuals who are better able to identify and distinguish
among their current beliefs and feelings achieved higher decision-making
performance via their enhanced ability to control the possible biases induced
by those feelings. In this regard, Kumar et al. (2007) pointed that ICT can
challenge those initial beliefs and motivate creativity to improve decision
quality.
According to Todd and Benbasat (1999) and Haubl and Trifts (2000),
technology is designed to support decision-making activities. Applications
referred to as decision support system (DSS) or expert support system (ESS)
are designed to encourage users to employ better decision-making strategies.
In this regard, Nah, Mao and Benbasat (1999, p.137) implied that DSS and
ESS are increasingly used in organisations to support individuals and groups
in decision making. ESSs refer to “computer-based software tools that use
artificial intelligence techniques to capture, represent and apply expert
knowledge, so as to be able to imitate the behaviour of human experts in
Page 2-107
specific and narrowly defined problem domains”. They claimed that a

typical DSS and ESS provide two types of support to the decision makers:
(1) analysis and recommendations given by the system and (2) explanations
to clarify domain concepts and to justify analyses and recommendations.
Speier and Morris (2003) claimed that one potential mechanism for
improving decision-making performance is information visualisation.
Tegarden (1999) pointed that information visualisation allows decision
makers to leverage individual perceptual processes more effectively. Equally
important, Kumar et al. (2007) revealed that DSS and ESS can be used to
facilitate and improve the quality of decision making by reducing
information overload and by enhancing the cognitive limitations and
rationality bounds of decision makers. To that end, Skyrius (2001) and
Kumar et al. (2007) identified the attributes of actual good or well-prepared
decision as follows: (1) accurate and easy to use information, (2) a well-
defined set of alternatives, (3) availability of appropriate and well-
understood analogies, (4) availability of analytical tools with capabilities of
different scenarios, (5) good decision-making environment and (6)
availability of a support team.
The similarity-attraction theory posits that individuals will be more attracted

to other individuals that exhibit similar characteristics. This theory has been
extended to interactions with friends and colleagues in business settings
(Antonioni and Park, 2001; Strauss, Barrick and Connerley, 2001;
Schaubroeck and Lam, 2002). In human computer interaction, Moon and
Nass (1998, 2000) claimed that users would be more comfortable with
computer-based interactions that are similar to their everyday interactions
with other humans. In addition, when these computer-based interactions put
on view personality traits similar to the user‟s traits, the user-computer
interaction would be improved and results in decision-making quality.
Page 2-108
2.7 A conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels

This section constructs a conceptual framework to improve interaction
between hotel end users and technology (Figure 2.61). The aim of model
construction is to provide a comprehensive representation of salient factors
within IT-human interaction and, most importantly, to explore the user-
related factors, organisational-related factors and system-related factors. It is
also important to note that conceptual framework development was initially
based upon existing theory (see section 2.3). The framework comprises three
parts, namely the IT-human critical success factors, the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB) and the technology related outcomes.
Page 2-109
2.8 Summary
This chapter has critically reviewed and analysed the related literature on
technology adoption in hotels. It has discussed ICT in the hotel industry, its
concept, benefits, uses to create competitive advantage and impacts. It also
explored the different competing theoretical models and theories which can
be used to enhance the understanding of human behaviour towards
technology adoption with a clear focus on TPB. It identified the critical
success factors influencing end-user performance and satisfaction, including
end-user traits, organisational traits and system traits. Further, it explored the
impacts of ICT on end-user employees‟ satisfaction and performance. The
chapter ends with developing a conceptual framework to improve IT-human
interaction in hotels. The following chapter discusses the research approach
undertaken in this study.
Page 2-110
RESEARCH APPROACH
3.2 Overview of research approach 3-2

3.2.1 Qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches 3-2
3.2.2 Inductive and deductive approaches 3-5
3.2.3 Theoretical and practical approaches 3-9
3.3 Theoretical approach 3-10

3.3.1 Research epistemological perspective – constructionism 3-10
3.3.2 Research theoretical perspective – interpretivism/phenomenology 3-12
3.4 Research methodology – case study approach 3-13

3.4.1 Case study approach 3-15
3.4.2 Practical approach: objective two 3-19
3.4.2.1 An exploratory single case study 3-19
3.4.2.2 Methods for the single case study 3-19
3.4.2.3 Sampling techniques for the single case study 3-21
3.4.2.4 Procedures for the single case study 3-23
3.4.3 Practical approach: objectives three/four 3-24
3.4.3.1 Explanatory multiple case studies 3-24
3.4.3.2 Methods for the multiple case studies 3-29
3.4.3.3 Sampling techniques for the multiple case studies 3-32
3.4.3.4 Procedures for the multiple case studies 3-37
3.5 Data analysis 3-38
3.6 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDA) 3-41
3.7 Validity, reliability and triangulation 3-45
3.8 Ethical considerations 3-48
3.9 Generalisation of results 3-48
3.10 Summary 3-51
Page 3-1
Chapter Three: Research Approach
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the epistemological and theoretical perspective of the
research. It provides a justification of choosing the appropriate methodology
and therefore the suitable methods applied to achieve the specific research
objectives. The chapter begins with highlighting the research approach and
then moves to explore the epistemology of the research, i.e. constructionism
and to outline the theoretical perspective adopted, i.e. interpretive
phenomenology approach. Moreover, the chapter presents an introduction to
the methodology adopted, i.e. case study approach. In particular, an
exploratory single case study as well as explanatory multiple case studies
were used in order to explore and investigate the impacts of technology on
hotel end-user employees via various data collection methods, such as focus
groups, semi-structured interviews, document analysis and questionnaire.
The chapter then looks at the data analysis techniques. The chapter ends with
a discussion of issues related to the validity, reliability, triangulation, ethical
considerations and generalisation of the results.
3.2 Overview of research approach

Before starting to explain the research epistemology and methodology, it is
important to decide the research approach in terms of whether it is:
(1) qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach; (2) inductive or deductive
approach; (3) theoretical or practical approach.
3.2.1 Qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches

According to Berg (2009), qualitative research is referring to meanings,
concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols and descriptions of
things. Miller and Brewer (2003) asserted that qualitative research is based
on intensive study of as many features as possible of one or a small number
of phenomena in order to provide and build understanding by depth in
addition to seeking meanings rather than generality. Bell (2005) reported
Page 3-2
that qualitative researchers are more interested in understanding individual

or group perceptions of their environment. To that end, Corbin and Strauss
(2008, p.11) defined the qualitative approach as follows:
Any type of research that produces findings not arrived by statistical
procedures. It can refer to research about person’s lives, lived
experiences, behaviours, emotions, and feelings as well as about
organisational functioning, social movements, cultural phenomena and
interactions between nations.
In addition, Corbin and Strauss (2008) asserted that qualitative analysis is

about interpreting “non-mathematical raw data” to discover relationships
between that data and to organise it into a theoretical scheme. They
suggested three major components of qualitative research: the first
component is “data” which can be obtained through different methods, such
as documents and interviews; the second component is “procedures” which
should be used for interpretation and analysing the data; the last component
is “writing” reports.
Whereas, Berg (2009) stated that quantitative research is referring to counts

and measures of things. Miller and Brewer (2003) indicated that quantitative
research relies on the numerical measurement of the phenomena and
explores relationship between variables in order to demonstrate and assure
the general features of social life. In a similar vein, Bell (2005) reported that
quantitative researchers assimilate facts and study the association between
one set of gathered facts with another. To that end, Creswell (2009, p.18)
defined the quantitative approach as follows:
A quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses
post positivist claims for developing knowledge (i.e. cause and effect
thinking), reduction of specific variables and hypotheses and questions,
use of measurement and observation and the testing of theories.
Indeed, both approaches are flexible and the outcomes of each research often
depend on the researcher interpretation (Baxter and Eyles, 1997). Generally,
both types of research either qualitative (e.g. case study) or quantitative (e.g.
Page 3-3
survey) contribute to the discovery of theories (Gummesson, 2003).

However, Miller and Brewer (2003, p.323) introduced their point of view
about the argument of the accuracy of qualitative research and particularly
case studies by indicating that case studies are challenging and exciting
research methods, as follows:
It is difficult to sustain the argument that case studies lack rigour, all
research methods depend upon the skill of the researcher, the context of
the research and the subject of the analysis, despite criticism, case studies
continue to provide some of the most interesting and inspiring research in
the social sciences.
In contrast, Williams (2002, p.126) criticised the accuracy of the quantitative

research (e.g. survey), as follows:
Survey research can not usually provide the contextual detail necessary to
interpret its own results; we quite often need to know the ethnographic
basis of the statistics produced by the survey.
Consequently, Creswell (2003, p.18) indicated that a mixed approach

between quantitative and qualitative could be used in some studies. The
same author stated that researchers use mixed methods when they “tend to
base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds, e.g. consequence-oriented,
problem-centred and pluralistic”. In that sense, Creswell (2009) reported that
mixed or blended research methods are relatively new and developing, the
philosophical position of blended approaches is that neither quantitative
research nor qualitative research is superior to the other. Instead, blended
designs emphasize a realistic approach to research, assuming that the
question should drive the method.
Therefore, this research utilised a combination of „qualitative‟ and

„quantitative‟ approaches and methods in order to develop and test the IT-
human interaction model. More specifically, case study approach as well as
survey approach were adopted which involve collecting the two forms of
data (numeric and textual information). Utilising mixed methods overcome
Page 3-4
problems associated with fallibility of measures (Johnson and Cassell, 2001;

Trochim, 2001). Table 3.1 illustrates the major research methods.
Table 3.1: The major research methods
Quantitative Both or Mixed Qualitative
Experimental Case study Ethnographic
Quasi-experimental Content (document) analysis Grounded theory
Correlational Observation Participatory
Casual comparative Survey (questionnaire) Phenomenological
Single case Focused interview Biographical
Adapted from Pershing (2006)
3.2.2 Inductive and deductive approaches

According to Pershing (2003; 2006), qualitative methodologies are based on
constructivism, which posits that reality and meanings are socially
constructed by humans as they interact with the world in which they live. As
a consequence, the backgrounds and experience of researchers themselves
will influence how they interpret the environment that they study.
Constructivism lends itself to qualitative methodologies, which tend to use
inductive reasoning. Marshall (2002) reported that inductive reasoning
involves making observations, ascertaining patterns, identifying the general
principles and generating theories. In this regard, Miller and Brewer (2003,
p.154) defined induction reasoning as “an approach in social research which
argues that empirical generalisations and theoretical statements should be
derived from the data”.
In contrast, quantitative research designs begin with identifying a problem to

be investigated, outlining research objectives and questions, constructing
hypotheses to be tested and outlining assumptions and limitations.
Quantitative methodologies use deductive reasoning (Pershing, 2006). Yin
Page 3-5
(2009) reported that deductive reasoning involves the testing of hypotheses

derived from theories and subsequent verification of those theories. In this
regard, Miller and Brewer (2003, p.67) defined deduction reasoning as “the
process of reasoning by which logical conclusions are drawn from a set of
general premises”.
By focusing on these two definitions, it can be noted that induction is used

when a researcher‟s aim is to collect data in order to find some organisation
between it and thus draw a conclusion which contributes to theory building.
In contrast, deduction is an approach based on challenging or testing a
concept or a theory by testing the hypotheses suggested. Additionally, in
deduction, the findings always confirm or falsify the hypotheses and thus it
is probably used to confirm the basic theory or add to it (Marshall, 2002;
Yin, 2009). In this regard, Figure 3.1 illustrates the wheel of research in
terms of induction and deduction.
Figure 3.1: The wheel of research in terms of induction and deduction approaches
Theory/ Concept
I D
N E
D D
U U
C Abstractions Hypothesis/ Questions C
T T
I I
O O
N N
Empirical
observations
Miller and Brewer (2003, p.1)
Page 3-6
The previous figure showed that researchers probably use the deductive
approach when they test a theory by suggesting a hypothesis and investigate
deeply the achievability of this theory (the right side of the wheel); on the
other hand, the inductive approach is probably used when a researcher aims
at forming a theory from the data collected (the left side of the wheel) as
reported by Miller and Brewer (2003). Consequently, Table 3.2 summarises
the main differences between inductive and deductive approaches:
Table 3.2 : The main differences between inductive and deductive approaches
Induction Approach Deduction Approach
 Focusing on facts  Focusing on theory
 Theory from data  Data from theory
 Often associated with qualitative research  Often associated with natural science
 Findings could be generalised to similar  Hypotheses tested to confirm or
cases falsifying theory
Elgammal (2007, p.19)
Therefore, to achieve the aim of this study, both inductive and deductive
approaches were used. An inductive approach was adopted in the early
phases of this study by conducting focus groups in order to explore and to
investigate the impacts of ICT on end-user performance and satisfaction and,
in turn, to develop an initial IT-human interaction model (ITHIM). After
exploring and investigating the factors of the ITHIM and collecting the
appropriate facts and data, a deductive approach was used which helped to
focus on the ITHIM theory and address the research question by testing the
factors of the ITHIM in four hotel case studies by conducting semi-
structured interviews as well as using end-users questionnaire.
According to Creswell (2009), there are three criteria for identifying the
factors which affect the choice of one approach over the other; these three
criteria are: (1) match between problem and approach, (2) personal
Page 3-7
experiences, and (3) audience. The following paragraphs show how the
research approach was chosen based on these criteria.
In this research, mixed methodology approach was used to answer the

research questions, as follows: (1) the qualitative approach was used in order
to explore and investigate the factors influencing hotel end-users
performance and satisfaction, and (2) the quantitative approach was used to
test the explored factors. Thus, case study approach and survey approach
were adopted. To date various methods have been developed and introduced
to measure the impact of ICT on hotel employees. More specifically, the
primary data were collected through focus groups, semi-structured
interviews, document analysis and questionnaire to provide a rich picture of
the case study.
Additionally, the researcher had already experienced both qualitative and

quantitative approaches in exploring the research problem of the Master‟s
thesis through questionnaire and direct observations. Consequently, the
researcher preferred using mixed methodology and methods to explore and
to test factors influencing the IT performance and satisfaction.
According to Creswell (2009), audience refers to people to whom the

research will be reported and they are possibly journal editors, journal
readers or a committee. In respect to that, the audience for this research is
initially the thesis examination panel. Added to that, the practical
implications of this research should be directed to hotel mangers. Other
possible audiences for this study are the hospitality researchers in general
and electronic hospitality researchers in particular. This study reflects the
diversity of research approaches found in hospitality studies and specifically,
it contributes to the growing influence of mixed research approach in
hospitality.
Page 3-8
3.2.3 Theoretical and practical approaches

One of the most difficult things about understanding research design is that
scholars (e.g. Crotty 2007; Saunders, Lewism and Thornhil, 2007) disagree
about the name, the order and the nature of research stages. However, in this
research, Crotty classification of research stages was adopted. According to
Crotty (2003) epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and
methods are basic elements of any research process. Figure 3.2 illustrates the
basic elements of research process.
Figure 3.2: The basic elements of research process
Crotty (2003, p.4)
In addition, Crotty (2003) identified two types of approaches, namely the

theoretical approach (i.e. epistemology; theoretical perspective) and the
practical approach (i.e. methodology; methods). The theoretical and practical
approaches adopted in this study (see Table 3.3) will be discussed in detail
in the following sections:
Page 3-9
Table 3.3: The epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and methods adopted in the study
Epistemology Theoretical perspective Methodology Methods
Objectivism Positivism and post-positivism Experimental research Questionnaire

Constructionism Interpretivism Survey research Observation
Subjectivism - Symbolic interactionism Ethnography Interview
Phenomenological
- Phenomenology Focus group
research
- Hermeneutics Grounded theory Case study
Critical inquiry Heuristic inquiry Statistical analysis
Comparative
Feminism Action research
analysis
Postmodernism Discourse analysis Document analysis
Feminist standpoint
Content analysis
research
Adapted from Crotty (2003)
3.3 Theoretical approach
3.3.1 Research epistemological perspective – constructionism

According to Maynard (1994, p.10), epistemology is concerned with
“providing a philosophical grounding for deciding what kinds of knowledge
are possible and how we can ensure that they are both adequate and
justifiable”. Hamlyn (1995, p.242) stated that epistemology is “the branch of
philosophy which studies the nature, origin and scope of knowledge”. The
term epistemology is derived from the Greek words “episteme”, which
means knowledge, and “logos” which means explanation (Miller and
Brewer, 2003). From Crotty (2003, p.3) point of view, epistemology is “the
theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in
the methodology, it is the way of understanding and explaining how we
know what we know”. On the whole, epistemology addresses the questions,
“Do you really know what you think you know?” And if so, “How do you
know what you know?” (Firestone and McElroy, 2005). There are quite
Page 3-10
ranges of epistemologies, which are: objectivism, constructionism and

subjectivism (Crotty, 2003).
According to Crotty (2003, p.8), Objectivist epistemology holds that

meaning and therefore meaningful reality exists as such a part from the
operation of any consciousness. For example, that tree in the forest is a tree,
regardless of whether anyone is aware of its existence or not. Accordingly,
understandings and values are considered to be objectified in the people we
are studying and, if we go about it in the right way, we can discover the
objective truth. Conversely, constructionist epistemology rejects this view of
human knowledge. There is no objective truth waiting for us to discover it.
Truth, or meaning, comes into existence in and out of our engagement with
the realities in our world. There is no meaning without a mind. Meaning is
not discovered, but constructed. Consequently, people may construct
meaning in different ways, even in relation to the same phenomenon (Crotty,
2003, p.8).
Unlike constructionism and objectivism, subjectivism is close to believing

that the nature and existence of every object depends only on the
researcher‟s subjective awareness of it (Crotty 2003). In other words,
subjectivism holds that the construction of all meaning is emerges from the
interaction between the subject and object “we humans are not that creative,
even in subjectivism, we make meaning out of something” Crotty (2003,
p.9).
Therefore, in this research the constructionism perspective was adopted in

order to explore the existing reality through using mixed qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Thus, the factors in the IT-human interaction model
(ITHIM) were explored and constructed by interviewing participants.
Page 3-11
3.3.2 Research theoretical perspective – interpretivism / phenomenology

Theoretical perspectives might best be viewed as models. Each perspective
makes assumptions about society. Each one attempts to integrate various
kinds of information about society. Models give meaning to what we see and
experience. Certain consequences results from using a particular model.
Each perspective focuses on different aspects of society. No one is best.
Perhaps the best perspective is the one which combines many perspectives
(Embree, 1997). According to Crotty (2003, p.3), theoretical perspective is
“the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a
context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria”. However,
theoretical perspective can be used interchangeably with the term
“paradigm” which was defined in an online English Dictionary as “a mode
of viewing the world which underlies the theories and methodology of
science in a particular period of history” (Merriam Webster English
dictionary, 2005). According to Crotty (2003), there are two types of
theoretical perspectives: positivism and interpretivism.
According to Weber (2004), the main difference between interpretivism and

positivism is that in positivism, there is no relation between a researcher and
the reality, however in interpretivism, a researcher and the reality are
connected and therefore, a researcher has the ability to reach that reality via
his/her investigations and understanding of different situations. According to
Arrowsmith (2008, p.50), positivism is “a branch of philosophy which
emphasises the observable and factual over the theoretical or metaphysical”.
However, Neuman (2006, p.71) defined interpretivism as:
A systematic analysis of socially meaningful action through the direct
detailed observation of people in natural settings in order to arrive at
understandings and interpretations of how people create and maintain
their social worlds.
In this research, an interpretive phenomenology perspective was used to

develop an understanding of the data collected from the four case studies.
Page 3-12
According to Smith (2003, p.32) phenomenology is “a branch of philosophy

which emphasises that meaning is generated through the influence of a
person consciousness upon perceptions”. Phenomenology aims at gaining a
deeper understanding of the nature or meaning of our day experience (Smith,
2003). Phenomenological concerns are frequently using qualitative methods.
They undertake analysis of small group, social situations and organisations
using face to face techniques, such as participant observations and
interviews (Embree, 1997).
According to Patton (2002), a phenomenological study seeks to explain the
structure and essence of the experiences of a group of people. More
specifically, Patton (2002) identified two types of phenomenological
perspectives, as follows: (1) the phenomenological perspective that focuses
on what people experience and how they interpret the world without actually
experiencing the phenomenon oneself (e.g. interviews), and (2) the
phenomenological perspective that focuses on what people experience and
how they interpret the world by actually experiencing the phenomenon being
investigated (e.g. participant observation). In this research, the first type of
phenomenological perspective was used in order to explore the impacts of
technology on hotel employees (what people experience) and to know how
they use hotel technology to be more productive and satisfied (how people
experience) through conducting interviews with hotel managers and hotel
employees as well.
3.4 Research methodology – case study approach

According to Knight (2006), methodology refers to more than a simple set of
methods; as it refers to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that
underlie a particular study. Naturally, it includes not only the practical
aspects of the research, such as methods and action plans, but also the
philosophical and theoretical perspectives of the researcher. According to
Crotty (2003, p.3), methodology is “the strategy, plan of action, process or
Page 3-13
design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the
choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes”. There are quite ranges
of methodologies, which are: case study, survey research, experimental
research, archival analysis and history (Yin, 2003).
Crotty (2003) asserted that the research methodology is the strategy behind
use of specific data collection methods and linking the use of methods to the
research outcomes. In this research, phenomenological methodology „case
study methodology‟ was used in order to explore and understand the factors
influencing hotel end-user performance and satisfaction as well as to test the
explored factors in budget and upscale Welsh hotels. As discussed earlier,
the theoretical perspective informing this research is phenomenology where
the concern was with the essence or basic structure of a phenomenon
(impacts of technology). Phenomenological methodology is also consistent
with the theoretical framework of this research
This research with the aim of exploring and investigating the impacts of
hotel technology on end-user employees utilised a phenomenological
methodology that employed qualitative and quantitative research tools.
However, Kaplan and Maxwell (2005) argued that the goal of understanding
a phenomenon from the point of view of the participants and its particular
social and institutional context is largely lost when textual data are
quantified. Therefore, in this research, the development of research methods
was geared more towards qualitative methods of study.
According to Marshall and Rossman (2006), a phenomenologist is

concerned with understanding certain group behaviours from that group‟s
point of view. Phenomenological inquiry requires that researchers go
through a series of steps (phases) in which they try to eliminate their own
assumptions and biases, examine the phenomenon without presuppositions
and describe the “deep structure” of the phenomenon based on internal
Page 3-14
themes that are discovered. Therefore, in this research, a series of steps were
followed to examine the phenomena, as demonstrated in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: The practical objectives involved within the study
Phase One: Initial study Phase Two: In-depth study
Aim  To develop a diagnostic tool to use in support of human resource processes
(recruitment and selection, ongoing IT support, IT training and performance
appraisal) to help hotel managers to enhance user performance and satisfaction.
Practical
 To investigate technology adoption in
Objectives  To identify the discrete measures the different stages of the employee life
underpinning end-user employee cycle in four Welsh case studies of
traits, organisational traits and budge and upscale hotels aiming to
system traits impacting on IT usage develop a model to improve IT-human
and user perceptions of performance interaction in hotels.
and satisfaction aiming to develop an  To develop a diagnostic tool that can be
initial model to improve IT-human used to help managerial decision-
interaction. making at the different stages of the
employee life cycle in hotels.
Methods
 Focus groups  Semi-structured interviews
 Document analysis
 Questionnaire
3.4.1 Case study approach

Case studies usually explore issues in depth and in context to generate or
replicate theory. The aim is to understand the particular feature of the case as
well as to draw out analysis that has a wider applicability (Finn, Elliotte-
White and Walton, 2000). According to Burns (2000), case studies are used
as a catch all category for anything that does not fit into experimental,
survey or historical methods. Several authors (e.g. Holliday, 2002; Miller
and Brewer, 2003; Weber 2004; Yin, 2009) reported that a case study is an
interpretive research methodology and recently is used widely as a
methodology across several types of social research, such as sociology,
psychology, history, economics, planning, administration, public policy,
Page 3-15
education, management studies and tourism. According to Yin (2009, p.23),

case study methodology can be defined as:
An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
its real-life context when the boundaries between phenomenon and context
are not clearly evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.
Yin (2009) identified four stages required for conducting a case study. Stage
one is concerned with designing a case study by determining the required
skills and developing the protocol. Stage two is concerned with preparing for
the data collection and conducting interviews or focus groups. Stage three is
concerned with analysing the evidence and adopting a strategy. Finally,
stage four is about developing conclusions, recommendations and
implications based on the evidence and data collected. Figure 3.3 highlights
the main four stages required for carrying out a case study
Figure 3.3: The stages of conducting case study methodology
Adapted from Yin (2009)
Page 3-16
Stake (1995) argued that although case studies are designed to bring out the
details from the viewpoint of the participants, but the data collection and
analysis methods are known to hide some details. Therefore, using multiple
sources of data is helping to maximise the range of data required in order to
reach an accurate explanation and thus accurate results.
Yin (1989; 2009) identified three types of case studies: exploratory,

explanatory, and descriptive. The exploratory case study is often considered
as an introduction to social research. However, an explanatory case study
could be used for conducting general investigations. On the other hand, a
descriptive case study requires developing a theory before conducting the
research. In a similar vein, Stake (1995) identified three other types of case
study: intrinsic, instrumental and collective. In the intrinsic case study the
researcher is interested in carrying out his/her research. In instrumental case
study the aim is to investigate more than what is obvious to people. In
collective case study more than one case is investigated.
In this research, two types of case studies were adopted. Firstly, a single
exploratory case study has been developed to explore the main factors
influencing end-users performance and satisfaction through conducting six
focus groups. In this regard, Yin (2009) reported that a single case study
may be appropriate as an exploratory tool or as a pilot test for a multiple
case study. Secondly, collective (multiple) explanatory case studies have
been developed in order to investigate the factors influencing hotel end-user
employees in more details through conducting semi-structured interviews,
using document analysis and developing questionnaire.
According to Yin (2009), a study involving multiple cases can provide more
robust insight than a single case study and are preferable to a single case in
descriptive studies. Several authors (e.g. Benbasat, Goldstein and Mead,
1987; Eisenhardt, 1989; Stake, 1994) reported that in multiple cases, each
case can be viewed and studied alone (i.e. within-case analysis) and then,
Page 3-17
cross-case comparisons/contrasts (i.e. analyses between cases) can be made

to provide richer detail and insights regarding the subject matter under
investigation. In this respect, other authors (Kerlinger, 1986; Yin, 2009;
Babbie, 2010) asserted that cross-case comparison allows the researcher to
observe patterns and to distinguish the differences from one case to the next
so as to reveal the true relationships among the variables under study.
In order to investigate the case study, it was necessary to identify the

principles used in the data collection. In particular, Yin (2009) reported that
there are three main principles of data collection for a case study which are:
use multiple sources of data, create a case study database and maintain a
chain of evidence. More specifically, Crotty (2003) pointed that sources of
evidence in the case study are the techniques employed to collect and
analyse data related to the research question or hypothesis. Added to that,
Yin (2009) suggested six primary sources of evidence for case study
research which are documentations, interviews, archival records, physical
artefacts, participant observation and direct observation. (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: The sources of evidence for case study research
Adapted from Yin (2009)
Page 3-18
3.4.2 Practical approach: objective two
3.4.2.1 An exploratory single case study

An exploratory single case study was designed in order to explore the
impacts of technology on end-user employees‟ performance and satisfaction.
More specifically, the technology adoption was investigated in the
University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC). In particular, the participants
were selected from five departments, namely finance and account,
Reception, food and beverage, IT and human resource. The first phase of
this research (initial study) aimed to identify the discrete measures
underpinning user traits, organisational traits and system traits impacting on
IT usage and user perceptions of performance and satisfaction aiming to
develop an initial model to improve IT-human interaction. In particular, a
series of focus groups were conducted with different ranges of IT experts,
end-user employees, IT managers and IT technical staff.
3.4.2.1 Methods for the single case study

Focus groups were used, in the initial study, to explore the impacts of
technology adoption on end-user employees‟ performance and satisfaction as
well as to develop an initial IT-human interaction model. Focus groups were
employed as they are recommended as a research tool to gather information
into areas where research is limited and hence little is known about an area
(Churchill, 2004; Steyaert and Bouwen, 2004). Furthermore, focus groups
are conducted in particular to explore the way that individuals think and feel
about a subject (Krueger and Casey, 2000).
The recommended size of focus groups range tremendously from 4-12

individuals, although guidelines of 8-12 people (Churchill, 2004) and 6-10
people have been suggested by Steyaert and Bouwen (2004). However, it
has been agreed that there should be a balance between small groups and
large groups, where participants may become bored and frustrated while
Page 3-19
waiting for their turn to speak (Morgan and Krueger, 1998). For that, in the
present study each focus group composed of 5 participants to allow enough
time for them to express ideas without getting bored.
Concerning the number of focus groups to be conducted, there are no

definitive guidelines regarding the number of focus groups that should be
conducted in any one study, although a minimum of three groups has been
suggested by Krueger and Casey (2000). The only available guidelines
suggest that focus groups are continually reviewed as the research is being
conducting, if additional focus groups do not add further insight to that
gained by previous groups then the focus groups should stop (Churchill,
2004). Therefore, in this research six focus groups were conducted with
different ranges of people, namely IT experts, end-user employees, managers
and IT technical staff.
With regards to the focus group moderator, it is noted that moderators of

focus groups should have appropriate experience and have certain skills,
such as attentiveness and sensitivity to participants‟ needs as described by
Morgan and Krueger (1998). While, the same authors confirmed that a
professional moderator is not necessary, when projects are exploratory and
hypotheses are being developed it is more important to utilise a member of
the research team who is highly familiar with the research objectives. In
response to this concern, the director of research at Cardiff School of
Management, UWIC acted as the moderator of the six focus groups because
she is experienced enough in conducting focus groups. Further, the
researcher acted as the second moderator to be able to take notes and
identify the participants who speak.
Page 3-20
3.4.2.2 Sampling techniques for the single case study

Sampling is a process that involves the selection of some, but not all, the
members of the larger population (Bakeman, 1992). According to
Krippendorff (2004), a sample is said to be representative of a population if
studying it leads to conclusions that are approximately the same as those that
one would reach by studying the entire population. However, Bell (2005)
argued that a truly representative sample matters less to case study research.
In this research, different sampling techniques have been applied for focus
groups and interviews.
The relevance sampling technique has been chosen to select the focus group
texts to be analysed. Relevance sampling aims to select all textual units that
contribute to answering given research questions (Riffe, Lacy and Fico,
2005). Firstly, the conducted six focus groups were transcribed using
NVivo 8. Then all textual units that contribute to answering the research
questions were selected for analysis, excluding textual units that do not
possess relevant information.
In addition, in this research, a sampling technique called convenience

sampling (also known as purposive sampling) was used for selecting focus
group participants. In that sense, Denzin (2000) reported that purposive
sampling relies upon choosing participants who have both the experience of
the phenomenon and also the ability to communicate their experience of that
phenomenon. The same author also stated that “many qualitative researchers
employ purposive sampling and not random sampling methods”. Therefore,
purposive sampling was employed to maximise the chance of obtaining
accurate information about the studied phenomenon.
In order to keep an effective focus group, some criteria were set, which are:
(1) participants for each group must be of similar hierarchical levels within
Page 3-21
the organisation, (2) each group should contain a mix of males and females
within the limitation of the available workforce and (3) each group should
contain a mixture of age groups within the limitations of end-users and IT
experts available. Therefore, in this research, the focus group participants
were selected from accounting and finance, help desk, human resource and
IT departments. Moreover, a sample of UWIC IT experts (IT lecturers and
IT researchers) was selected to participate on the focus group. The
composition of participants within a focus group was carefully considered as
this can greatly affect the outcomes, particularly when individuals in a group
conflict within one another over issues that are not directly relevant to the
topic under study (Churchill, 2004).
The resultant participant group was composed of 5 IT experts, 13 end-user

employees and 4 IT technical staff (divided into 6 focus groups). In
examining the focus group participant profiles, a number of interesting
patterns emerged from the variables identified in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: The profiles of the focus group participants

Variable Sub-variable FG1 FG2 FG3 FG4 FG5 FG6 Overall
Age 18-24 --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
25-34 4 --- 4 --- --- --- 8
35-44 --- 2 --- 1 1 2 6
45-54 1 1 1 --- --- 1 4
Over 55 --- --- --- 2 1 1 4
Gender Male 5 --- 1 1 --- 4 11
Female --- 3 4 2 2 --- 11
Marital Single --- 1 3 1 1 --- 6
status Married 5 1 2 1 --- 3 12
Separated/divorced --- 1 --- 1 --- 1 3
Widowed --- --- --- --- 1 --- 1
Educational Ordinary Level --- --- 2 3 1 --- 6
level Higher National Diploma --- --- --- --- 1 --- 1
Bachelors --- 2 3 --- --- 2 7
Masters --- 1 --- --- --- 2 3
MPhil 1 --- --- --- --- --- 1
PhD candidate 4 --- --- --- --- --- 4
Occupation Assistant lecturer 3 --- --- --- --- --- 3
Senior lecturer 1 --- --- --- --- --- 1
Public servant 1 --- --- --- --- --- 1
Information assistant --- 2 --- --- --- --- 2
Senior information assistant --- 1 --- --- --- --- 1
(Continued)
Page 3-22
Table 3.5: The profiles of the focus group participants (continued)

Variable Sub-variable FG1 FG2 FG3 FG4 FG5 FG6 Overall
Senior marketing officer --- --- 1 --- --- --- 1
Admissions officer --- --- 3 --- --- --- 3
Senior admissions officer --- --- 1 --- --- --- 1
Catering manager --- --- --- 1 --- --- 1
Cafeteria cashier --- --- --- 1 --- --- 1
Food and beverage controller --- --- --- 1 --- --- 1
Payroll officer --- --- --- --- 1 --- 1
Accountant --- --- --- --- 1 --- 1
IT manager --- --- --- --- --- 1 1
Desktop services team manager --- --- --- --- --- 1 1
System analyst/programmer --- --- --- --- --- 1 1
Head of IT --- --- --- --- --- 1 1
Experience Null --- --- --- --- 1 --- 1
of using Less than 10 years 2 1 1 2 --- --- 6
computers 10 up to 20 years 2 2 4 --- 2 1 11
20 up to 30 years --- --- --- --- --- 2 2
30 years or more 1 --- --- --- --- 1 2
Frequency Almost never --- --- --- 1 --- --- 1
of using Less than 5 times --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
computers/ From 5-15 times --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
month More than 15 times 5 3 5 2 2 4 21
3.4.2.3 Procedures for the single case study

Focus groups took place at UWIC in appropriate sized rooms. As these
rooms are designed for training, they could accommodate a group of
individuals for a discussion group. Chairs were placed in a circle prior to the
participants entering the room. Participants were given a short introduction
to the general purposes of the study. Participants were assured of the
confidentiality and anonymity of their responses as recommended by
Krueger and Casey (2000). All participants introduced themselves at the
beginning of the focus group as a way of stressing the similarities among
them. Participants then completed the personal profile (appendix A). All the
focused groups were recorded with the participants‟ permission. The focus
groups lasted approximately from one hour to 1.5 hours, which is typical of
focus groups (Churchill, 2004). At the end of each focus group participants
were encouraged to ask any questions that they may have in relation to the
research.
Page 3-23
3.4.3 Practical approach: objectives three/four
3.4.3.1 Explanatory multiple case studies

Following completion of the phase one, an initial model was developed. The
second phase of this research aimed to test the initial model in multiple hotel
case studies in Wales, namely budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems,
budget hotels using bespoke systems, upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems and upscale hotels using bespoke systems. In this study, the Welsh
hotels were classified as follows:
 Classification of Welsh hotels

The Welsh accommodation sector includes many types of lodging
properties. There are hotels, self-catering, touring parks, camping parks,
holiday parks, guest accommodation, bed and breakfasts, farmhouses, guest
houses, restaurants with rooms, inns, campus accommodation, hostel
accommodation, group accommodation, activity accommodation,
backpacker accommodation, bunkhouse accommodation and camping barns
(Coleman, 2000; Gupta, Jones and Coleman, 2004; Elsayed, 2008; Welsh
Assembly Government, 2008).
Several researchers (e.g. Collan, 2000; Powers and Barrows, 2006; Stutts
and Wortman, 2006; Walker, 2006) argued that classification of lodging
establishments is not easy. The industry is diverse and does not present
obvious, well-defined categories. In this regard, Walker (2006) reported that
lodging establishments can be classified in several ways: location, size, level
of service, stars or diamonds, length of stay or target market.
According to the Welsh Assembly Government, hotel is defined as “a formal

accommodation with full service; minimum 6 guest bedrooms but more
likely to have 20 or more bedrooms” (Welsh Assembly Government, 2006).
The Welsh Assembly Government (2006) classified Welsh hotels into four
Page 3-24
categories: country house hotels, small hotels, town house hotels and metro
hotels, as shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: The hotel classification by the Welsh Assembly Government
Hotel classification General description
Country house hotels Hotels with ample grounds or gardens in a rural or semi-rural location,
with emphasis on peace and quiet.
Small hotels Smaller hotels with a maximum of 20 bedrooms; these hotels will be
personally run by the proprietor and are likely to have limited function
business.
Town house hotels High quality town/city centre properties of individual and distinctive
style with a maximum of 50 rooms.
Metro hotels A town/city location providing full hotel services with the exception of
dinner. Within easy walking distance of a range of places to eat and
with a range of pricing.
(Welsh Assembly Government, 2006)
As shown in Table 3.6, The Welsh Assembly Government classified Welsh

Hotels according to size, style and location. One of the limitations of this
classification is that it does not offer sub-categories with regards to hotel
size (e.g. small; medium; large). Added to that, no attention has been paid to
hotel classification according to their technological capabilities, their types
of information systems, their types of IT departments. Thus, a new Welsh
hotels classification would be proposed to fill in this gap (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: The classification of Welsh hotels
Hotel
Classification
Technological Type of Hotel Type of IT

Capability Information System department
Budget hotels Upscale hotels Hotels using Hotels using Hotels having Hotels having
(hotels with (hotels with bespoke off-the-shelf on-site IT off-site IT
limited IT luxury IT systems systems departments departments
capability) capability)
Page 3-25
1. Hotels classification according to their technological capability

Welsh hotels could be classified according to their technological capability
into two main categories, namely hotels with limited technological
capability (budget hotels) and hotels with luxury technological capability
(luxury/upscale hotels). Budget hotels are defined as “hotels that offer clean,
reasonably sized and furnished rooms without frills, focusing on selling
beds, but not meals or meetings” (Walker, 2006, p.140). The typical budget
hotel has less than 120 rooms, without meeting space or multiple restaurants
(Powers and Barrows, 2006); offering 2/3-star standard of accommodation
(Brotherton, 2004). On the other hand, upscale hotels are defined as “hotels
offer a wide range of facilities and amenities, more public space and
meeting/function space, several food and beverage facilities, recreational
facilities, and room rates are considerably above the market-area average”
(Stutts and Wortman, 2006, p.10). Karadag and Dumanoglu (2009)
classified upscale hotels as five and four-star hotels.
2. Hotels classification according to their information system types

Welsh hotels also could be classified according to the type of hotel
information system into two categories: hotels using bespoke systems and
hotels using off-the-shelf systems. Manager-25 reported that “the system we
have got is only for our company, it is for our brand; it is our own system
because all our brands use it [bespoke system]”. In that sense, Manager-13
declared that “bespoke systems are written for specific chain hotels, such as
On-Q system for Hilton chain; whereas off- the- shelf systems are brought as
a whole package, such as Opera system”.
3. Hotels classification according to their IT department types

Welsh hotels could also be classified according to the type of IT department
into two main categories, hotels having on-site IT department and hotels
having off-site IT department. Manager-9 said that “I think if you go back
Page 3-26
ten years, it used to be IT in each hotel [on-site IT department], I think the

trend now the IT is a central function, you call up whoever support for your
software [off-site IT department], there is no more in-house IT now, so
clustered or central function”.
It has been found that most of the investigated Welsh hotels were having off-
site IT department; therefore, the Welsh hotels in this study will be classified
only on their technological capability (i.e. budget vs. upscale hotels) and
their types of information systems (i.e. bespoke vs. off-the-shelf systems).
Based on this classification, there are four potential combinations of the
investigated hotels depending on their technological capability and their
types of information systems, as demonstrated in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: The four hotel case studies in Wales
•Budget hotels using •Budget hotels using

off-the-shelf hotel bespoke hotel
information systems information systems
Case Case
(1) (2)
Case Case
(4) (3)
•Upscale hotels using •Upscale hotels using
bespoke hotel off-the-shelf hotel
information systems information systems
Page 3-27
With regards to the classification of the investigated hotels according to their

technological capability and their types of information systems, Table 3.7 as
well as Figure 3.7 show that nearly half of the investigated hotels (n = 12;
48%) were upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems, followed by five
hotels (20%) which were upscale hotels using bespoke systems, besides
other four hotels (16%) which were budget hotels using off-the-shelf
systems as well as four budget hotels which were using bespoke systems
(16%).
Table 3.7: The categories of the investigated Welsh hotels

hotel types No. of hotels investigated Percentage
Budget hotels using off-the-

4 16
shelf systems
Budget hotels using bespoke
4 16
systems
Upscale hotels using off-the-
12 48
shelf systems
Upscale hotels using bespoke
5 20
systems
Total 25 100
Figure: 3.7: The categories of the investigated Welsh hotels
Budget hotels
using bespoke shelf systems
systems 16%
20%
Budget hotels
Upscale hotels using bespoke
using off-the- systems
shelf systems 16%
48%
Page 3-28
3.4.3.2 Methods for the multiple case studies

According to Crotty (2003, p.3), methods are “the techniques or procedures
used to gather and analyse data related to some research question or
hypothesis”. In the second phase of this research, multiple sources of
evidence were used, namely semi-structured interviews, document analysis
(Hotels websites analysis) as well as questionnaire. In the following
sections, the technique of each used method will be discussed.
1. Semi-structured interviews
In-depth interviews are sources of evidence which represents a significant
aspect of this research as they were used to achieve the research aim by
gaining rich insights into the participants‟ experiences, opinions and
attitudes. In that sense, May (2001, p.109) defined interviews as follows:
The method of maintaining and generating conversations with people on a
specific topic or range of topics and the interpretations which social
researchers make of the resultant data, constitute the fundamentals of
interviews and interviewing.
In this regard, May (2001) identified four different types of in-depth

interviews which are structured interviews, semi-structured interviews,
unstructured or convergent interviews and group interviews. In this research,
semi-structured interviews were conducted with hotel managers and end-
user employees to explore and to investigate the impacts of technology in
more depth.
In semi-structured interviews, specific questions are generally asked to the

interviewees; however, interviewees are encouraged to talk beyond the
questions and refer to their own experience in relation to the specific
research topic and consequently, qualitative information can be recorded by
the interviewer (Bernard, 2000; May, 2001). Semi-structured interviews,
characterised by a flexible series of open-ended questions, were used as they
Page 3-29
offer the opportunity to explore the topic in some depth (Morgan and
Symon, 2004). Such an approach was desirable given the lack of research in
the area and the explanatory nature of stage two of the research. More
specifically, May (2001, p.111) concluded:
These types of interviews are said to allow people to answer more on their
own terms than the standardised interview permits, but still provide a
greater structure for comparability over the focus interview.
In addition, Yin (2009) outlined the main strengths of interviews as follows:

(1) targeted-focus directly on case study topic and (2) insightful- provides
perceived casual inference. However, Yin argued that interviews might have
possible weaknesses as follows: (1) bias due to poorly constructed questions
and (2) inaccurate due to poor recall. Therefore, in this research a series of
interviews were conducted with both hotel managers and employees as well
to explore their perceptions towards technology impacts. More specifically,
25 interviews were conducted with hotel managers in different four hotel
cases. Also, another 10 interviews were conducted with hotel employees in
the same hotel cases.
2. Document analysis (Hotel websites analysis)

Yin (2009) pointed the strengths of document analysis as follow: (1) stable –
can be reviewed repeatedly and broad coverage, (2) unobtrusive – not
created as a result of a case study and (3) exact – contains exact names and
references. Conversely, the same author claimed that document analysis has
possible limitations as follows: (1) retrievability – can be low; (2) biased
selectivity, if collection is incomplete and (3) access may be deliberately
blocked.
In this research, hotel websites analysis (equivalent to document analysis in

the original Yin model) for the investigated hotels was undertaken through
three stages, namely before conducting the interview, during the interview
Page 3-30
and after conducting the interview. Firstly, before the interview, the websites
of the investigated hotels were checked regards the availability of employees
on-line functions, such as on-line recruitment and selection, on-line training,
on-line IT support, etc. Secondly, during the interview, the interviewed
managers and employees in each hotel were asked about the availability of
these on-line functions through their hotel websites as well as their
perceptions about these on-line functions. After conducting the interview,
another check was made against what each manager and employee said
about the on-line functions during the interview.
3. Questionnaire
In this stage, a measurement tool in the form of a questionnaire was used to
test the IT-human interaction model factors. Rossett (1999) pointed that
written questionnaires are the most frequent used techniques for gathering
information in human performance technology. The results from the focus
groups and semi-structured interviews were served as bases for
questionnaire construction. The use of techniques such as focus groups and
interviews is common practice in questionnaire construction and is strongly
recommended by a number of authors (O‟Brien, 1993; Kinney, Macias and
Rodican, 1995; Oppenheim, 2000; Morgan and Symon, 2004). The
questionnaire was initially piloted within a panel composed of twenty IT
experts, where questionnaire scale content, measurement, wording and
layout were discussed. The revised questionnaire consisted of 14 scales for
measuring: computing self-efficacy, computing anxiety, user participation,
user involvement, IT training, IT support, subjective norms, perceived easy
of system use, perceived system usefulness, perceived compatibility,
perceived enjoyment, perceived behaviour control, attitude towards use and
user satisfaction. The questionnaire forms were distributed with a sample
(N=350) of hotel end-user employees and supervisors who are using hotel
Page 3-31
information systems. Five point Likert-type scaling method was developed

with the questionnaire. The questionnaire form is shown in appendix D.
3.4.3.3 Sampling techniques for the multiple case studies
1. Semi-structured interviews sampling techniques

The relevance sampling technique has been chosen to select the interview
texts to be analysed. Further, the purposive sampling techniques was
employed to select hotel managers as well as hotel employees In a similar
vein, Nassar (2002) reported that, in purposive sampling, researchers should
select participants: (1) who have experienced the phenomenon under study,
(2) who can communicate their experience of the phenomenon as free as
possible from embarrassment and bias and (3) who are able to “bracket”
their knowledge, beliefs and common understandings about the
phenomenon. In this research, all the above criteria were taken into account
when selecting hotel managers and hotel employees. Therefore, in this
research, the interviewed hotel managers and employees who have a
previous experience with hotel information systems were selected from
front-office departments.
The selected interview sample was composed of 25 hotel managers as well

as 10 hotel end-user employees. Based on the previous Welsh hotel
classification, the selected interview sample was broken down into four
groups (cases), as follows: (1) interviewees of the budget hotels using off-
the-shelf system packages (n = 6; 17.1%), (2) interviewees of the investigated
budget hotels using bespoke systems (n = 6; 17.1%), (3) interviewees of the
investigated upscale hotels using off-the-shelf system packages (n = 15;
42.9%) and (4) interviewees of the investigated upscale hotels using bespoke
systems (n = 8; 22.9%), as shown in Table 3.8 and Figure 3.8.
Page 3-32
Table 3.8: The number of interviewees as indicated by the investigated hotel categories
Hotel No. of interviewed No. of interviewed Total
Hotel types %
categories managers end-users
Case-1 Budget hotels using off-the-
4 2 6 17.1
shelf systems
Case-2 Budget hotels using bespoke
4 2 6 17.1
systems
Case-3 Upscale hotels using off-the-
12 3 15 42.9
shelf systems
Case-4 Upscale hotels using
5 3 8 22.9
bespoke systems
Total 25 10 35 100
Figure 3.8 The conducted interviews as indicated by the investigated hotel categories
Budget hotels
using bepoke shelf systems
systems 17%
23%
Budget hotels
using bespoke
Upscale hotels
systems
using off-the-
17%
shelf systems
43%
Page 3-33
In examining the interviewees‟ profiles, a number of interesting patterns

emerged from the variables identified in Table 3.9.
Table 3.9: The profiles of the selected hotel interviewees

Variable Sub-variable Case-1 Case-2 Case-3 Case-4 Overall
Age 18-24 --- 1 1 --- 2
25-34 4 3 13 7 28
35-44 1 2 1 2 5
45-54 --- --- --- --- ---
Over 55 --- --- --- --- ---
Gender Male 3 4 10 7 24
Female 2 2 5 2 11
Educational Higher education 4 4 7 5 20
level Further education 1 1 9 1 12
Secondary education 1 --- --- 2 3
Occupation General manager 2 1 --- 1 4
Operations manager 1 --- 1 --- 2
Front-office manager 2 2 6 4 14
Asst. front-office manager --- --- 2 --- 2
Night manager --- --- 1 --- 1
Duty manager --- --- --- 1 1
Senior receptionist --- --- --- 1 1
Receptionist 2 2 2 2 8
HR manager --- --- 2 --- 2
Number of 1 HIS --- 1 1 --- 2
HIS used 2 up to 4 HISs 4 4 9 7 24
5 up to 7 HISs 2 --- 3 --- 5
7 HIS or more --- --- 3 1 4
Time spent 2 hours or less 2 --- --- --- 2
using HIS/day 3 up to 5 hours --- 1 6 1 8
5 up to 7 hours 2 2 6 6 16
7 hours or more 1 2 3 3 9
Computer None --- --- --- --- ---
experience Very limited --- --- --- --- ---
Some experience --- 1 2 1 4
Quite a lot 4 4 8 7 23
Extensive 2 --- 5 1 8
Work Less than 1 year --- --- 4 2 6
experience 1 up to 3 years 3 2 3 2 10
3 up to 5 years 1 2 6 3 12
5 years or more 1 1 2 3 7
Page 3-34
2. Questionnaire sampling techniques

The stratified sampling technique has been adopted to select hotel end-user
employees. Stratified sampling recognises distinct subpopulations (strata)
within a population. Each sampling unit belongs to only one stratum and the
researcher adapts random or systematic sampling for each stratum separately
(Krippendorff, 2004). In this regard, the investigated Welsh hotel were
classified into different four cases (strata), namely budget hotels using off-
the-shelf systems, budget hotels using bespoke systems, upscale hotels using
of-the-shelf systems and upscale hotels using bespoke systems. Then, the
hotel end-user employees and supervisors were selected randomly from each
hotel separately.
The target group for this stage were hotel end-user employees and
supervisors working at front office-departments, because further researchers
(Lo and Darma, 2000) indicated that, the job function of front-office
departments is more computerised. Therefore, a number of 350
questionnaire forms were distributed in the four hotel case studies, among
them, 303 valid forms were received (86.6%). Table 3.9 as well as Figure
3.10 illustrates the number of distributed and received forms in the different
hotel case studies.
Table 3.10: The number of questionnaire forms distributed and received along the different hotel case studies
Hotel No. of forms No. of forms received Percentage of

Hotel types
categories distributed Valid forms Invalid forms valid forms
Case-1 Budget hotels using off-

50 46 4 92
the-shelf systems
Case-2 Budget hotels using
50 38 12 76
bespoke systems
Case-3 Upscale hotels using off-
150 135 15 90
the-shelf systems
Case-4 Upscale hotels using
100 84 16 84
bespoke systems
Total 350 303 47 86.6
Page 3-35
Table 3.9: The number of questionnaire forms distributed and received along the different hotel case studies
No. of forms distributed No. of valid forms received

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Budget hotels using off-the- Budget hotels using bespoke Upscale hotels using off-the- Upscale hotels using
shelf systems systems shelf systems bespoke systems
In examining the questionnaire respondents‟ profiles, a number of

interesting patterns emerged from the variables identified in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11: The profiles of the questionnaire respondents

Age 18-24 17 --- 53 26 96
25-34 23 26 63 31 143
35-44 3 --- 12 8 23
45-54 1 --- 4 15 20
Over 55 2 12 3 4 21
Gender Male 15 11 78 31 135
Female 31 27 57 53 168
Educational Higher education 24 --- 80 31 135
level Further education 19 26 44 28 117
Secondary education 3 12 11 25 51
Position End-user employee 20 25 113 78 236
Supervisor 26 13 22 6 67
Number of 1 HIS 5 30 39 12 86
HIS used 2 up to 4 HISs 36 8 69 66 179
4 up to 7 HISs 5 --- 21 6 32
7 HIS or more --- --- 6 --- 6
Time spent 2 hours or less --- 7 --- 7
using HIS/day 3 up to 5 hours 1 12 55 28 96
5 up to 7 hours 26 11 34 40 111
7 hours or more 19 15 39 16 89
(Continued)
Page 3-36
Table 3.11: The profiles of the questionnaire respondents (continued)

Computer None --- 12 --- --- 12
experience Very limited 3 --- 9 22 34
Some experience 19 7 56 30 112
Quite a lot 17 19 55 32 123
Extensive 7 --- 15 --- 22
Work Less than 1 year 5 4 8 2 19
experience 1 up to 3 years 10 7 58 12 87
3 up to 5 years 15 11 46 34 106
5 years or more 16 16 23 36 91
3.4.3.4 Procedures for the multiple case studies
1. Semi-structured interviews procedures

Interviews were set up at a commonly convenient time for the hotel
managers and employees. Interviews took place at the investigated hotels
lobbies or restaurants. All the interviewees were given a short introduction
to the general purposes of the interview. Participants were assured of the
confidentiality and anonymity of their responses as recommended by
Krueger and Casey (2000). The interviews lasted approximately one hour.
All interviews were tape-recorded with prior permission.
2. Questionnaire procedures
Questionnaires were distributed using the internal mailing system and
included a covering letter explaining the purposes of the study. To guarantee
participant confidentiality and anonymity responses were returned directly to
the researcher, thus a stamped addressed envelope was included with all
questionnaires. Participants were invited to make comments at the end of the
questionnaires. A deadline was set for return of the questionnaires.
Following collection of all completed questionnaires, responses were
subjected to data analysis. Further, some of the questionnaires were
distributed on-line using the checkbox survey.
Page 3-37
3.5 Data analysis
3.5.1 Qualitative data analysis

Content analysis was used to analyse focus groups and interviews data.
Berelson (1952, quoted in Krippendorff, 2004, p.19) provided a classic
definition of content analysis as “a research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication”. According to Krippendorff (2004, p.18), the content
analysis is “a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences
from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use” The
same author asserted that, interview and focus group data are frequently
subjected to content analysis. He declared that in open-ended interviews and
focus groups, participants are allowed to speak freely and in their own terms.
To explore the conceptions that are obvious in such conversations,
researchers need to perform what amounts to content analysis on the
transcripts of these conversations (Fennell, 2001; Krippendorff, 2004).
Krippendorff (2004) identified two types of quantitative content analysis,

pragmatical content analysis and semantical content analysis. In the
pragmatical content analysis, analysts count the number of times that
something is said. In semantical content analysis, analysts count the number
of times that something is referred to, irrespective of the particular words
that may be used to make the reference.
Krippendorff (2004) identified the components of the content analysis, as

follows: (1) unitizing: relying on unitizing schemes, (2) sampling: relying on
sampling plans, (3) recording/coding: relying on coding instructions, (4)
reducing data to manageable representations: relying on established
statistical techniques or other methods for summarising or simplifying data,
(5) abductively inferring contextual phenomena: relying on analytical
constructs or models of the chosen context as warrants, and (6) narrating the
Page 3-38
answer to the research question: relying on narrative traditions or discursive

conventions established within the discipline of the content analyst. The
components of content analysis are shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: The components of contents analysis
Designing
Answers to Research
Unitizing Sampling Recording Statistical Analytical Traditions of
Questions
Scheme Plan Instructions Techniques Construct the discipline
Data Making
Texts Unitizing Sampling Recording Reducing Inferring Narrating
Krippendorff (2004, p.86)
Krippendorff (2004) identified the content analysis procedure as follows: (1)

determine the universe of the content to be analysed (newspapers, books,
magazines, letters, radio scripts, radio tapes, comics, film, video tapes,
songs, etc.), (2) obtain the sample to be analysed, (3) code the data, specify
the unit of analysis, e.g. single word or symbol, theme, character, sentence
or paragraph, item (entire article, etc.), (4) decide on the system of
enumeration or quantification, methods of measurement include: (a) space -
measures column inches in print materials, (b) time - measures duration or
length of time in audio and video materials, e.g., radio, TV, film, video tape,
(c) presence or absence of the content unit, and (d) frequency count in which
every occurrence of the content units counted. Marshall and Rossman (2006)
suggested that content analysis is away of asking a fixed set of questions
about data in such away as to produce countable results or quantitative
descriptions. It is a means by which to produce solid descriptive information
or to cross-validate other research findings.
Page 3-39
The first recommended step with content analysis is for the data analyst to
go through a process of familiarisation with the interview transcriptions
(King, 1998). This was achieved through the researcher conducting the
focus groups/interviews, transcribing the focus groups/interviews and
checking the transcription for errors. Transcripts are recommended as a basis
for improving the reliability of data analysis as they ensure the exact
wording is used and kept for future records (Silverman, 2006).
3.5.2 Quantitative data analysis

Descriptive statistics were applied to analyse the obtained data from the
survey by using SPSS version 17. Descriptive statistics have a number of
uses including: describing the characteristics of sample and addressing
specific research questions (Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black, 2006;
Pallant, 2007; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). The same author pointed that
descriptive statistics include the mean, standard deviation, range of scores,
skewness and kurtosis (Pallant, 2007). In this study, descriptive statistics
were applied for the two types of variables involved in the survey, which are
categorical variables and continuous variables. For the categorical variables
(e.g. gender), frequencies were used to identify how many users gave each
response. The frequencies of the categorical variables were mentioned
earlier (see section 3.4.3.3). For the continuous variables (e.g. computing
anxiety), descriptives were used to provide statistics such as mean, range and
standard deviation. The descriptive statistics for the continuous variables are
shown in Appendix F.
Page 3-40
3.6 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDA)

Qualitative research relies on analyzing unstructured information – things
like interview transcripts and recordings, emails, notes, feedback forms,
photos and videos. It is not rely on statistics or numbers to arrive at
conclusions, unlike quantitative research (QSR International, 2007). In this
regard, Walsh (2003) asserted that collecting and analyzing this unstructured
information can be messy and time consuming using manual methods.
According to Kelle (1997), computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
(CAQDAS) packages could more correctly refer to as tools for „data storage
and retrieval‟ rather than tools for „data analysis‟. CAQDAS package helps
you to manage, shape and make sense of qualitative data. It does not do the
thinking for you; it provides a sophisticated workplace that lets you work
through your materials (QSR International, 2007). Ezzy (2002) argued that
some people wrongly assume that a computer package can conduct
qualitative data analysis on its own. The word „assisted‟ clearly suggested
that the computer package only assists and does not actually do the data
analysis. In this regard, Miles and Huberman (1994) identified two types of
CAQDA package: generic software (e.g. word processor) and dedicated
qualitative analysis software (e.g. NVivo).
QSR (Qualitative Solutions and Research) International Pty Ltd produced
many versions of qualitative data analysis software, such as NUD*IST 4
(Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorising);
NUD*IST 5; NUD*IST 6; NVivo 1 (NUD*IST Vivo 1); NVivo 2; NVivo 7
and NVivo 8 (Walsh, 2003; Ozkan, 2004; QSR International, 2009). NVivo
is designed for decision makers and researchers in every field, from
humanities, education, evaluation and sociology, to marketing, customer
care and tourism (QSR International, 2007; Davidson and Jacobs, 2008).
In this research, NVivo 8 has been used to perform the following tasks: (1)
creating the project – Ph.D. dissertation, (2) gathering the source materials –
Page 3-41
primary and secondary data, (3) creating the research nodes – node is a
container gather all the material related to a topic, (4) coding the research
themes – coding allows you to gather all the material related to a topic.
“coding is a way of labelling certain aspects of your data and sorting the
information into distinctive categories” (Walsh, 2003, p.253), (5) running
queries to find patterns in the collected data – queries enable you to question
your data and to find patterns and pursue ideas, (6) drawing models to
visualize connections in the data, (7) creating charts, (8) running reports, and
(9) exporting data (QSR International, 2008).
NVivo 8 has been used in this research to strengthen the analysis of the
conducted focus groups and interviews, as follows: the efficient and
systematic management of data for code-and-retrieve forms of analysis
(Fielding and Lee, 1998; Ezzy, 2002); increased efficiency, flexibility and
ease of retrieval (Ezzy, 2000); the largest variety of search functions (Kelle,
1997; Bazeley, 2002); ease of searching for relationships (Ozkan, 2004);
process be much faster and easier (Ezzy, 2002; Ozkan, 2004); analysis of
different types of data (Rich and Patashnick, 2002; Ozkan, 2004); the
availability to update documents mid-analysis (Ezzy, 2002); availability of
a team of users to enter data individually and merge separate projects while
still identifying the work of individuals (Asensio, 2000; Ozkan, 2004;
Calduch, 2008).
In addition, NVivo has also the following advantages: familiarity like

Microsoft Office (Walsh, 2003; Ozkan, 2004; QSR International, 2007);
superior security for your project (Walsh, 2003; QSR International, 2007);
the opportunity to share your project online (QSR International, 2007); the
possibility to analyse literature review and to build an argument (Gregorio,
2000; Walsh, 2003); adds prestige to research study (Ozkan, 2004).
Page 3-42
On the other hand, NVivo 8 has some weaknesses discovered during the
analysis of the conducted focus groups and interviews, as follows: the need
to have all the data in electronic format (Ezzy, 2002); the need of time to
explore and to learn how to use NVivo (Walsh, 2003; Ozkan, 2004); the
requirement of financial investment in software, hardware and technical
support (Weitzman and Miles, 1995; Ezzy, 2002; Walsh, 2003; QSR
International, 2008); increasing the amount of storage on the programme
will slow processing time and speed (Richards, 1999; Bazeley, 2002);
NVivo may force users to adopt particular analytic strategies (Lee and
Fielding, 1991; Barry, 1998); user computer anxiety and technophobia
(Ezzy, 2002); NVivo limits the richness of data that can be analysed
through the categorisation of data into groups (Mason, 1996); complexity of
coding procedures (Ezzy, 2002).
Beside the above mentioned disadvantages: NVivo may distance users from
the data and may hijack the analysis (Barry, 1998); using NVivo may not be
useful for particular types of analysis and for particular types of data
(Carmel, 1999); NVivo package does not perform the analysis but merely
assist it (Ezzy, 2002; Walsh, 2003); NVivo is unsuitable for mixed-method
approaches that use larger amounts of data (Bazeley, 2002); computer can
crash or you can forget to save your work (Ozkan, 2004); NVivo comes with
an English language interface which may be difficult for non English
speakers (Vallance and Lee, 2005); NVivo is not being able to retrieve all
the responses because it only takes into account the frequency of searched
words not meaning or synonyms (Ozkan, 2004); NVivo is less useful in
terms of addressing issues of validity and reliability in the thematic ideas
that emerge during the data analysis process (Welsh, 2002).
According to Potter (2004), transcribing time for interviews varies and, in

part, depends on the researcher‟s skills. On one hand, Asensio (2000)
suggested that the estimated time for a one hour interview transcript is
Page 3-43
between four and eight hours, however, May (2001) indicated that it has
estimated to be between eight and nine hours for a one hour interview to be
fully transcribed. More specifically, Potter (2004) reported that the amount
of time needed to transcribe the interviews depended on different factors,
such as: the nature of the data; how detailed the transcript is to be; the
quality of the recording tool; the equipment used to listen to the interview
and the typing skills of the researcher. Added to the above factors, the
language could be a barrier for transcribing interviews since all interviews
and focus groups were conducted in English language which is the second
language for the researcher. Therefore, the transcription time of one hour
interview was taken more than 20 hours.
In summary, the research approach of the study is highlighted in Figure 3.11.
Adapted from Crotty (2003)
Page 3-44
3.5 Validity, reliability and triangulation

Validity and reliability are two properties to measure the quality of research.
Validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately
reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration (Babbie, 2010).
Several researchers (e.g. Bouma and Atkinson, 1995; Welsh, 2000, Burns,
2000) declared that verification of data enables to ensure the validity of the
information collected during the conducting of the research. Researchers
need to consider the accuracy of the data, words and phrases, in order not to
alter the facts by misinterpretation (Bouma and Atkinson, 1995). More
specifically, Denscombe (2007) asserted that the researcher may verify the
conducted interviewees by reviewing all the information provided in the
interview at the closure of interview schedule to clarify the different issues
arising through the discussion with the interviewees. Further, Miller and
Brewer (2003) indicated that the aim of verification is to ensure the validity
of the data in addition to correct any misunderstanding and misinterpretation
of the information given by the interviewees.
To increase the level of collected data validity, the following standards were
adopted in this research: (1) during the personal interviews, a tape recorder
was used to reduce the risk of wrongly- interpreted answers during
transcription of interviews and to be able to double-check the answers after
the interview, (2) follow-up questions were also used during interviews to
make sure that the respondents understood the questions and to allow
collecting more data.
In addition, several scholars (e.g. Gillham, 2005; Denscombe, 2007; Yin,

2009) suggested that using different research methods and techniques would
help in increasing the validity of data as well as ensuring the accuracy of the
data collected. Keyton (2001) reported that data triangulation is the use of a
variety of data sources to give a researcher more confidence about his/her
findings and conclusions. Similarly, Denscombe (2007) as well as Yin
Page 3-45
(2009) were of the opinion that different research techniques, such as

surveys, interviews, focus groups and documentation can be used in
different types of research; however, using various methods in one research
would ensure the validity of data in social science research. In particular,
Yin (2009) indicated that triangulation is considered an approach for
overcoming problems related to the validity of the data as various sources of
evidence is used to provide accurate data for the same case study.
Keyton (2001) identified five types of triangulation, as follows: (1) data

triangulation – the use of multiple sources of evidence in a study, (2)
investigator triangulation – the use of multiple researchers and/or evaluators,
(3) theory triangulation – the use of multiple perspectives or rival theories to
explain and interpret a set of data, (4) methodological triangulation – the use
of multiple methods in a study to investigate the same problem and (5)
interdisciplinary triangulation – the use of multiple disciplines to inform a
research process.
In the present study, four types of triangulation were employed: data

triangulation, theory triangulation, methodology triangulation and
interdisciplinary triangulation. Data triangulation was established by using
multiple sources of evidence, namely focus groups, interviews, document
analysis and questionnaire. Theory triangulation was presented by reviewing
twelve competing theoretical models and theories to understand the
technology acceptance and to develop a conceptual framework to improve
IT-human interaction in hotels. Methodology triangulation was established
by adopting mixed phenomenological methodology, namely case study
methodology and survey methodology. Interdisciplinary triangulation was
achieved during the literature review stage by drawing upon the works of
many different disciplines including information technology, human
resource information systems, end-user performance and end-user
satisfaction.
Page 3-46
With regards to the validity of the survey scales, Pallant (2007, p.7) defined
the validity of a scale as “the degree to which it measures what it is supposed
to measure”. Pallant (2007) stated that the validation of a scale involves the
collection of empirical evidence concerning its use. In this study, the 14
scales making up the survey were used and tested by previous researchers.
For example, the computing self-efficacy scale was used by many previous
scholars (e.g. Compeau and Higgins, 1995; Taylor and Todd, 1995;
Venkatesh et al., 2003).
According to Babbie (2010) reliability refers to whether a particular research

technique will yield the same results if applied repeatedly to the same object.
Reliability is the extent to which a procedure will produce the same results
under constant conditions (Kirk and Miller 1986; Bell, 2005). In this regard,
Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) reported that reliability attempts
to remove or minimize errors, biases and subjectivity. In order to increase
the reliability of the methods used in the present study, three measures were
applied. Firstly, the use of NVivo to transcript and code all the conducted
focus groups and interviews. Secondly, in developing the theoretical model,
various previous studies and theories addressing the issue were reviewed to
increase the reliability of the factors and thus to reduce subjectivity. Finally,
pilot focus groups were employed to reduce reliability errors in conducting
interviews.
With regards to the reliability of the survey scales, Pallant (2007, p.6) stated
that “the reliability of a scale indicates how free it is from random error”.
Internal consistency is frequently used as an indicator of a scale‟s reliability.
Internal consistency is “the degree to which the items that make up the scale
are all measuring the same underlying attribute”. In this study, Cronbach‟s
coefficient alpha was used to measure the internal consistency of the 14
scales making up the survey. Pallant (2007) recommended a minimum level
.7 Cronbach‟s coefficient alpha. The higher value of the Cronbach‟s
Page 3-47
coefficient alpha indicates greater reliability. In this study, all the values of
Cronbach‟s coefficient alpha were above .7 (see Appendix F).
3.6 Ethical considerations

According to Miller and Brewer (2003), social research is a process which
involves exploration of people‟s experiences and motivations and therefore,
it often depends on a successful relationship between the researcher and the
participants which is often centred on ethical considerations. The same
authors indicated that ethical responsibility is essential and it starts in the
early stages of a research study when a researcher develops the research
plan, in addition, it continues to have a significant role in identifying the key
research participants, the way they should be treated and the outcomes of
their participation in the research.
In this research, all participants were volunteers and they were informed by
accurate information which covered all the research aspects in relation to the
aim, methods adopted and the possible research outcomes. The information,
which was presented, was simple and easy to be understood. One of the
most important aspects in this research is the protection of the participants‟
identity. All participants were informed that their personal information (e.g.
names, ages, etc.) would be treated anonymously and confidentially, would
not be used in documents related to this thesis and would not be available to
the public.
3.7 Generalisation of results

Williams (2002) reported that there is a debate among social research writers
and scholars on the possibility of generalising the results of interpretive
research. In that sense, the same author asserted that each researcher has
different thinking and therefore researchers probably attach different
meanings to the same actions and situations. Thus, qualitative research is
Page 3-48
better for making theoretical conclusions or implications rather than for

generalising the findings of a specific case.
In contrast, Miller and Brewer (2003) indicated the possibility of

generalisation of the findings of a single case study to other similar cases. In
this regard, Williams (2002) suggested three types of generalisation as
follows: (1) total generalisation: when situation S1 is typically similar to S2;
(2) statistical generalisation: where the probability of situation S can be
estimated from instances of s and (3) moderatum (analytical) generalisation:
where aspects of S can be seen to be instances of a broader recognisable set
of features (see Table 3.12).
Table 3.12: The types and characteristics of generalisation in social research
Type of generalisation Characteristics Possibility in social research
Total S1=S2 (copy) Impossible
Statistical s < S (sample) Rarely
Moderatum (Analytical) S1 similar to S2 Possible
Adapted from Williams (2002)
In addition, Miller and Brewer (2003) reported that total generalisation can
occur in quantitative research, as a result of the detailed similarity between
S1 and S2, the features which cover S1 should be applicable to S2. Further,
statistical generalisation can emerge most often in quantitative studies which
deal with numbers through choosing a sample according to the nature of the
study such as surveys and the study of populations. However, the same
author asserted that moderatum generalisation occurs most often in
qualitative studies when features of case studies could be similar, and thus,
the findings of one case could be generalised to other similar cases.
Page 3-49
Miller and Brewer (2003) asserted that the weak status of qualitative
research results mostly from that case studies are lack objectivity and their
findings can not be always generalised. They indicated that one of the
reasons for this weakness is possibly the lack of appropriate sample size for
statistical testing. Therefore, a distinction between moderatum generalisation
and statistical generalisation is important. According to Elgammal (2007),
survey is an example for quantitative research and most surveys rely on
statistical generalization. In contrast, a case study is an example of
qualitative research and relies on moderatum generalisation.
Thus, in this research, two types of generalisations, namely moderatum

(analytical) and statistical generalisations could be applied. The moderatum
generalisation could be used to generalise the findings of the semi-structured
interviews to other similar cases in different contexts. Further, the statistical
generalisation could be applied to generalise the findings of hotel end-user
survey (see Figure 3.12). Miller and Brewer (2003) pointed that the
possibility of generalising the findings of a study is enhanced if the study
contains a “rich, thick description” of the studied phenomenon.
Figure 3.12: The types of generalisations adopted in the study
Page 3-50
3.8 Summary
This chapter presented the epistemology and theoretical perspective adopted
in this research. Moreover, it described the methodology and the data
collection techniques. In order to achieve the aim of the research,
constructionism was adopted followed by interpretivism – phenomenology
as a theoretical perspective. The case study methodology was identified as
an appropriate methodology for investigating technology adoption in hotels.
Additionally, different sources of information were used in collecting data in
order to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collected.
The chapter further described the different methods and techniques used in
the data collection stage. Indeed, this thesis was carried out through two
main phases. Phase one involved conducting focus groups in order to
explore the impacts of technology on end-user employees and, in turn
develop an initial IT-human interaction model (ITHIM) to improve IT-
human interaction. Phase two involved investigating and testing the initial
model in four hotel case studies in Wales, namely budget hotels using off-
the-shelf systems, budget hotels using bespoke systems, upscale hotels using
off-the-shelf systems and upscale hotels using bespoke systems through
using semi-structured interviews, document analysis and questionnaire. The
chapter ends with a discussion on the validity, reliability and triangulation
adopted in the research as well as generalisation of the results. Therefore, the
following chapter aims to develop an initial model to improve IT-human
interaction.
Page 3-51
Initial Development of an IT-Human Interaction Model
4.2 The critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction 4-2

4.2.1 User traits 4-2

4.3.5 Financial performance impact 4-53
4.3.6 IT satisfaction impact 4-53
4.4 Inferring the initial model factors 4-54

4.4.1 The critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction 4-54
4.6 An initial model to improve IT-human interaction 4-59
4.7 Summary 4-60
Page 4-1
Chapter Four: Initial Development of an IT-Human Interaction Model
4.1 Introduction
This chapter represents the next step in model development by utilising
primary research (i.e. six focus groups) to investigate the generic factors
identified in the conceptual framework (see Figure 2.61). In particular, this
stage in the model development serves to move from a generic framework to
a more specific model where factors emerging from this stage will be
investigate and tested in two Welsh case studies of budget hotels (see
chapter five) as well as two Welsh case studies of upscale hotels (see chapter
six). This chapter aims to identify the discrete measures underpinning user
traits, organisational traits and system traits impacting on IT usage and user
perceptions of performance and satisfaction. Finally, the chapter develops an
initial IT-human interaction model to improve IT-human interaction.
4.2 The critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction
4.2.1 User traits

There are some factors related to users that influence their IT performance
and satisfaction, namely user demographics (in this case, age, gender,
marital status, computing experience and education), user attitude towards
technology change (ATTC), computing self-efficacy (CSE) and computing
anxiety. These factors emerged from transcribing focus group data, as
follows:
4.2.1.1 User age

With regards to user age, PFGP-1 as well as PFGP-5 mentioned the
relationship between user age and user ATTC. They believed that older users
may be more resistant to change and may not want to learn and use new
technology, compared to younger users who are more eager to learn and use
new technology. Similarly, FGITTS-3 revealed that older people are less
likely to accept technology, compared to younger people who are more
Page 4-2
likely to accept technology. This finding is consistent with those of Bailey

and Hansson (1995) who found that user ATTC is negatively related to user
age. Further, FGITTS-3 was of the opinion that older people take to use
paper-based systems and they do not want to start using a new thing. In this
regard, FGITTS-4 claimed that older people have much more problems with
IT rather than younger people, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think also users’ abilities and willingness to change and use new IT and
their age are other factors. As I know one manager faced some problems
when applying new IT in his organisation. Most of his staff are not able to
change, most of them are over forty or fifty years old and they would like
to use pen and papers and they do not like to use PC at all.
[PFGP-5]
Most focus group participants (e.g. PFGP-1; PFGP-5; FGLP-3) revealed that
younger users have a greater intentions and willingness to use new
technology, compared to older users. In particular, PFGP-1 pointed that
older people do not want to use new technology because they may believe
that learning new technology is a waste of time, compared to younger people
who are more eager to learn and use new technology. This finding supports
previous research into this brain area which links user age and IT usage (e.g.
Morris and Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000; Venkatesh et al.,
2003; Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005):
You will never ever get these people (older people) to use computers.
There is no willingness to do that. You will not be able to bring them
culturally to work on computer systems.
[FGITTS-4]
In addition, PFGP-5 reported that people of new generation are experts in

using new technology because they are more able to know, to learn and to
understand new technology easily, compared to older people who may have
less abilities. This finding is in agreement with Westerman‟s et al. (1995)
findings which showed that there are specific barriers that older employees
confront when using new technology, such as age-related differences in
Page 4-3
cognitive processes, memory and learning styles, as demonstrated in the

following quote:
I think user age is very important for using computers. We have got some
students who are sixty or probably seventy years old. They work very hard
but they are still struggling to use computers. They do not have the sense
to know, to understand, or to ask how computers are used.
[FGLP-3]
Conversely, FGITTS-3 argued that it is not necessarily age that causes IT

problems rather the lack of exposure to technology. The same IT technical
staff claimed that there may be correlation between age and ability to use
technology. But the root cause is not age but it is the exposure to the
technology. Similarly, Cant, O‟Loughlin and Legge (2001) as well as
Ashman et al. (2003) found no relationship between age and user ATTC.
They demonstrated that new technology creates new demands and general
stress for all employees and employees with a positive ATTC may embrace
new technology through their thoughts, feelings and actions, as below:
I think there were may be more IT problems sometime back as elderly
people did not use computers. But older people now find less problems
and they are in their 70's and 80's and they cope with IT fine and better
than few years ago where people were quite nervous about it. I do not
think they are nervous any more because they realise so many other
people use technology.
[FGITTS-1]
Moreover, several participants (FGCP-2; FGCP-3; FGFAP-2; FGITTS-2)

mentioned the effect of user age on CSE. They pointed that older people
may be less confident to perform a computer task, compared to younger
people who are more confident. Similarly, several researchers (Maurer,
2001; Chisholm, Carey and Hernandez, 2002; Reed, Doty and May, 2005)
found an indirect effect of age on CSE and subsequent computer
performance. However, FGITTS-1 and FGITTS-3 mentioned no relationship
between user age and CSE. They were of the opinion that older people now
Page 4-4
cope with IT in a good way and they become able to use and interact with
new technology, as demonstrated in the following quote:
But people say and perhaps the older people, you know, I am not familiar
with IT department, you know, that happens. Then you guide them
through, say, it is no problem. We will sort that for you and then they
learn and backup IT that is a problem. They may say what happened, we
tell them there is a problem with the server. We are always at the office
and ring IT and they sort it. These people [older people] may say also I
cannot do this and you just did it. If there is a problem somewhere, it
would be sort out, but for older people, it is difficult sometimes for them to
sort problems. They do not have a backup for IT.
[FGFAP-2]
In addition, FGLP-3 as well as FGITTS-3 believed that older people are

likely to be more anxious when using new technology, compared to younger
people who are more confident. This finding is consistent with those of
Bailey and Hansson (1995) who claimed that some older employees worry
more than younger employees about acquiring new computer skills. The
same authors maintained that older employees feel their job security is more
threatened by technology than younger employees. More specifically,
FGAP-1; FGFAP-1 as well as FGAP-2 mentioned that older people may not
have enough computer experience, knowledge and technology skills. The
present finding seems to be consistent with other studies (e.g. Dyck and
Smither, 1994; Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge, 2003) which found that less
computer experience of older employees may affect CSE and lead to lower
performance, as evidenced below:
I think user experience and age are very important issues. People are
categorised into older people and kids. Older people are less experienced
in using computers. They panic from using computers and they are very
anxious and resistant of trying new software, but kids are very eager to
use laptops and PCs.
[FGLP-3]
On the other hand, FGITTS-1 was not of the opinion that there is a
relationship between age, computer anxiety and performance. The same IT
technical staff argued that older people are not nervous any-more when
Page 4-5
using new technology because they realise that so many other people use
technology, as evidenced previously. Similarly, Kok et al. (1994) argued that
not all older people show declines in computer performance. Many older
individuals perform at levels equal to or better than the average performance
of younger people. These findings have important implications for
emphasising on older users‟ beliefs and attitudes towards new technology
during the different stages of the employee life cycle.
4.2.1.2 User gender

With regards to user gender, FGITTS-1 stated that males are more likely to
use technology, compared to females who are less likely to use technology.
This finding is consistent with those of Venkatesh and Morris (2000) as well
as Venkatesh et al. (2003) who revealed that men users perceive technology
as being more useful and more easy to use, compared to women users.
Similarly, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) found that employees who
are male reported higher levels of IT usage. Conversely, FGITTS-4 argued
that historically male users do not have good typing skills. More specifically,
the secretarial tasks were predominantly carried out by female users. The
same IT technical staff noted that there are more female users working on
the IT help desk. To that end, FGITTS-2 as well as FGITTS-3 believed that
there is no relationship between user gender and people‟s reactions to
computers. They revealed that the proportion of male users is not higher than
that of female users.
4.2.1.3 User marital status

With regards to user marital status, PFGP-1 mentioned the relationship
between users‟ marital status and their computer usage. The same participant
implied that single users may have more time to use technology, compared
to other groups of users (e.g. married users). However, far too little attention
in the literature has been paid to the impact of user marital status on user
Page 4-6
ATTC and ICT usage. Thus, user marital status factor will not be tested in
the final model.
4.2.1.4 User education

User education, as outlined by FGCP-3, may have a positive impact on
computer usage. More educated users are able to use and interact with
computers easily, compared to users who are less educated. In this regard,
Pijpers and Montfort (2005) found a positive relationship between user
education and computer usage. They maintained that the more educated
users are, the more likely they are to use technology. However, the evidence
for this relationship is inconclusive in previous studies. Thus, user education
factor will not be tested in the final model.
4.2.1.5 Computing experience

With regards to computing experience, most participants (e.g. PFGP-3;
FGAP-1; FGAP-5) mentioned the effect of computing experience on user
satisfaction. More specifically, they declared that users with high computing
experiences are more likely to be satisfied when using technology. Similarly,
Al-Gahtani and King (1999) implied that end-user computing experience is
an external variable that affects end-user satisfaction, as follows:
I think satisfaction depends on user experience. If it is positive or negative
experience, it would colour the way that they view technology in the
future. If they have a positive first experience, they will consider the
technology as a tool to help them with the tasks. If they have a negative
first experience, they will consider the technology as getting in the way of
the tasks.
[PFGP-3]
In addition, FGITTS-2 and FGITTS-3 mentioned the relationship between

computing experience and user ATTC. They pointed out that more
experienced users are more likely to accept and use new computer systems,
as demonstrated in the following quote:
Page 4-7
I think the more experience you have got with computers, the bigger the
universe of things to try is. You know if you never use a drag and drop
type application and do not have the knowledge of these facilities; you will
not try to use this type.
[FGITTS-3]
Moreover, several participants (PFGP-3; FGAP-5; FGAP-1; FGLP-1;

FGITTS-2) mentioned the effect of computing experience on CSE. They
were of the opinion that users with high computing experiences are more
likely to perform a computer task easily (high CSE). This supports previous
research (e.g. Solberg, 1998; Sheng, Pearson and Crosby, 2003). They found
that computing experience is positively impact CSE and, in turn, job
outcomes, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Yeah, I become like the user in the photo B [dissatisfied] when I do not
know what I am doing, when I do not have the facilities to do it, when the
reports I need are not available in the package, when I am waiting for a
long time to get it. I become like the user in the photo A [satisfied] when
ICT is doing what I need, when I have enough experience to do it.
[FGAP-5]
On the other hand, FGITTS-3 was of the opinion that there is no relationship
between computing experience and CSE. The same IT technical staff
claimed that some people are very experienced at doing their jobs with
computers but they could not able to change the way of doing things, as
demonstrated in the following quote:
I think it is the kind of computing experience that the user has got. Some
people learn to do things in a particular way and cannot generalise that
when they face a problem. If some person has always accessed a
particular file in a particular place in a particular way and that file moved
to some where else he/she does not know how to go and find it. People
could be experienced but not actually understand what they are doing.
Their knowledge is very much 'parrot fashion' and 'prescriptive'. So this is
important. But just because somebody is very experienced at doing his/her
job with computers for the last ten years and when he/she changes the way
of doing the things it would be completely lost. Where there could be
somebody using computers for only a couple of years and he/she could
easily change the way of doing the things because he/she understands the
logic of computers.
[FGITTS-3]
Page 4-8
Moreover, FGITTS-2 and FGITTS-3 revealed the relationship between

computing experience and computer anxiety. They were of the opinion that
some people are more anxious when using computers because they do not
have the knowledge to use new computer systems and the old computer
system, with which they are familiar, may be obsolete, as demonstrated in
the following quote:
It was an epiphany for me when I started here. I did an upgrade to the
payroll system. I had never done this before on my own and I was a bit
nervous. I was worried but my supervisor said 'do not worry about it, that
is what back up system is there for'. I mean my supervisor directed me in
an excellent way.
[FGITTS-3]
Furthermore, several participants (e.g. PFGP-1; FGLP-1; FGAP-1) revealed

the relationship between computing experience and ICT usage. More
specifically, they mentioned that positive computing experience may reduce
the work errors and may facilitate using computers effectively. This finding
is in agreement with Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris‟s (2005) findings which
showed that the end-user computing experience has a positive impact on ICT
usage. Added to that, FGCP-2 and FGFAP-2 revealed that computing
experience affects user performance. In particular, they declared that
computer experience may improve the work quality and decision making.
This result is consistent with the literature that supports this relationship
(Lee, Chung and Kim, 2004). Therefore, there should be a clear focus on
user experience, as follows:
I think, user in the photo A [satisfied] would like to work with computers
because it is beneficial for him. If the user has enough computing
experience, the computer will do what he wants to do.
[FGLP-1]
4.2.1.6 Attitude towards technology change (Technology acceptance)

Several participants (PFGP-1; PFGP-2; FGFAP-1) mentioned the impact of
user ATTC on ICT usage. More specifically, PFGP-1 stated that employees
Page 4-9
and managers as well may resist technology change and may not want to
move from paper-based work to technology as a result of their negative
ATTC. In this regard, FGITTS-1 mentioned that people, with a positive
ATTC, believe that change is good for them and will add to their knowledge
and experience. On the other hand, people, with a negative ATTC, become
more anxious of breaking something in the new system. There are
similarities between these findings and those described by Ashman et al.
(2003) and Venkatesh et al. (2003), as illustrated in the following quotes:
I think most users’ problems are related to their habits. Last time I went to
Tesco Supermarket. I found only two cashiers and a long, long queue of
customers and no-one of the customers was interested to use the automatic
cash machine. People preferred to wait for a long time rather than using
technology.
[PFGP-2]
I think it is a tolerance issue. Some people I mean take new software

change well. You see massive tolerance just for poking around corners to
find out how the new system works. If they have to, they spend hours you
know to find what they need from the new system and they always can do
that. Other people could not do that because they have different tolerance
of change.
[FGITTS-3]
Furthermore, several participants (PFGP-3; FGLP-3; FGITTS-1) mentioned

the effect of negative user ATTC on computer anxiety. More specifically,
FGITTS-2 stated that when people are little subjective to the use of ICT,
there is a lot of computer anxiety in that situation. Similarly, FGITTS-3
demonstrated that people may be more anxious when the computer system
changes from one package to another because they may have a negative
ATTC, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Some people may be little subjective to the use of ICT. These users may
have not had any involvement through the implementation of ICT. They
may use ICT with no previous experience. There is a lot of computer
anxiety in that situation.
[FGITTS-2]
Page 4-10
Equally important is organisational support which may affect user ATTC, as

outlined by most participants. In particular, PFGP-3; FGAP-2; FGFAP-2 as
well as FGITTS-2 reported that user training, participation in the system
design and empowerment encourage user to accept new technology (positive
ATTC). They were of the opinion that if users are participated in the system
design and if they are trained and empowered to take decisions, they are
more likely to accept and use new technology. Added to that, PFGP-3
claimed that users and organisations may accept new technology for
financial, operational or competitive edge benefits, as illustrated in the
following quote:
Certain employees within an organisation are reluctant to use computers.
They do not understand how computers are relevant to their tasks, where
their focus is more on the practical elements and experience. However
they just need to be shown how computers can work for them to be
creative, how they can use technology better. User training and user
experience and practice of technology are important factors.
[PFGP-3]
In addition, system attributes, as emerged by most focus group participants,

is another important factor that determines user acceptance of the new
technology. More specifically, FGAP-1; FGAP-2 as well as FGFAP-2
pointed that users, with a positive perception of the new system (e.g. ease of
use, usefulness, enjoyment), are more likely to accept and use this system (a
positive ATTC). More specifically, FGAP-1 stated that “CRM system
enhances the work because it is easy to use, provides the information users
need, users are interested and accept to use this system”. There are
similarities between this result and those of Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw
(1989) who mentioned that computer acceptance and usage are determined
by user behavioural intention (BI), user attitude towards using the system
(A), system usefulness and ease of system use.
Page 4-11
Added to that, FGLP-1 was of the opinion that users who perceive the new
system as compatible with their tasks, are more likely to accept and use this
system (positive ATTC). He stated that “people may refuse to use
technology, if technology is not working for them. They may prefer to do
jobs manually rather than using technology”. This finding is consistent with
those of Goodhue and Thompson (1995) who claimed that the technology
will have a positive impact on individual performance and satisfaction if it is
well utilised and fitted well with the task it supports. In other words, if the
individuals find that the technology can help them perform well, they will
perceive it as useful and important to them. The evidence from these
findings suggests that organisations have to clearly focus on user ATTC in
the different stages of employee life cycle.
4.2.1.7 Computing self-efficacy

Computing self-efficacy (CSE) has been described by participants as an
important factor for using computers effectively. More specifically, several
participants (PFGP-5; FGLP-2; FGLP-3; FGAP-1; FGITTS-3) mentioned
the relationship between CSE and user ATTC. They were of the opinion that
if users have high confidence of their technical ability to perform a
computing task, they are more likely to use computers effectively. This
finding is consistent with those of Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) as
well as Lam, Cho and Qu (2007) who claimed that CSE has a positive
impact on user attitude and behaviour intention to use ICT and in turn, ICT
usage. More specifically, researchers have demonstrated that CSE influences
the acquisition of new computer skills (Ertmer et al., 1994) as well as the
willingness to use computers (Henry and Stone, 1995), as follows:
We have people coming in to us very few people you know and especially
through agency obviously. We did have one, Richard. He seated entering
the invoices on the system. I said something ‘can you email these things to
me’. He said ‘I do not email’. I just did not believe it. He had some IT
basic skills and need repeated instruction. A person who came from an
Page 4-12
agency with no email skills, no spreadsheet skills. I just think oh, he had
difficulties on answer the phone.
[FGFAP-2]
In addition, the participants mentioned the effect of CSE on user satisfaction.

In particular, most focus group participants (e.g. PFGP-2; FGAP-1; FGFAP-
2 and FGITTS-3) believed that a high level of user‟s confidence of his/her
ability to learn or to perform a computing task may affect his/her
satisfaction. FGLP-3 stated that “users may throw computers from the
window when computers are not working, are not accurate and when they do
not know how to use them”. This is consistent with previously published
results (e.g. McDonald and Siegall, 1992). Most participants mentioned the
relationship between CSE and performance. More specifically, participants
have implied that CSE influences computer creativity (PFGP-3) as well as
the decision-making performance (FGAP-5) and other job outcomes, such as
productivity and service quality (FGCP-2). Similarly, Stajkovic and Luthans
(1998) demonstrated a positive relationship between CSE and computer-
related outcomes. Furthermore, Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) revealed that
CSE affects the individual decision-making performance.
Conversely, several participants (PFGP-3; FGAP-1; FGLP-1; FGITTS-2;

FGITTS-3) were of the opinion that there is an imposed relationship
between CSE and computer anxiety. A high level of CSE has been
mentioned to be negatively associated to computer anxiety. They revealed
that users who experience a high level of CSE are less likely to be anxious
when using computers. This is consistent with those of Thatcher and Perrew
(2002) who mentioned a negative relationship between CSE and computer
anxiety. They maintained that people with higher CSE experienced lower
levels of physical disabilities, pain and anxiety, as evidenced in the
following quotes:
If errors happen, you lose your control, you do not have group of experts,
generally online or telephone support, is not easily available. You are
dealing with a complex piece of technology, once it goes wrong, you are
Page 4-13
suddenly out of control you would have huge frustration even at work or at
home situation and you do not know how to solve the error. So I think all
of that comes down to the issue of personal control, once something
happen you will lose this control and become very very frustrated.
[PFGP-3]
There is a huge difference between different kinds of users. There are

some users who make massive changes to the systems and there are some
users who only word process documents. The level of computer anxiety is
a reflection of the user's level of confidence that what it is. Users who
normally word process documents would be gibbering at the prospect of
making changes to the system, in the way that other users do.
[FGITTS-3]
Furthermore, FGITTS-3 mentioned the effect of CSE on user decision

making. The same IT technical staff believed that users who are confident to
perform a computing task are more likely to take correct decisions. Besides,
FGITTS-1 and FGITTS-2 mentioned an imposed relationship between CSE
and user empowerment. They claimed that users who have a high CSE are
more likely to be empowered by their management, as evidenced below:
User empowerment can be very useful especially when you get a scenario
where you have empowered users within a section. So if there are errors
come up they may will be a person say 'oh yeah I know how to solve this
problem'. So it is a sort of prevention. These users do not necessary
contact IT help desk immediately to find out what is the cause of the
problem. These users got some knowledge, tutor experience and so you
know they can deal with problems.
[FGITTS-2]
To that end, participants identified particular ways to enhance users CSE.

More specifically, PFGP-5; FGLP-3 as well as FGAP-5 reported that
support from IT technical staff increases users‟ technical abilities and in
turns, their willingness to use and interact with technology. Further, FGAP-5
and FGCP2 mentioned the importance of user training to improve user CSE.
In a similar vein, FGLP-1 stated that positive organisational culture (e.g.
support from managers and colleagues to use technology) enhances user
CSE. Also, FGAP-1 and FGAP-4 mentioned imposed relationship between
user self-learning and user CSE. More specifically, FGAP-4 stated that “I
Page 4-14
have trained by myself over the years to get the knowledge and skills to use
spreadsheet and to be confident when using technology”. These findings
have important implications for developing effective training programme
focused on users‟ beliefs besides their technical abilities.
4.2.1.8 Computing anxiety

With regards to computing anxiety, several participants (e.g. PFGP-2;
PFGP-3; PFGP-5; FGLP-3; FGCP-2) mentioned the effect of computing
anxiety on user ATTC. They were of the opinion that users who are more
anxious are more reluctant to use new technology. This is consistent with
those of Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) who maintained that the end-user
computing anxiety is a negative affective reaction towards computer use and
subsequent on performance. Further, Huuhtanen and Leino (1992) showed
that people react to technological change differently depending on whether
they perceive the change as an opportunity or threat, as below:
The computing anxiety is interesting to me in some ways. I mean some of
my users get slightly very anxious because what they doing are not for
leisure and there may be a change in something. The change they make
could affect the whole network. So, sometimes they are a little bit anxious
about that.
[FGITTS-1]
Furthermore, several participants (PFGP-3; FGAP-1; FGAP-1) reported the

effect of computer anxiety on CSE. A high level of computing anxiety has
been mentioned to be negatively associated to CSE. More specifically,
FGITTS-4 stated that some people are more anxious when using computer
systems because they may not have the technical skills to perform tasks
using these computer systems. Similarly, FGITTS-3 believed that the level
of computing anxiety is a reflection of the user‟s level of confidence to
perform a task using computer. This finding supports the idea of Thatcher
and Perrew (2002) who mentioned a negative relationship between CSE and
computing anxiety. However, FGITTS-2 stated that users might be
proficient in the use of a computer system and therefore blame the computer
Page 4-15
system itself for any problems, rather than considering problems within their
role as the user, as follows:
You get two levels within computing anxiety because you might be
proficient in the use of an operating system and then you can blame a
specific package. But if a student was in front of me with a problem I
would be anxious because I would not have the knowledge.
[FGITTS-2]
In addition, several IT technical staff (FGITTS-1; FGITTS-3; FGITTS-4)

mentioned the relationship between the organisational culture and computing
anxiety. They mentioned that positive organisational culture towards IT (e.g.
support from peers and superiors) leads to less computing anxiety, as
evidenced in the following quote:
They do not want to do anything. They just want to carry and do a great
job and do not want anything with us because they do not really
understand the dark art; it is still the dark art. IT in most organisations it
is still the dark art and it is a scary thing to be around. They want us to
stay at arm’s length doing the great job. But I think that has changed. It is
much better than what used to be. But it is still very much there. I think
one of differences is that IT is as a barrier breakdown. Organisations have
to emphasis on more involvement.
[FGITTS-4]
Further, FGLP-1 as well as FGLP-3 mentioned the impact of IT department

on the level of computing anxiety. They were of the opinion that users who
have an adequate technical support from their IT department experience less
levels of computing anxiety. FGLP-3 said that “if there is no help from IT
department, users may be horrible or panic when using the system”.
In addition, FGAP-1; FGAP-2 as well as FGITTS-2 noted the effect of user

participation and involvement in the system design on user computing
anxiety. Computing anxiety has been shown to be negatively related to user
participation and involvement in the system design. They were of the
opinion that if users‟ needs and requirements are met in the system design,
users may be less anxious after implementing the new system. FGAP-1 said
Page 4-16
that “if the developers and organisations ignore users' needs, users will be
frustrated”.
Equally important, FGITTS-2 reported the effect of IT training on the level

of user‟s computing anxiety. The same IT technical staff stated that IT
training may help users to know how to use the computer system and, in
turn, they would be less anxious, as evidenced in the following quote:
Really it a case of some of users who are already too frightened in case
they break something on a computer. It is really about trying to get across
to them that they won’t break it. We gave them a managed desktop in a
training session and said ‘have a go because you cannot break it’. They
worry because they have computers at home and they might stumble into
an area to read some files and break the computer. You cannot do that
within this system. It is almost the case that they are working within
boundaries and they won’t move away from those boundaries as they
might break something. It is not likely to happen.
[FGITTS-2]
To that end, FGLP-2; FGLP-3 and FGITTS-1 reported the effect of system
attributes (e.g. ease of system use; system usefulness) on computing anxiety.
It has been mentioned that computing anxiety is negatively associated to
ease of system use and system usefulness. The same participants declared
hat if the system is easy to use and useful, users may be less anxious when
using this system, as illustrated in the following quote:
I think the user in the photo B [disappointed] got very frustrated when the
computer systems go down and he goes back to do everything manually. It
takes a long time. If the new system is not easy to use, users may be
frustrated.
[FGLP-2]
An implication of these findings is that technical support from IT

department, user participation and involvement, user training and ease of
system use should be taken into account when designing new computer
system.
Page 4-17
4.2.1.9 User involvement in the system development

A small number of participants (PFGP-5; FGLP-2; FGITTS-3) reported that
software developers have to design new systems to accommodate users‟
perceptions of new systems, namely perceived importance and personal
relevance. More specifically, FGLP-3 suggested that organisations should
make a full analysis of new systems, in terms of potential users‟
characteristics, e.g. age and computer experience (personal relevance) and in
terms of system characteristics, e.g. ease of use and usefulness (system
importance). This finding is consistent with previously published results
(Barki and Hartwick, 1994; Hartwick and Barki, 1994), as outlined in the
following quotes:
Ideally, organisations should consider the output required before you start
design the system and then work backwards. I think, organisations should
actually design and develop the system, putting in their consideration, first
what people need? in terms of system quality, in terms of ease of system
and in terms of usefulness. One organisation, I know has a phrase 'quick
and dirty solution' this means the solution of the system may not fit their
exact requirements but it is cheap and quick.
[PFGP-3]
4.2.2 Organisational traits

There are some factors related to organisations that influence users
performance and satisfaction, namely user participation in the system
development, IT training, IT support, social influence (subjective norms) and
user empowerment. These factors emerged from transcribing focus group
data, as follows:
4.2.2.1 Participation in the system development

With regards to user participation in the system design, several participants
(PFGP-3; FGCP-3; FGAP-1; FGAP-3; FGFAP-2) mentioned that user
participation in the system design is a prerequisite stage in the system
development. In this regard, PFGP-5; FGLP-2 as well as FGITTS-3 revealed
Page 4-18
that software developers have to design new systems to accommodate users‟

needs, requirements, preferences and capabilities. This finding is in
agreement with Power‟s (2004) findings which showed that the development
of a participative culture coupled with the involvement of employees, will be
more effective than solely focusing on the capabilities of the technologies, as
Yeah, in designing a new system, software developers have two choices:
having an answer in the head (developers’ preferences) and having an
answer in the world (users’ preferences). If the answer is in the world, that
is a good user interface system. Software developers do not have to have
answers in the head. But if you want really to do something very powerful
have to meet users’ requirements in the new system. So it is the type of
users that directs software developers in designing new system. For
example when expected users are experts, software developers have to find
interface solutions for this type of user.
[FGITTS-3]
In addition, FGFAP-2 recommended that, before implementing the actual

new system, organisations may run a demo system for a particular time (in
this case, six months) in order to reveal the new system characteristics and to
gain the users‟ feedback of this system. More specifically, the same
participants identified two ways of user participation. Firstly, potential users
may be responsible for selecting the new system (overall responsibility).
Secondly, users may approve the work of the IT department during various
stages of information system development (user-IS relationship). These
findings are consistent with previously published results (Hartwick and
Barki, 1994). However, far too little attention has been paid by participants
to the hands-on activities performed by users during the information system
development, for example when users design a user training programme.
The procedures of user participation are shown in the following quote:
Yeah, I mean when we were looking at new systems, I think there were lots
of companies may be ten and I think we looked at six or seven seriously.
They did presentations, we went out to the various uses of the different
systems and obviously IT people were involved in that. I actually went to
some site visits. It was the people who will be involved with the system. We
Page 4-19
went out looking at the system. It was a necessary management decision

and people from human resource (HR), they were very much involved. So
the sort of people who gonna to be using the new system were involved. IT
honestly had a big input on it obviously, it depends what they [IT people]
could do from the other side of things and what the new system could do
for us and how they interact with the system they already got.
[FGFAP-1]
Furthermore, some participants mentioned the benefits of user participation

in the new system design. More specifically, FGAP-2; FGFAP-2 as well as
FGITTS-2 pointed that user participation has positive impacts on the work
outcomes. They were of the opinion that if users are participated in the new
system design, they will be more interested in this system, more satisfied and
subsequently more productive. These results are consistent with those of
Power (2004) who maintained that user participation and involvement in
ICT design leads to performance improvements and as a result provides an
intangible source for competitive advantage. In particular, other researchers
mentioned user satisfaction (Wilson et al., 1997) as well as user acceptance
(Foster and Franz, 1999) and other involvement benefits, such as improved
decision-making and improved quality (Kujala, 2003), as below:
If you are running a restaurant and want to implement a new system, think
of staff involvement in assessing and choosing systems, to know what the
system do for them. If they feel that they are a part of the decisions and
have a sense of ownership and empowerment, they are likely to be much
more positive about this application and use in the future, much more
positive. It comes out to participation, It comes out to involvement, it
comes out to managing expectations, it comes out to ownership.
[PFGP-3]
Besides, FGITTS-1 revealed that when users are quite participated in the
new system design, they are more likely to defend it and to be more
involved. Further, PFGP-5 claimed that if users are participated in the
system design, they will be more able to learn, understand and use the new
system effectively. These findings further support Barki and Hartwick‟s
(1994) findings which showed that users who are active in the system
development process (i.e. users who are highly participated) are quite likely
Page 4-20
to develop beliefs that the system is both important and personally relevant
(i.e. users who are highly involved), as demonstrated below:
In the system development phase, new systems should be bespoke,
specially designed to meet the task requirements and users capabilities
and needs. Thus, employees are involved on this phase.
[FGAP-1]
In addition, most IT technical staff (FGITTS-1; FGITTS-3; FGITTS-4)

mentioned that, in most cases, potential users participate in the design
process of the new system. Thus, users can make suggestions for the new
system. However, most IT technical staff argued that there is a schism
between what IT department does and what middle management do. They
declared that the middle management do not want users to be participated
any-more because users do not understand the nature of IT. Further, the IT
technical staff declared that middle management believe they can just
commission an item of software and then that is the end of user participation
in the system development. As a result users are struggling when using the
new system:
It is almost like a buying thing. They (Middle management) say 'we want
this, this and this' but they are not prepared to buy into it themselves. They
are not prepared to put the effort in themselves. They do not want to
engage IT users in the development process.
[FGITTS-1]
To that end, PFGP-1 believed that if organisations implement a new system

without allowing their employees to participate in the new system design,
technology will be from one side and as a result will have negative impacts
on users. In this case, FGAP-1 as well as FGITTS-2 revealed that if system
developers and organisations ignore users‟ needs in system design, users will
be frustrated, anxious, resistant to change and reluctant to use the new
system. There are similarities between these results and those described by
Clegg et al. (1997) and Wilson et al. (1997), as evidenced below:
It was not say the best system. I found it a real struggle. It is all purchase.
We were shoved in without consultation, but the system was not
Page 4-21
appropriate. It was not lending itself to us, but it has changed. It is better
than it was. You get to learn and know the system. We have had many
upsets through the years to alleviate, but it was based on the purchase
side.
[FGFAP-2]
An implication of these findings is that both user participation and user

involvement in the new system design should be taken into account when
designing new systems. Further, more hands-on activities should be made
available to users during information system development.
4.2.2.2 IT training
User training has received considerable critical attentions amongst most
focus group participants. More specifically, PFGLP-1 as well as FGLP-1
mentioned the effect of user training on ICT usage. They revealed that user
training has positive impacts on ICT usage and subsequently on user
satisfaction and performance. Similarly, several researches (Gallivan, Spitler
and Koufaris, 2005; Marler, Liang and Dulebohn, 2006; Stone, Good and
Baker-Eveleth, 2006) showed that ICT training improves end-users‟
perception of the system‟s ease of use. This eventually has a positive
influence on the perceived performance and end-user satisfaction:
If you have the right training, if you have the right experience that gives
you control over that box, [computer] once you have a control, once you
know what you are doing, once you can use the software you want, you
will feel satisfied.
[PFGP-3]
With regards to the user training benefits, PFGP-3; FGLP-2 together with
FGITTS-2 pointed that user training increases users‟ understanding of the
reasons and benefits of applying new systems. Further, FGLP-3 as well as
FGAP-4 believed that user training improves users‟ IT skills and increases
their willingness and intention to use the new system. Also, FGITTS-3 and
FGITTS-4 pointed that user training increases user computing experience.
These initial findings are in agreement with Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris‟s
Page 4-22
(2005) findings which showed that ICT training is a key ingredient for
successful implementation and user acceptance of new technology. To that
end, FGITTS-4 mentioned the benefits of IT training, as follows:
In the last five years, we recognise the importance of the IT training. We
need to get the most users to a certain level of education of knowledge to
enable them to use the system. We do learning, we do that. We run a
development IT training on the computer backgrounds.
[FGITTS-4]
In addition, PFGP-1 and PFGP-2 claimed that training changes users‟

attitude and habits towards using new technology. Similarly, Marler, Liang
and Dulebohn (2006) found that user training facilitates employees‟
intention to use the system prior to implementation. Equally important,
PFGP-1 as well as PFGP-3 were of the opinion that user training improves
service quality and manages customer expectations. Further, PFGP-5 pointed
that if users are not trained well to use the new computer system, they will
face a lot of problems. To that end, FGCP-2 revealed that user training
corrects users‟ mistakes and reduces customer complaints, as below:
Yeah, it is a case of necessity. You have to adapt, or you think a part of the
work is adapting to this new system. The new system was brought in and
we were trained on that. The problem was sorted out, you do not have a
choice to use it, you have to learn about how to use it. We did not know
what was going on, to be quite honest, we had to use it. Training is
important.
[FGFAP-2]
Moreover, FGAP-5 and FGAP-1 implied that organisations have to do off-

job and on-job training for every potential user of the new system. However,
Law and Jogaratnam (2005) revealed that most ICT training happens on the
job; as a result skills are passed over from one employee to another in an
unstructured manner, which easily leads to inconsistent standards of ICT
utilisation. Further, FGAP-1 and FGFAP-2 mentioned that organisations
may provide training for users on a particular package and training on
computer skills, e.g. international computer driving license training. In this
Page 4-23
regard, FGLP-2 suggested that trainers have to concentrate on the databases

that are relevant and necessary to users‟ work. Similarly, FGITTS-2 revealed
that IT training has to cover everything related to the new system, as below:
Yeah, new people do not know what is expected from them, but they get
backup and training and organisation allowed for them not just in-house
training, but training exercises on an IT basis or whatever to allow for
them to know how to use the finance system.
[FGAP-5]
In addition, FGCP-3 pointed that organisations should do training sessions

for their users on a frequent basis. However, FGAP-5 argued that
experienced users are not in need to have more training sessions, compared
to other users who have less computing experience. Further, FGITTS-2
revealed that the IT department takes the decision to provide IT training on a
particular piece of software when users face more problems with this
software. However, FGITTS-4 argued that when there are common
problems with particular software, it is an indication of technical problems
rather than an indication of users requiring training on the software, e.g.
problems of password change. To that end, FGITTS-4 stated that it is easy to
get IT training at the beginning of the system implementation. Similarly,
Clegg et al. (1997) mentioned that ICT training is often provided after the
system is in operation:
I have training on the new system before the implementation stage. The
trainer was pretty good, but the training was once a while. I cannot
remember anything. I need to use the system continuously to get it
right. Training is very important, not just a few hours of training. We
should have our training session, everyday of the week, every week of the
month. It would be fine to reduce and correct users’ mistakes and to make
the tasks easy.
[FGCP-1]
On the other hand, most IT technical staff mentioned that there are a lot of
barriers confronting IT training. More specifically, FGITTS-4 pointed that
there is a gap between what users need from the IT training and what IT
department provides to users. The same IT technical staff also implied that
Page 4-24
there is a small number of IT trainers. In this regard, FGITTS-3 stated that,

in some cases, there is no-one who can train users to use the new computer
system because it may be a new approach. In a similar vein, FGITTS-1
believed that most problems of the IT training come down to the training
cost because IT training is very expensive. The same IT technical staff
suggested that organisations need to consider that users‟ training is a part of
the new system initial cost. This is consistent with previously-published
results (e.g. Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005):
The problem here - and it is just picking up now, we are starting to do
something about the problem of lack of training - when I first came here
we had quite a lot of training. That has stopped and disappeared. There
are a few number of IT trainers. In the main time we see a gap between
what users need and what we provide.
[FGITTS-4]
To that end, IT technical staff mentioned some ways to increase the

effectiveness of IT training. More specifically, FGITTS-4 stated that IT
departments may provide IT training courses on the website to be available
to users at all times. Further, FGITTS-2 mentioned that the help desk
operators may encourage users to undertake a training course in particular
software. Also, FGFAP-2; FGITTS-2 as well as FGITTS-3 pointed that the
new software package tutors may help users to find what they need. These
findings have important implications for developing on-job and off-job
training on a frequent basis, as evidenced in the following quote:
There may be IT training courses for a particular application. The IT help
desk operator will say ok. You have a couple of courses with the
application. You actually undertake any training. That is an example. You
know that could be a suggestion from the help desk operator 'use the link
and have a look there are free IT courses running x, y and z' and that
would affect their preferences in IT training courses.
[FGITTS-2]
Page 4-25
4.2.2.3 IT support
Support from technical IT staff and suitable technological IT resources (e.g.
hardware and software) are the most important aspects of IT support as
outlined by most participants. More specifically, FGLP-1 as well as FGAP-5
mentioned that technical IT staff help and show users how to use computers
effectively. Added to that, PFGP-3 and FGLP-2 mentioned that technical IT
staff resolve computer problems. Further, FGITTS-3 stated that IT
departments tell users how to use the computer system. To that end,
FGITTS-4 implied that IT departments help users to know more about the
computer system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We did have one problem yesterday actually. It was quite late about four
clock. The computer system was not logged on. We rang the IT department
and explained the problem for them, within probably half an hour the
problem was sorted. They sorted it pretty quickly.
[FGFAP-1]
Furthermore, PFGP-3 and PFGP-5 implied that support from technical IT

staff has positive impacts on user satisfaction and performance. This is
consistent with previously published results (e.g. Al-Gahtani and King,
1999; Chung and Kim, 2004). In a similar vein, several studies (e.g. Mata,
Fuerst and Barney, 1995; Bharadwaj, 2000; Santhanam and Hartono, 2003)
showed that human ICT resources have been posited to confer not only
operational performance improvements such as productivity but also
competitive advantage.
Added to that, FGLP-1 as well as FGAP-5 identified particular benefits of

technical IT staff support, as follows: (1) support from technical IT staff
increases users‟ understanding of how to use computer systems effectively,
(2) support from technical IT staff reduces system problems, (3) support
from technical IT staff improves users decision making and (4) support from
technical IT staff improves customer service. These initial findings are in
agreement with previously-published results (e.g. Thompson, Higgins and
Page 4-26
Howell, 1991; 1994; Taylor and Todd, 1995; Venkatesh et al., 2003; Huang
and Chuang, 2007; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009). In contrast, FGFAP-1 and
FGLP-3 believed that if there is no help or support from IT department,
users are more likely to be frustrated, impatient or panic when using
technology, as outlined in the following quote:
When there is no support from the IT department, I am finding it very
frustrating. IT department do not like you to have control over your
desktop settings and software. If somebody knows about computers, he/she
becomes very frustrating.
[PFGP-3]
Some of the IT technical staff identified the obstacles confronting IT

departments. More specifically, FGITTS-3 revealed that, some times, there
is a conflict between IT department and middle management concerning the
requirements of new systems. Further, FGITTS-2 stated that, in some cases,
the IT department staff are not qualified enough to deal with users problems.
In this case, IT department staff take common actions with various types of
computer problems, as evidenced in the following quote:
The IT support groups I have worked with in the past have the same ten
stock actions that they try on everything, you know, whatever the problem
was and they just try it because they probably should not be working in IT.
I used to be a car mechanic and we did the same things with cars. IT
support seems to be turn off and reboot your computer. There might be
other more finite actions that you could take which would achieve the
same results, but it would not cover such multitude of situations.
[FGITTS-2]
Moreover, the IT technical staff identified two types of IT support: internal

IT support and external IT support. The internal IT support is the support
from the IT department and the external IT support is the support from an IT
external provider. In this regard, FGITTS-3 believed that users are more
cooperative with the external IT support than the internal IT support.
Similarly, FGITTS-2 stated that users believed that the internal IT support is
cheaper with regard to cost and service, compared to the external IT support.
However, FGITTS-3 claimed that the external IT support may cause user
Page 4-27
problems. In this case, if something goes wrong, users directly go to IT

department staff who could not solve user problems because they are not
involved anymore:
Internal IT support is seen as cheap, cheap in every sense. Where as
external is not. The IT users think that, even though it is in fact the exact
opposite.
[FGITTS-4]
In addition, FGFAP-1; PFGP-3 as well as FGLP-2 outlined that technical IT

staff may support users through online support, telephone advice or they
may come down and solve computer problems. In this regard, FGFAP-2 and
FGLP-1 reported that technical IT staff have to sort computer problems very
quickly. In a similar vein, FGLP-3 pointed that a suitable number of
technical IT staff has to be available to help users on time. To that end,
FGITTS-2 and FGITTS-4 pointed that the IT help desk provides user
support on time. However, FGITTS-3 revealed that when a problem arises
with a computer, users are very reluctant to go down to official IT help desk:
The payroll system that we use, we got an IT help desk with the system as
well. So we do use this when we are not expert at IT matters. They solved
things quickly. The IT people located in the Midlands, we just telephone or
email them, they respond to the call quickly. Actually the IT help desk is
very good. We got the problem sorted.
[FGFAP-1]
To that end, most participants implied that proper, suitable and updated
technological IT resources (hardware and software) are another aspect of
organisational IT support. In this regard, several participants (e.g. PFGP-5;
FGLP-1 and FGCP-2) maintained that technological IT resources have a
positive impact on user satisfaction and performance. In this regard, several
researches (e.g. Siegel, 1997; Bharadwaj, Bharadwaj and Konsynski, 1999;
Lehr and Lichtenberg, 1999; Hitt, Wu and Zhou, 2002) found a positive
association between aggregate measures of the technological ICT resources
and organisational performance. More specifically, Thompson, Higgins and
Howell (1991) reported that provision of support for users of personal
Page 4-28
computers, may be one type of facilitating conditions, can influence system

utilisation. Venkatesh et al. (2003) found a significant relationship between
facilitating conditions and ICT usage. Moreover, Lee, Chung and Kim
(2004) revealed that facilitating conditions affect the individual decision-
making performance, as outlined in the following quote:
I think of a working environment in terms of availability of suitable
technology tools from hardware and software, in terms of availability of
necessary information, in terms of help from IT staff.
[FGAP-1]
The initial focus group findings have important implications for

organisations to provide quick on-line IT support, proper and updated
technological IT resources and suitable numbers of IT technical staff.
4.2.2.4 Social factors (Subjective norms)

Most focus group participants implied that subjective norms may be more
important in their organisations because users may feel some social pressure
to use the IT. They also declared that social pressure for end-users
employees is likely to come from their organisational culture, their peers and
their superiors. With regards to organisational culture, FGITTS-2 stated that
the organisational culture towards IT is different from one organisation to
another. Some organisations depend so much on IT where most the job roles
involve the use of the PC (positive organisational culture towards IT).
However, other organisations depend only on the manual way of doing
things (negative organisational culture towards IT), as demonstrated in the
following quote:
There is one interesting thing is the way my organisation works. My
organisation prefers to work in a panic. So if you put forward to
development a particular requirement, it often gets ignored. But when
something goes wrong that needs to be done immediately. So, that tends to
be the way my organisation works ‘Fire-fighting culture’. They are
reactive not proactive.
[FGITTS-1]
Page 4-29
In addition, several participants (PFGP-5; FGAP-1; FGAP-5; FGITTS-4)

mentioned that positive organisational culture towards IT has positive
impacts on user satisfaction and subsequent on performance. More
specifically, FGAP-1 pointed that organisations should support their
employees during system development stage. More specifically, the same
participant explained how organisations can manage technology change and
support their employees during system design, as follows: (1) organisations
should change the culture of employees who will use the system, (2)
organisations should prepare their employees for the technology change and
(3) organisations should involve their employees in the decision making of
the new system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think my organisation likes IT to look after itself. It does not want to
know what IT is doing. It is transparency. You are doing a great job. We
give you money and you are keen to do this job. But the organisation does
not want to be involved any more than this. Every now and again they get
a governmental imperative or something like that which means we have do
this in safety, we have to do staff recovery in this area because we have
been told to. But we really do not want to do it; it is just that we have been
told to. We are happy with what you are doing. So they want to be
transparent and do not want to be involved. They do not want to do
anything. They just want to carry on and do a great job and do not want
anything with us because they do not really understand the dark art (IT).
[FGITTS-4]
Further, FGAP-5 added that organisations should manage the time scales of
technology change. Most participants maintained that organisational support
has to be extended after implementing the new system. In particular, PFGP-3
and PFGP-5 agreed that organisations should encourage and empower their
employees to learn and to use technology effectively. PFGP-5 summarised
how organisations plan for technology change, as follows:
If any hotel or organisation is gonna to apply certain technology, it has to
make a plan to it, how it is gonna to react to technology, how it is gonna to
train staff, how it is gonna to afford money to invest on technology and
how it is gonna to accommodate customer expectations.
[PFGP-5]
Page 4-30
Organisational social environment, as outlined by participants, is another

positive aspect of organisational culture. In this regard, PFGP-1; FGLP-1 as
well as FGAP-5 mentioned the effect of organisational social environment
on user satisfaction and performance. They were of the opinion that
organisational social environment has positive impacts on technology-
related outcomes. These initial findings are consistent with previously-
published results (e.g. Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen, 1991; Thompson,
Higgins and Howell, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1995; Venkatesh et al., 2003;
Huang and Chuang, 2007)), as evidenced below:
For that, organisations need to interact with their employees in a social
way, because I think, social factors will have a positive impact on
employees’ attitude to use the new technology.
[PFGP-1]
Meanwhile, participants argued that organisational resistance to change is a

negative aspect of organisational culture. In particular, PFGP-1 stated that
organisations may resist changing from paperwork to technology because of
their negative culture, change cost and time. More specifically, the same
participant stated that employees and managers as well may resist
technology change as a result of their negative culture and negative ATTC.
In this regard, FGITTS-3 believed that it would take a lot of work and time
to change the users‟ culture. In fact, Ashman et al. (2003) demonstrated that
new technology creates new demands and general stress for all employees
and employees with a positive ATTC may embrace new technology through
their thoughts, feelings and actions PFGP-3 added that organisational
resistance to change may come down to limited benefits of the change, e.g.
financial, operational or competitive edge benefits, as illustrated in the
following quote:
The problem, I think from a management perspective, the managers
always think about short term benefits, they do not think about long term
benefits. They do not apply new technology because its short benefits are
not so good. They can run their operations without any new technology.
[PFGP-1]
Page 4-31
Besides, poor technology management, as mentioned by participants, is

another negative aspect of organisational culture. In this regard, PFGP3 as
well as FGFAP2 believed that most employees‟ problems are related to
managing the culture around using the new technology. They pointed that
organisations may use new technology just as a habit like their competitors
and may not make a full exploitation of technology. More specifically,
FGFAP-2 stated that “people may not want to change the way they do
things, I mean, the management may not allow us to do what we want”
Further, PFGP-1 and PFGP-5 declared that inappropriate training on the new
system and negative management perceptions of the new technology are
other aspects of poor technology management, as demonstrated below:
Yeah, if the system has being doing the task in a particular way, we can do
it that way. You know, we get obstacles, the system can do things, but you
come across obstacles either the IT, or management. Yeah, I think so, you
may do things from one side.
[FGFAP-1]
Equally important, many participants (FGLP-1; FGAP-5; FGFAP-2;

FGITTS-2) mentioned that support from colleagues (peers) is an important
issue when learning to use new technology. They implied that the support
from colleagues has a positive impact on user satisfaction and in turn, user
performance. Similarly, Carmeli, Sternberg and Elizur (2008) mentioned the
importance of the end-user‟s interaction with co-workers, supervisors,
managers and ICT staff, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I did not have training. I trained myself, one of my colleagues show me the
basics of the system, how to do a receipt, how to do a breakfast menu, how
the sales work, how to use student card payments. It actually took five
minutes.
[FGCP-2]
To that end, most participants (e.g. FGLP-1; FGFAP-2; FGITTS-1) were of

the opinion that support from supervisors and middle management
(superiors) is another important issue when learning to use new technology.
They implied that the support from supervisors and middle management has
Page 4-32
a positive impact on user satisfaction and in turn, user performance. These

initial findings are consistent with previously-published results (e.g.
Carmeli, Sternberg and Elizur, 2008), as evidenced in the following quote:
All of this comes down to middle management. I mean when we (IT
department) develop the system, I mean the way we would like to develop
the system is to have users working with us to work out a specification to
look at things as they are going along. So users can make suggestions for
improvements before we exactly produce that system and so on. But, there
is a schism really between what we do and what middle management do.
[FGITTS-3]
4.2.2.5 User empowerment

A small number of participants reported that user empowerment has positive
impacts on technology-related outcomes, in particular user satisfaction and
performance. In this regard, PFGP3 implied that top management should
give their employees a sense of empowerment and ownership to use
computer systems. Further, the same participant was of the opinion that if
employees feel they are a part of management decisions and if they have a
sense of ownership and empowerment, they are likely to be more satisfied
and positive ATTC. In a similar vein, FGITTS-1 stated that empowered
users are more likely to defend and to trust the new system, as follows:
I mean obviously, payroll is a big area and the managers are very strict on
what we can and cannot do because of the aspect of money we deal with.
Mmh, I think we are limited on a lot of things we could do because of the
audit regulation around us. I think you know, rightly so, the management
is just covering themselves because a big area which looked at is payroll.
[FGFAP-1]
In addition, the IT technical staff mentioned the impact of empowerment on

user satisfaction. More specifically, FGITTS-4 stated that, in some cases,
users are not empowered to use the computer system and to take decisions
because their organisations do not really understand the nature of IT. In this
regard, FGITTS-3 revealed that, in this case, users are more likely to feel
unsatisfied when they are not empowered, as follows:
Page 4-33
If you look to that picture (unsatisfied user), the reason why people get feel
like that about computers is the feeling of lack of empowerment. It is an
error but I cannot do anything about it. Users do not understand what
causes, they do not know what to do about it and as a result the users stop
working. But the emotion you feel is not because of the problem. The
problems are all the times. But it is the problem and I could not solve it. It
is lack of empowerment. People do not like to feel unimportant.
[FGITTS-3]
Equally important, PFGP3 emphasised that organisations have to empower

and involve their employees in the service process. Added to that, FGAP-5
and PFGP-3 revealed that ICT gives opportunities to delegate decision
making to end-user employees because ICT provides information to every
one within the organisation. Further, FGAP-1 pointed that employees should
have the authority to make any change in the system design stage, as
I think, it is very good point, I think, in the electronic services customers
need to interact and speak with humans. I think, particularly where the
risk associated is high or if there is uncertainty, you need to put a human
back into the loop. I have a situation, when I was dealing with my credit
card electronically; it took about half an hour to find somebody to talk to
which was incredibly frustrating. So, system designers should involve
humans in the service process. When designing a system it is important to
incorporate opportunities to branch out to involve humans.
[PFGP-3]
On the other hand, FGITTS-4 reported that user empowerment may have
negative impacts on users and systems as well, when users are not able to
deal with computer problems. Thus, Bowen and Lawler (2006) maintained
that when technology constrains empowerment, managers can still support
end-user employees in ways that enhance their satisfaction and the service
quality they provide, as demonstrated in the following quote:
User empowerment is an important issue. But it really is not owned by our
people and in some cases several people. People in our organisation
really believe they are good at IT and the more they think they are good at
IT the worse they are. They can bring our system and services more
corruption.
[FGITTS-4]
Page 4-34
In addition, FGFAP-2 argued that, in most cases, top management as well as

technology limits user empowerment. This finding is consistent with those
of Bowen and Lawler (2006) who implied that technology limits employee
empowerment and involvement to only suggestions and ultimately may
almost remove individuals from the service delivery process, as below:
You know, I cannot take part, because I am on sales ledger, I cannot be
involved nor have an access to anything in the purchase side, and vice
versa. So you know you have that limitation on what your job is involved. I
cannot enter lots of things in one side. It is just part of the work what we
do.
[FGFAP-2]
To that end, some of the IT technical staff mentioned some requirements for
successful user empowerment. More specifically, FGITTS-1 and FGITTS-2
suggested that to empower users to use a particular computer system, users
have to get some knowledge and basic IT skills and as a result they can deal
with computer problems and take decisions. Similarly, FGITTS-2 declared
that user empowerment can be very useful especially when users get a
scenario to deal with computer problems. So if computer errors come up,
users will be able to solve these errors. The same IT technical staff implied
that if users acquire IT knowledge and can interact with computers, in turn,
they could deal with IT problems and take correct decisions.
Therefore, the initial focus group findings showed that far too little attention
has been paid by participants to the importance of user empowerment. Thus,
user empowerment factor will not be tested in the final model.
4.2.3 System traits

There are some factors related to computer systems, namely ease of system,
system usefulness, system compatibility (task-technology fit) and system
enjoyment. These factors emerged from transcribing the focus group data, as
follows:
Page 4-35
4.2.3.1 Ease of system

Ease of system has been mentioned by participants as an important feature of
the new system. More specifically, PFGP-4; FGLP-1 and FGAP-3
mentioned that ease of system use has positive impact on ICT usage. In this
regard, it has been found that there are significant relationships between
perceived ease of system use and user behaviour and intention to use the
system (Klopping and McKinney, 2004; Marler, Liang and Dulebohn, 2006;
Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007). Therefore, PFGP5 and FGLP-3 maintained that
software programmers should design new systems to meet users‟ needs and
capabilities and to be easy to learn and to use. Added to that, FGLP-3 and
FGAP-1 pointed that new systems should be simple, proper, user friendly,
easy to monitor and more flexible to be updated and changed, as illustrated
in the following quote:
It is so long now, the new system became easy. If you remember we have
got Dolphin system before and was replaced with Agresso system. The
Dolphin system was so gentile. Then Agresso it was aggressive. You know,
it was difficult compared to Dolphin, obviously we got used to use it and
working on it day in and day out. You know we go with the flow. Mmh,
whether another system will come in, not in my day, the people will just
get on with it and use it.
[FGFAP-2]
In addition, FGITTS-2 and FGITTS-4 declared that system developers try to

make a more user friendly systems and they take into account the sort of
technical knowledge that might be required to perform a certain computer
task. Similarly, FGITTS-3 believed that computer systems have to be easy to
use because most people are not experts in using interfaces. Further,
FGITTS-1 stated that software designers have to consider what users expect
from the system and not what designers prefer or want to do. To that end,
FGITTS-2 pointed that there is little to differentiate between computer
systems „much of a muchness‟ and as a result users can easily migrate from
one system another, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Page 4-36
Yeah, user friendly, some systems are easy to use. They try to take you to
where you think you need to be and give you the choice to tell you how to
perform a certain computer task. These systems are explicit systems.
[FGITTS-4]
Furthermore, PFGP-4; FGLP-1 and FGAP-3 mentioned the effect of ease of

system on technology-related outcomes. It has been shown that user
satisfaction and performance are positively related to ease of system. They
maintained that if the new system is user friendly and easy to use, users are
likely to be more satisfied and subsequently perform well. More specifically,
FGAP-3 stated that “when the computer seems to be easy, probably I will be
like the photo A [satisfied]”.In this regard, several researchers reported that
ease of system use has positive impacts on user attitude, ICT usage and user
satisfaction (Al-Gahtani and King, 1999) as well as user performance (Stone,
Good and Baker-Eveleth, 2006), as illustrated in the following quote:
Photo B [disappointed] is every day, and photo A [satisfied] is Friday.
When we first started with the Tell as a new system, we were always like
the user in the photo B, because this system has got different menus and
selections on there. We could not remember these menus and use the Tell
system effectively and there is always people waiting in along queue.
[FGCP-2]
In addition, PFGP-3; FGCP-1 and FGAP-1 mentioned that ease of system

has positive impacts on CSE and technology acceptance. They demonstrated
that if the new system is user friendly and easy to use, users are likely to be
more confident and interested to use the new technology, as mentioned by
Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989). On the other hand, PFGP3 and FGLP2
declared that computer anxiety is negatively related to ease of system. They
maintained that if the new system is quite complicated, users are likely to be
more anxious and frustrated, as mentioned in the following quote:
Yeah, we also face problems with Agresso system, another update comes
through like this particular thing here. You know it is wrong and it will be
sorted out, does it cost extra to put it right. Really we stick with it, we
cannot change it. It takes so much money to change it again. I think
Agresso system has been with us about ten years, and it is ok. We have got
Page 4-37
a lot of problems, we struggle with it, because it is little bit more

complicated.
[FGFAP-2]
To that end, FGCP-2 implied that ease of system is positively related to

computer experience. The same participant demonstrated that if users have a
high computing experience, the new system is likely to be easy to use.
Added to that, FGAP-5 mentioned that if the new system is easy to use, it is
quite easy to give users off- and on-the-job training. In this regard, several
researchers pointed that ICT training improves end-users‟ perception of the
system‟s ease of use and eventually positively influencing perceived
performance and end-user satisfaction (Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005;
Marler, Liang and Dulebohn, 2006; Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth, 2006).
Also, FGAP-5 believed that customer service is much improved, if computer
system is user friendly, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think from the computer system perspective, computer systems can give
more advantages to both users and organisations. If these systems are
most updated and fast and are easy to use. But if these systems are more
complicated no more advantages are given.
[FGAP-1]

As regards to system usefulness, several participants (PFGP-3; FGCP-1;
FGLP-2; FGAP-1; FGITTS-3) reported that system usefulness has positive
impacts on ICT usage. They demonstrated that if the new system is useful,
users are likely to use and interact with this system. In this regard, it has
been found significant relationships between perceived usefulness and user
behaviour and intention to use the system (Klopping and McKinney, 2004;
Marler, Liang and Dulebohn, 2006; Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007), as below:
Ideally, organisations should consider the output required before you start
to design the system and then work backwards. I think, organisations
should actually design and develop the system, [putting in their
consideration], first what people need in terms of system quality, in terms
of ease of system, in terms of usefulness.
[PFGP-3]
Page 4-38
In addition, some participants mentioned that the quality of information

content is an important aspect of system usefulness. More specifically,
PFGP-1; PFGP-3; FGCP-1 and FGITTS-3 revealed that precise, sufficient,
proper and valuable system information and reports that users need have
positive impacts on user satisfaction. In this regard, Rai, Lang and Welker
(2002) as well as DeLone and McLean (2003) claimed that high information
quality will be associated with more use, more user satisfaction and positive
net benefits. In another circumstance, more use of a poor information quality
would be associated with more dissatisfaction and negative net benefits:
In the system design, developers should think how data is feeding into the
system, how the system information could be useful for the users and how
long the system takes to do the task.
[FGAP-5]
Furthermore, FGLP-2 and FGAP-1 mentioned that useful information and

reports have also positive impacts on productivity, service quality and
decision making. This is in agreement with what has been reported by Stone,
Good and Baker-Eveleth (2006). On the other hand, computer anxiety and
frustration have been found to be negatively associated to useful information
and reports as outlined by FGLP-3. The same participant maintained that if
users do not have useful information and reports, they are likely to be more
anxious and frustrated, as indicated in the following quotes, as follows:
Computers facilitate communication between managers. Once I received
this email from the customer I sent it to my line manager. So, IT is very
useful in our job. IT is very useful in getting information straight a way,
which is nice. So IT is important I think for our work nowadays.
[FGCP-1]
System accuracy is another attribute of system usefulness as mentioned by

participants. In this regard, PFGP-1; PFGP-4; FGLP-2; FGITTS-1
mentioned the effect of system accuracy on user satisfaction. User
satisfaction has been found to be positively related to system accuracy. They
Page 4-39
demonstrated that if the new system is more accurate, users are likely to be
more satisfied, as mentioned in the following quote:
Yeah, users become very happy when computers are so much easier and
when computers do what people want to do. Also they may throw
computers from the window when computers are not working and are not
accurate.
[FGLP-3]
Furthermore, simple and clear information format has been mentioned by

participants as an important attribute for system usefulness. More
specifically, FGLP-1 and FGLP-2 were in agreement that simple and clear
information format have positive impacts on user satisfaction. They declared
that if the outputs of the system are simple and clear, users are likely to be
more satisfied, as outlined in the following quote:
In terms of decision making, computer systems make it easy to take a
decision in a short time, computer systems provide useful information and
reports which users need in different formats, computer systems may
provide information and reports electronically or may provide them in
print formats to take a break from computer screen.
[FGAP-5]
To that end, system timeliness, as outlined by participants, is another

attribute of system usefulness. In particular, PFGP-5; FGLP-1; FGFAP-1and
FGITTS-1 believed that system timeliness has a positive impact on user
satisfaction. They mentioned that if the new system provides information
and reports on time, users are likely to be more satisfied. FGAP-5 stated that
“I become disappointed when the reports I need are not available in the
package; when I am waiting for a long time to get it”. Further, FGLP-2 and
FGAP-1 declared that if the computer systems provide up-to-date
information and reports, users also are liable to be more satisfied, as
demonstrated in the following quotes:
I think computer systems enhance users' work, when users use computers
on a daily basis, when users get information they want at any time, when
computer systems provide relevant and updated information to users.
[FGAP-1]
Page 4-40
4.2.3.3 System compatibility (Task-technology fit)

Technology may be a positive tool which helps users in their tasks or a
negative tool which gets in the way of user tasks as outlined by PFGP3. In
this regard, several participants (FGLP-1; FGLP-3; FGITTS-1; FGITTS-3)
agreed that computer systems should be designed to do what users want to
do and to be fitted-well with their tasks. Added to that, new computer
systems have to be dedicated systems that are designed for specific tasks as
mentioned by FGAP-1. Also, FGFAP-1 as well as FGITTS-2 revealed that
new computer systems have to map onto the users‟ roles. In a similar vein,
PFGP-1 reported that organisations have to think about which piece of
technology is more beneficial for user tasks. The following quote illustrates
how technology is fitted-well with user task, as demonstrated below:
We use two systems, we use Trent system for payrolls, and obviously
finance is done through the Agresso system, we put costs in Agresso
system, but it does not fit very well with the task, it causes finance more
problems, you know that feeding from one system to another is quite a
problematic. The Trent system we use is a HR-Payroll combined system.
When the organisation was looking for a system package, there were five
or six packages. When the Trent system should do X and Y and Z, it just
does X and Y. Z is not done by the system. Basic things like that, is just not
happening with the Trent system. So it was not the suitable system we
bought. So I think, it was too much money invested in this system.
[FGFAP-2]
In addition, several participants (e.g. PFGP-3; FGLP-1 and FGCP-1)

mentioned the relationship between task-technology fit (TTF) and user
satisfaction and performance. It has been found that user satisfaction and
performance is positively associated to TTF. They demonstrated that if the
new technology is fitted-well with users‟ tasks, they are likely to be more
satisfied. In this regard, Goodhue and Thompson (1995) claimed that the
technology will have a positive impact on individual performance and
satisfaction if it is well utilised and fitted well with the task it supports. In
other words, if the individuals find that the technology can help them to
perform well, they will perceive it as useful and important to them.
Page 4-41
Similarly, Burton-Jones and Straub (2006) mentioned a positive relationship

between ICT usage and performance. They claimed this relationship when a
user employs features of the systems that fit the task. However, FGITTS-3
stated that users may have high expectations of what computers are doing.
FGLP-1 also stated that “people may refuse to use technology, if technology
is not working for them; they may prefer to do a job manually rather than
using technology”.
To that end, most participants (e.g. PFGP-3; FGAP-1; FGAP-2) found that
user acceptance of new technology is also positively related to TTF. They
declared that if the new technology is fitted-well with users‟ tasks, they are
likely to have a positive ATTC. On the contrary, PFGP-3 and FGFAP-2
mentioned the effect of TTF on computer anxiety. They found a negative
relationship between TTF and computer anxiety. They declared that if the
new system is not fitted-well with users‟ tasks, users are likely to be more
anxious and frustrated when using this system.

As regards to system enjoyment, a small number of participants mentioned
the importance of new system enjoyment. In this regard, PFGP-3 stated that
new systems may make jobs more interesting or more boring. Further,
FGLP-3 and FGCP-2 believed that user satisfaction is positively related to
system enjoyment. They declared that if the new system is more interesting,
users are likely to be more satisfied. Further, FGITTS-1 reported that some
users get slightly anxious because what they are doing is not for leisure.
Similarly, Al-Gahtani and King (1999) demonstrated that system enjoyment
positively impacts ICT usage and in turn user satisfaction, as follows:
Yeah, it is not interesting. You have not use the brain when the people
order a cup of tea and you are using the system, but now it is a big
challenge when you have to use the brain not the system.
[FGCP-1]
Page 4-42
4.3 IT performance and satisfaction impacts
There are particular technology impacts related to user performance, namely

productivity, competitive advantage, service quality, decision making and
financial performance impacts. These impacts emerged from transcribing the
focus group data, as follows:
4.3.1 Productivity impact

Concerning the productivity impact of using technology, most participants
implied that technology has positive impact on user productivity. In this
regard, PFGP-4 and FGLP-3 believed that technology leads to increased
employees and managers‟ productivity, increased the number of outputs and
increased the work accuracy. Added to that, PFGP-5; FGLP-2 and FGCP-1
mentioned that technology improves the work efficiency and provides
employees with reports and statistics which in turns improve their
productivity. Further, FGITTS-1 revealed that computers make users as well
as IT technical staff more productive. Similarly, several researchers (Devaraj
and Kohli, 2000; Anandrajan, Igbaria and Anakwe, 2000; Menon, Lee, and
Eldenburg, 2000; Kudyba and Diwan, 2002; Kohli and Devaraj, 2003) who
studied the effects of using ICT on productivity and performance found a
positive relationship between ICT investment and productivity and
performance. In a similar vein, FGFAP-2 mentioned a positive relationship
between CSE and user productivity. The same participant demonstrated that
if users are confident and able to use technology, they are likely to be more
productive, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Yeah, IT affects productivity, without IT we could not do our jobs. I mean
things have moved on. I started in 1992, we used to use timesheets and
payrolls sheets, all of these things were on paper. Now we do the whole
work by computer from timesheets to sending the BACS payment. You
know, without the IT we could not do the BACS payment, people would not
be happy to be paid by cheques these days, we do, we do need the IT in
our finance work.
[FGFAP-1]
Page 4-43
Furthermore, PFGP-3 believed that technology also has positive impact on

organisation productivity. The same participant reported that technology
improves organisation productivity in terms of mass production, in terms of
economy scales and in terms of distribution. Similarly, Hu and Quan (2005)
maintained that ICT investments create positive impact on the performance
and productivity of a firm through improving the efficiency and
effectiveness of business processes, as outlined in the following quote:
In terms of productivity at an organisational level, in the hotel industry,
ICT improves organisations productivity. ICT helps to link distributed
organisations, it offers economies of scales, improves market reach, links
the customer directly to production and increases profitability, for
example technology in manufacturing industries can link production to
inventory.
[PFGP-3]
On the other hand, PFGP-1 and FGITTS-3 claimed no relationship between

technology and user productivity. They reported that some organisations
have the same productivity levels, whether they work manually or using
technology. Further, FGITTS-3 declared that ICT productivity depends on
business process for a particular activity. Similarly, Sorensen and Buatsi
(2002) argued that the degree in which the ICT affects employees‟
productivity remains less clear since a variety of components must be
utilised effectively to ensure quality. While other researchers reject this
relationship (David, Grabski and Kasavana, 1996; Shafer and Byrd, 2000;
Strassmann, 2002). To that end, Ham, Kim and Jeong (2005) argued that the
relationship between ICT investment and firm performance and productivity
is complex and multi-faceted. Also, PFGP-1 revealed that productivity levels
are moderated by the skills of employees using technology and the size of
the organisation rather than the technology itself. Hu and Quan (2005)
claimed that the impacts of ICT investments on productivity are moderated
by the employees‟ skills and capabilities, as follows:
I think the productivity impact of ICT depends on the size of the
organisation [hotel or restaurant] and the human elements using this
technology. In some organisations, the productivity level is the same
Page 4-44
whether technology is applied or not, here in Cardiff some managers run

their small hotels effectively without any technology.
[PFGP-1]
Conversely, PFGP-3 argued that technology may have some negative impact
on user productivity. The same participant mentioned that theoretically
technology increases user productivity (e.g. automated tasks), however in
practical situations, technology may diminish the quality of the exchanged
information and in turns decreases user productivity. In this regard,
Motiwalla and Fairfield-Sonn (1998) claimed that the ICT productivity
paradox occurs when measurement of worker productivity does not go up
consistently with advancing ICT investment. To that end, Kilic and Okumus
(2005) countered that although various forms of ICT are widely used in
many areas in hotels, such as front office, in sales, marketing, accounting,
etc., but some managers might lack knowledge about the potential benefits
of using ICT to improve productivity, as follows:
Really it is a very difficult question. I do not think necessarily people are
more productive. I think organisations are more productive and more
profitable as a result of technology. In terms of productivity, at an
individual level, theoretically ICT increases individual productivity, in
terms of how to use processes to make automated tasks, in terms of
communication between people, however technology creates more traffic
and information flow which is not always productive, the productivity is
offset by the extra tasks, the fact that we exchange more information by
using technology may diminishes the quality of the information exchange.
[PFGP-3]
4.3.2 Competitive advantage impact

Most participants claimed a positive relationship between technological ICT
resources (e.g. hardware and software) and competitive advantage. More
specifically, FGLP-2 stated that organisations tend to increase their
electronic services and make a collaborative technological work with other
organisations to create a competitive edge. In this regard, FGAP-1 as well as
FGAP-2 mentioned that computer systems can give more advantages to
employees and their organisations, if these systems are most updated, fast
Page 4-45
and easy to use. Further, PFGP-4 and PFGP-5 explained that technology is
important to add value to the products, to save money, to increase employee
work effectiveness, to increase work accuracy and to create a competitive
edge, as illustrated in the following quote:
I think ICT can increase competitive advantage. Sometimes organisations
use technology just as a habit like their competitors. Other organisations
use technology to give them differentiation and create a competitive edge.
Technology can be very very expensive to be competitive, because
companies try to leapfrog each other with regards to latest technologies.
[PFGP-3]
Added to that, PFGP-1 and FGITTS-1 believed that every piece of

technology is a special competitive advantage to the organisation in the long
term. Similarly several researchers (Brown, Gatian and Hicks, 1995; Farrell,
2003) believed that a firm‟s technological ICT resource is a key source for
attaining long-term competitive advantage. However, FGITTS-4 stated that
computer systems are not creating competitive advantages. Similarly, other
researchers (Powell and Dent-Micallef, 1997; Weill and Broadbent, 1998)
argued that ICT systems are unlikely to serve as a source of competitive
advantage due to the fact that physical ICT infrastructure can be purchased
or duplicated fairly easily by competitors, as evidenced below:
If we look to any technology change in both individual level and
organisational level or the resistance to change, it comes down partly to
individual and organisation benefits gained from change. People have to
see the benefits of any changes. People do not want change for the sake of
it. Technology is not always the answer; ICT is not always the answer.
Employees and organisations may accept to change and use new
technology for financial benefits, operational benefits and competitive
edge benefits. If employees cannot see the benefits, they will resist
changes.
[PFGP3]
In addition, most participants mentioned that human ICT resources

(technical and managerial ICT skills) can create a competitive advantage for
organisations. In this regard, PFGP-3 implied that employees and
organisations may accept to change and to use new technology for financial
Page 4-46
benefits, operational benefits or competitive edge benefits. Added to that,

FGAP-5 stated that computer systems can create a competitive advantage, if
employees have the technical and managerial ICT skills to take the correct
decisions and if organisations introduce a checking mechanism for their
systems. To that end, PFGP-3 believed that organisations have to train their
employees to manage customer expectations and to create a competitive
edge. Similarly several researchers (Mata, Fuerst and Barney, 1995;
Bharadwaj, 2000; Ray, Muhanna and Barney, 2005) claimed that human
ICT resources are difficult to acquire and complex to imitate, thereby
serving as sources of competitive advantage.
In conclusion, most participants revealed that a combination of technological

ICT resources (e.g. hardware and software) and human ICT resources
(technical and managerial ICT skills) influence organisation‟s ability to
deploy ICT for strategic competitive advantage. Similarly, several
researchers (Brynjolfsson and Hitt, 2000; Carr, 2003; Melville, Kraemer and
Gurbaxani, 2004) claimed that technological ICT resources or human ICT
resources do not confer a competitive advantage by itself. Rather, they
proposed that competitive advantage can result from the appropriate
combination of them.
4.3.3 Service quality impact

The impact of technology on customer service quality varies as outlined by
participants, e.g. positive or negative technology impacts. Similarly,
Stylianou and Kumar (2000) demonstrated that the impact of ICT
investments on IS service quality may vary depending on many factors, i.e.
environmental factors, organisational factors or departmental factors.
Environmental factors such as competition and industry type.
Organisational factors such as culture, politics and senior management
support. Departmental factors such as differences in leadership style,
employee skills and ICT intensity.
Page 4-47
Most participants mentioned that technology has positive impact on service

quality. Obviously, PFGP-4; FGLP-2 and FGAP-3 claimed that technology
improves the quality of service, reduces time of customer service and
subsequent increases customer satisfaction of perceived service. In this
regard, FGCP-1; FGCP-2 as well as FGITTS-4 agreed that technology
improves the relationship between service providers and customers, e.g.
customer relationship management. They demonstrated that ICT stores and
keeps customer records which in turns are used to know the names of
customers, their needs, their requirements and their preferences. Similarly,
several researchers (Hartman et al., 2002; Lin and Lee, 2006; Lin, 2007;
Kim and Kim, 2008) found that the use of IS is correlated with overall
organisational performance/success, satisfaction with technology and service
quality, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Technology helps to store customer records and preferences, when
customers apply for the service again, they will maintain a personalised
service. Also ICT keeps the organisations in regular contact with their
customers through emails. Organisations can manage their campaigns
using electronic services such as sending text messages to customers.
[FGAP-1]
In addition, PFGP-5 believed that ICT improves customer service quality, as

follows: (1) ICT enables managers to monitor and control inventory and
managerial processes more proper and more efficient, (2) ICT enables
managers to inspect employees during operation, (3) ICT enables managers
to take decisions more quickly based on the proper information and reports
and (4) ICT decreases the waiting time of customer service. Several
researchers (Sarin and Mahajan, 2001; Andries, Smulders and Dhondt, 2002;
Osei-Bryson and Ko, 2004) found a positive and direct relationship between
ICT usage and quality performance, as outlined in the following quote:
I think ICT changes the nature of personalised service. ICT gives
opportunities to add quality and value to the customer services, in terms of
information provided, in terms of exceeding customer expectations.
Organisations with ICT, they can tailor the service and tailor the response
from the first customer through to a long term customer relationship,
Page 4-48
through emails or through whatever. I think, also ICT changes the nature
of service quality to be much bigger.
[PFGP3]
Furthermore, FGAP-1 mentioned the following positive impacts of service

quality: (1) ICT provides more relevant and useful information to employees
and customers, (2) ICT keeps organisations in a contact with their customers
through emails and (3) ICT enables organisations to do their campaigns
through sending text messages to customers. To that end, FGAP-5
demonstrated particular positive service quality impacts, as follows: (1) ICT
helps organisations to provide personalised service, (2) ICT helps to know
customer feedback, for instance online service questionnaire, (3) ICT helps
to keep a good relationship with customers, for example by emails.
Meanwhile, other participants maintained that technology has negative

impacts on service quality. For instance, PFGP-1 pointed that customers
always have a high expectation of technology services. The same participant
also revealed that to avoid over customer expectations and bad service
quality, organisation should meet or manage the expectations and
perceptions of customers, as outlined in the following quote:
Organisations should train their staff well to manage the customer
expectations, if organisations offer emails inquires, they cannot return
emails in twenty four hours, technology creates expectation in the market,
organisations have to meet customer expectations, i.e., within one hour
reply, or have to manage customer expectations, i.e., an automated reply. I
sent an email inquiry to Fairyhill Hotel in Swansea, but I did not receive a
reply, so they did not meet my expectation of email communication.
[PFGP-3]
In addition, PFGP-2 believed that technology has negative impacts on

service quality. The same participant maintained that electronic, complicated
and full automation services may have bad effects on service quality.
Sometimes, customers need people to talk with, need personalised service
and need efficient management, as illustrated in the following quote:
Page 4-49
I think in the electronic services, customers need to interact and speak

with humans. I think, particularly where the risk associated is high or if
there is uncertainty, you need to put a human back into the loop. I have a
situation, when I was dealing with my credit card electronically; it took
about half an hour to find somebody to talk to, which was incredibly
frustrating. So system designers should involve humans in the service
process. When designing a system it is important to incorporate
opportunities to branch out to involve humans.
[PFGP-3]
Besides, other participants mentioned the effects of ease of system, IT

support and task-technology fit on service quality. In this regard, FGAP5
mentioned that service quality is positively related to ease of system and
support from IT department. The same participant believed that if computer
systems are user friendly and if there is a support from IT department,
customers are likely to have good service quality. Added to that, FGCP-1
and FGCP-2 implied that if systems are designed to fit well with employee
tasks, customers also are more likely to have good service quality, as
outlined in the following quote:
The new system does not have the facility to do part cash and part card.
Some students put sixty pence on their cards and the bill is ninety. We
cannot to do cash and card at the same time. So, students return products
back, which does not keep a good relationship between customers and
cashiers. We can do that on the old facility, but we could not do that on the
new system.
[FGCP-2]
4.3.4 Decision-making impact

Technology, as outlined by participants, has different impacts on employees
and managers decision making. FGLP-2; FGLP-3 and FGAP-1 believed that
ICT has positive impacts on employees and managers decision making.
They demonstrated that ICT provides employees and managers with useful
information, reports and statistics which in turns improve their decision-
making abilities. FGAP-5 and FGCP-3 claimed that advanced technology
enables employees and managers to take right and correct decisions in a
short time. The same participants implied that technology links employees
Page 4-50
together in different departments. To that end, PFGP-3 implied that ICT

enables managers to delegate decision making to employees because ICT
provides more information to every one within organisation. Similarly,
several researchers (Andersen, 2001; Hess, Fuller and Mathew, 2006; Kumar
et al., 2007) explained the role of ICT in decision-making performance as
follows: (1) ICT increases speed and accuracy of decisions, (2) ICT
facilitates coordination and responsiveness, (3) ICT helps reducing
uncertainty and (4) ICT acts as a facilitator in improving the quality of
decision making by reducing the rationality bounds of human beings:
I think ICT gives managers the opportunities to make more complete
decisions, more important decisions. I think also it gives opportunities to
delegate decision making to employees, because ICT can provide
information to every one within the organisation.
[PFGP-3]
On the contrary, PFGP-1 maintained that ICT has negative impacts on

employees and managers decision making. For instance, the same participant
mentioned that managers may take alone decisions and may not empower or
involve their employees on the decision-making process. In a similar vein,
PFGP-5 added that technology reduces managers‟ ability to estimate and to
take quick business decisions, as mentioned in the following quote:
I think technology reduces the ability to estimate calculations, which
reduces the ability to respond quickly when making business decisions.
Decisions are often made by the information given to you. You then make
an estimation of what it means and the use of technology with that respect
has reduced the ability to estimate and reduced the ability to response to
decision-making.
[PFGP-3]
Similarly, most IT technical staff (FGITTS-1; FGITTS-2; FGITTS-3)

declared that IT manager always takes alone decisions. Further, FGITTS3
believed that decision making is related to a lot of issues, such as employees‟
ability and availability of information. To that end, FGITTS-4 pointed that
IT managers always take alone decisions because nobody understand the IT
Page 4-51
issues. The same IT technical staff added that IT decisions are so much
technically focused decisions, as evidenced in the following quote:
There is a lot of arguments whether IT takes the decisions or whether IT
assists people to take decisions. We have a body which is an IT body for
information services in my organisation. Any significant new system
account or service account in IT services which comes to my organisation
needs to be serviced by this IT body. The IT body turns around the new
account.. Lots of decisions around IT are to know what is the problem
around IT then we (IT board) would takes decisions in isolation because
nobody understands and nobody want to understand the IT issues. So it is
so much more technically focused decisions. So the formal IT board would
take more decisions around ICT in my organisation.
[FGITTS-4]
Equally important, several participants (FGAP-1; FGAP-5 and FGFAP-1)

revealed that system usefulness has a positive impact on employees and
managers decision making. The same participants also demonstrated that if
employees and managers are confident and able to use computer systems
effectively, they are more likely to take correct and quick decisions. Further,
FGLP-1 stated that if employees and managers have a regular support from
IT department, they are also more likely to take correct decisions. To that
end, FGAP-5 mentioned that correct decisions improve customer service
quality. Similarly, Lee, Chung and Kim (2004) as well as Kumar et al.
(2007) mentioned that decision making is positively associated with CSE,
facilitating condition and system experience, as follows:
Mmh, Yeah I think IT impacts my ability to take decisions. I mean, it
obviously depends on what your package can do, what people can do with.
it limits you on how much you can do yourself.
[FGFAP-1]
4.3.5 Financial performance impact

A small number of participants mentioned that technology has positive
financial impact on employees and organisations. In this regard, PFGP-4 and
PFGP-5 agreed that organisations may apply new technology to add values
to the products and to save money. Added to that, PFGP-3 stated that
Page 4-52
organisations may be more profitable. Similarly, Farrell (2003) mentioned

that in subsequent years, firms tend to be more productive and more
profitable than their industry rivals as a result of technology, as follows:
In the long term, technology has good financial benefits; technology
makes a lot of people very very rich. I think organisations are more
productive and more profitable as a result of technology.
[PFGP-3]
4.3.6 IT satisfaction impact

Technology may have positive or negative impacts on user satisfaction as
outlined by participants. In this regard, participants identified five measures
of user satisfaction, namely information content, system accuracy,
information format, timeliness and ease of system. In particular, most
participants revealed that user satisfaction is positively related to these
measures (see section 4.2.3.2).
On the other hand, some participants mentioned that technology may have
negative impacts on users. For example, PFGP-3 mentioned that people may
lose their jobs as a result of the introduction of new technology. Similarly
FGITTS-3 stated that there are massive jobs were lost within the
introduction of technology, such as clerical labour jobs. To that end
FGITTS-4 believed that organisations will never rely on technology because
technology things will never stop growth:
From the negative technology side, people may lose their jobs as an
introduction of the new technology. In the 80's, the technology boom made
people lose their jobs, many people lost their jobs, there is no way to get
away from that. I mean, years ago, in the 80’s, at Christmas, while I was
returning from London, I met one of my neighbours on the train, he was
working in the IT department, he was a senior manager, he just made
twenty three of his colleagues redundant because of the introduction of
technology. There is nothing we could do with the implications of
technology.
[PFGP-3]
Page 4-53
In addition, people sickness, stress and tiredness are other negative impacts
of technology, as outlined by participants. PFGP-3 and PFGP-5 mentioned
that using computers for a long time may affect people‟s health (i.e. people
tiredness). Further, FGCP-1 and FGCP-2 mentioned that computer sickness
and stress are more likely to happen, if people use computers for a long time.
In a similar vein, FGCP-1 revealed that if users have a good support from IT
department and colleagues, the work stress will be decreased, as follows:
Technology makes you much more available to work all the time through
emails or mobile phones, which means it is difficult to get away and stop
thinking about the work. Also using computers for a long time, affects
people health.
[PFGP-3]
4.4 Inferring the initial model factors

4.4.1 The critical success factor influencing IT-human interaction
4.4.1.1 User traits
Figure 4.1 shows that the user-related factors that were frequently cited
included: computing self-efficacy (n = 105; 21.1%), computing experience (n
= 70; 14.9%), technology acceptance (n = 38; 8.2%) and user age (n =17; 6%).
While, number of other user-related factors, notable by their low percentage,

included: computer anxiety (n = 30; 4.9%), user education (n = 1; .9%) and
user marital status (n =1; .2%).
Figure 4.1: The user-related factors emerged by the focus group participants
25
20
15
10
0
User age User gender User marital User Technology Computing Computing Computing
% status education acceptance experience self-efficacy anxiety
Page 4-54
4.4.1.2 Organisational traits

With regards to the organisational-related factors, 83 coded references of the
focus group transcripts (17.1%), as outlined in Figure 4.2, cited user training
as an important theme of organisation support, followed closely by IT
support (n = 90; 16.1%). Furthermore, it could be noticed that user
involvement in the system design was much more emphasised by
participants (n = 55; 12.6%), followed closely by social factors (n =56;
11.6%). Meanwhile, to a lesser extent, user empowerment was also
mentioned by participants (n = 26; 5.1%).
Figure 4.2: The organisation-related factors emerged by the focus group participants
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
% Participation IT training IT support Social factors User empowerment
4.4.1.3 System traits
Figure 4.3 shows that system compatibility emerged as important theme in

the focus group. This is reflected by the fact that 118 coded references of the
focus group transcripts (21.6%) cited the importance of system
compatibility, followed by system usefulness (n = 94; 19.6%) and ease of
system use (n = 75; 14.9%). However, few numbers of the coded references
(n = 6; 1.7%) mentioned the importance of system enjoyment.
Page 4-55
Figure 4.3: The system-related factors emerged by the focus group participants
25
20
15
10
0
Ease of system use System usefulness System compatibility System enjoyment
%
4.4.2 IT performance and satisfaction impacts

As regards to the IT performance impacts, a higher percentage of coded
references of the focus group transcripts (n = 43; 9.1%), as outlined in Figure
4.4, was much more strongly emphasised on the service quality impact of
technology. Inherently, 35 coded references cited productivity impact
(7.1%), followed closely by competitive advantage impact (n = 21; 4.5%).
However, to a lesser extent, other IT performance impacts notable by their
low coded references, included: decision-making impacts (n = 7; 1.9%) and
financial performance impacts (n = 4; 1.3%).
Figure 4.4: The IT performance impacts emerged by the focus group participants
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Productivity impact Competitive Service quality Decision-making Financial
% advantage impact impact impact performance impact
Page 4-56
In terms to the IT satisfaction impact, the data in Figure 4.5 reveals that ease
of system use (n = 73; 14.6%) was most frequently cited as an important
factor for user satisfaction, followed closely by information content (n = 64;
13.2%) and timeliness (n = 33; 7.2%). However, number of other system
factors, notable by their low percentage, included information format (n = 1;
.6%) and system accuracy (n = 3; .4%).
Figure 4.5: The IT satisfaction impacts emerged by the focus group participants
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
% Information content System accuracy Information format Timeliness Ease of use
4.6 Narrating the answers to the research questions

This section aims to answer the second and the third research questions (the
second objective). Thus, this chapter has discussed the factors influencing
end-user performance and satisfaction, including the user-related factors, the
organisational-related factors and the system-related factors. In particular,
this chapter has indicated that CSE, computing experience, technology
acceptance and user age were strongly emphasised by most focus group
participants as important user-related factors impacting IT performance and
satisfaction. Meanwhile, a small number of participants mentioned the
effects of computing anxiety, user education and user marital status on IT
performance and satisfaction.
In addition, the evidence from the focus groups indicates that organisational
support may have important impacts on IT performance and satisfaction. In
Page 4-57
particular, most participants highlighted the importance of IT training, IT

support, user participation in the system design and social factors. However,
a small number of participants mentioned the importance of user
empowerment in IT performance and satisfaction.
Equally important, the focus group results also indicated that system
characteristics may have important impacts on IT performance and
satisfaction. In this case, most participants mentioned the importance of
system compatibility, system usefulness and ease of system use. Conversely,
a small number of participants noted the importance of system enjoyment in
IT performance and satisfaction.
Moreover, from the focus group results, it could be noticed that user
satisfaction in the system was likely to be highly influenced by user
perceptions of ease of system, quality of information content and system
timeliness as mentioned by most participants. On the contrary, a small
number of participants mentioned the importance of the quality of
information format and system accuracy in IT satisfaction.
To that end, the focus group results revealed that technology may have
different impacts on performance. In particular, most participants mentioned
the service quality, productivity and competitive advantage impacts of
technology. On the other hand, a small number of participants mentioned the
decision-making and financial performance impacts of technology.
Page 4-58
4.6 An initial model to improve IT-human interaction

An initial model to improve IT-human interaction has been emerged from
the preliminary findings of this research and is illustrated in Figure 4.6
incorporating factors summarised above. This initial model demonstrates the
potential influences of user, organisational and system factors on IT
performance and satisfaction. It is proposed that, to improve IT performance
and satisfaction, users should have a suitable support from their organisation
and the system. It is also important to note that the initial model
development was primarily based upon the existing theories (i.e. the TPB) as
well as perspectives of IT experts, users, IT managers and IT technical staff.
Page 4-59
4.7 Summary
This chapter has explored the perceptions of focus group participants
regarding the critical success factors influencing IT-human interaction (i.e.
user traits, organisational traits and system traits) as well as the impacts of
technology adoption on IT performance and satisfaction (i.e. productivity,
competitive advantage and service quality). The chapter ends with
developing an initial model to improve IT-human interaction. Therefore, the
following chapters aim to test this initial model in budget hotels (chapter
five) and upscale hotels (chapter six).
Page 4-60
TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN BUDGET HOTELS: TWO
WELSH CASE STUDIES

5.2 End-user recruitment and selection 5-2
5.3 Hotel information systems development 5-28
5.4 Participation and consultation in the system development 5-49
5.6 End-user IT support 5-82
5.8 An evaluation of the findings in respect of theory of planned 5-95
behaviour (TPB)
5.8.6 IT barriers confronting budget hotels 5-111
5.8.7 Improving IT-human interaction in budget hotels 5-114
5.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in budget 5-130
hotels
5.14 Summary 5-131
Page 5-1
Chapter Five: Technology Adoption in Budget Hotels: Two Welsh Case Studies
5.1 Introduction
This chapter aims to investigate technology adoption in two case studies
of budget hotels in Wales, namely four budget hotels using off-the-shelf
hotel information systems and four budget hotels using bespoke hotel
information systems. More specifically, this chapter presents technology
adoption in the different stages of employee life cycle, namely:
recruitment and selection; information system development; participation
and consultation; IT training and development; IT support; motivation; IT
performance and satisfaction impacts (see Figure5.1). The chapter also
highlights the web-based human resource functions. Finally, the chapter
presents a developed IT-human interaction model to improve IT-human
interaction in budget hotels.
Figure 5.1: The hotel end-user employee life cycle
• Recruitment and Selection

1
• Information System Development

2
• Participation and Consultation

3
• Training and Development

4
• Information System Support

5
• Motivation
6
7
• IT Performannce and Satisfaction impacts
5.2 End-user recruitment and selection

The criteria of recruiting and selecting hotel end-user employees varied
amongst the interviewed managers of budget hotels. These variations can
be explained in part by the proximity of the type of hotel information
system (off-the-shelf vs. bespoke). These criteria are explained in more
detail in turns:
Page 5-2
5.2.1 Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems

The interviewed managers of the investigated budget hotels mentioned
some criteria of recruiting and selecting people for the reception job, as
follows:

With regards to the age of recruiting and selecting people for budget
hotels, most of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-1; Manager-3)
were of the opinion that recruiting older people for the reception job is
better than recruiting younger people. A possible explanation by
Manager-3 for this might be that older people get better customer service
experiences as well as they are more interested in the hospitality career,
compared to younger people. Another possible explanation reported by
Manager-2 is that older people are more experienced so can work in two
departments at the same time, for example working in the front desk and
restaurants as a part of their job role. This is consistent with Manager-2
who said that “we have got a duty manager here at the moment who is in
his sixties”. It is somewhat surprising that the literature as well as the
initial focus group findings do not support this finding. This is
To be honest, I prefer to have people who are older because often older
people who are thirty or thirty five years old realise the needs of guests
and respect them more. Also someone who is a bit older tends to take
more things into considerations before he/she makes a choice.
[Manager-3]
However, Manager-2 argued that older people may have limited IT skills
as compared to younger people. Similarly, Manager-1 said that “older
people might be technologically less savvy”. Thus, older people have to
be trained properly to improve their IT skills. In this regard, Manager-3
believed that reception job is more suitable for younger people who are in
the beginning of their career. In a similar vein, Manager-1 stated that
“sometimes younger people are ambitious; they are in the way up in the
Page 5-3
career”. This finding is consistent with those of Gallivan, Spitler and

Koufaris (2005) as well as the initial findings of focus groups (e.g. PFGP-
1; FGITTS-3). The following quote illustrates the barriers confronting
recruiting older people for the reception job, as follows:
However saying that if you do employ somebody who is older you
going to loose him/her because reception job is really something you
doing in the beginning of the career when you are between eighteen
and twenty three anything after that you begin to ask for reservation or
supervisory positions which actually lead to management.
[Manager-3]
To that end, Manager-2 as well as Manager-4 reported that both older

people and younger people have the same IT skills and capabilities to
learn, thus they have the same opportunity to be recruited and selected for
the reception job. More specifically, Manager-4 said that “the training is
the same for every one, so I mean a lot of people pick up quicker than
others, but no specific difference between younger or older at all”. This
finding is in agreement with Ashman‟s et al. (2003) findings which found
no relationship between age and user ATTC as well as the initial findings
of focus groups (e.g. FGITTS-1; FGITTS-3). This is demonstrated in the
following quote:
No any age basically, so we have got a variety of people from people
who recently have left school to people coming close retirement really.
So we have got a quieter wide range of people. Nothing is specific with
age we are looking for. We have a mixture at the moment just depends
on what is coming in, again we have got some younger people and
some slightly older as well, yeah it is a mixture.
[Manager-4]
Therefore, these findings suggest that managers of budget hotels have to

recruit and select the suitable people who are interested and willing to
work in the hospitality career regardless of their age. Another important
practical implication is that managers of budget hotels have to train new
staff properly with a clear focus on improving the IT skills of older
people. In this regard, Manager-4 stated that “I think it is about training
people to do the right job once they here and to get the right people”.
Page 5-4

Most of the interviewed managers of the investigated budget hotels (e.g.
Manager-1; Manager-2; Manager-3) reported that they do not require any
specific gender type for recruiting people for the reception job. They
were of the opinion that male users as well as female users have the same
IT skills and capabilities to learn and to use hotel systems. In a similar
vein, Manager-2 said that “to be honest, we have got fifty percent women
and male, so we have got a good ratio on the front desk”. This finding is
consistent with those of FGITTS-2 as well as FGITTS-3 who reported no
relationship between user gender and people‟s reactions to computers, as
I do not require any gender type when selecting employees for
reception, absolutely. I have receptionists who are males and other
who are females. Gender for me is completely irrelevant as long as
who apply are professionals and can do their jobs. That is all the
matter for me.
[Manager-3]
In addition, Manager-1 believed customer service experiences as well as

system experiences are the most important criteria for recruiting people
for the reception job regardless their gender. A possible explanation by
Manager-3 for this might be that budget hotels do not have the facilities
and time resources to run training for new staff, thus it would be better for
these hotels to recruit more experienced people. Another possible
explanation for this is that budget hotels using off-the-self systems have
greater opportunities to recruit people with previous system experience as
compared to budget hotels using their bespoke systems. Therefore,
managers have to recruit the more suitable people who are more
experienced with customer service and hotel systems regardless of their
gender, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Gender is not an issue when recruiting and selecting employees, we do
not take it into account, it is purely what just the persons experience
before, what knowledge they have, where they have worked, how they
have worked, why they are looking for employment. Obviously, these
questions not matter male or female; we have got mixed team in all the
departments.
[Manager-1]
Page 5-5
However, Manager-4 claimed that the number of female users is greater

than male users at the front desk of most hotels. This is in agreement with
the findings of FGITTS-4 who noted that there are more female users
working on the IT help desk. A possible explanation by Manager-4 for
this might be that quite lot females apply for the reception job because
people perceive that reception job is more suitable for females than males.
However, Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris (2005) found that employees
who are male reported higher levels of IT usage, compared to female
employees. Further, Manager-3 argued that female users might be a little
bit anxious when using hotel systems. This is shown below:
We actually have got a lot of female users exist, a lot more of females
applied for the position when it was vacant. It tends to be quite a lot
women applied for the job on the reception more initially. It tends to be
quite a lot female receptionists at front desk in every hotel.
[Manager-4]
5.2.1.3 End-user hospitality education

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that hospitality
education is not essential for recruiting and selecting people for the
reception job. Manager-3 stated that “hospitality education is not
required; it is not relevant at all”. This is consistent with Manager-2 who
pointed that “we do not require any hospitality education, it would be nice
but we do not put it as a perquisite”. This finding is consistent with the
initial findings of focus groups (e.g. FGCP-3). A possible explanation by
Manager-1 for this might be that for budget hotels, it is better to recruit
people with customer experience as well as system experience. Another
possible explanation by Manager-4 for this is that training is provided for
all people to get used to the system. In general, therefore, it seems that for
budget hotels it is better to recruit people with customer experience as
well as system experience regardless of their education level, as below:
Education is not essential, we prefer people experience specially with
customer service experience, if they had reception experience that
helpful as well but it is not essential because with Travelodge we
actually provide training from day one because they have to get use to
our system and what we actually use as well.
[Manager-4]
Page 5-6

Manager-1 as well as Manager-3 reported that for budget hotels, previous
system experiences as well as customer service experiences are essential
for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. Evidently,
Manager-1 stated that new staff members need to have experience with
hotel front-office system because “we are small hotel, if we are a larger
hotel, we would recruit staff with basic or no skills or experience with
front-office systems and we could then train them”. In particular,
Manager-1 declared that budget hotels do not have the facilities and time
resources to run training for new staff. Further, Manager-3 said that
previous experience for receptionists is essential because “they already
know the procedures, I would not stay and explain for them the whole
process”. To that end, Manager-1 declared that budget hotels do not have
enough staff to run training sessions for new staff as compared to upscale
hotels. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
Typical example for me was a month ago. I had a recruit for two
receptionists. I placed some criteria in the job advertisements. It was
essential for me that they worked in hotels previously as receptionists. I
did put previous experience as receptionists because I did not have the
facilities and time resources here to run training for somebody. I have
to make them in operation within two or three weeks. So I did not need
to take somebody who did not know anything about hotel industry, who
did not know anything about hotel reception. So it was important for
me to recruit people who know about Opera or Fidelio. I did put in the
job advertisement that computer experience would be advantageous to
their selection.
[Manager-3]
In addition, most of the interviewed managers (Manager-1; Manager-2;

Manager-4) reported that people who are more experienced with hotel
systems are more likely to be confident when using hotel systems. More
specifically, Manager-4 said that “somebody who perhaps is bit familiar
with computer does help because sometimes people need confidence,
people scares the computer sometimes”. This finding is consistent with
previously-published results (e.g. Al-Gahtani and King, 1999) as well as
the focus groups initial findings (e.g. FGITTS-2; FGITTS-3), as follows:
Page 5-7
Anxious people is all about re-training, is about identifying they are

still anxious, find out why they are anxious and trying to solve that. It
could be anxious because they are not really sure what to do, they are
not familiar with computers, we know whether they are anxious and the
confidence the more they do it, the more familiar they are with the
system as well, so easier for them to get actually through as well.
[Manager-4]
However, some of the interviewed managers (Manager-2; Manager-4)

reported that previous system experience is desirable, but it is not
essential for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. A
possible explanation for this might be that since these two hotels are a
part of big chains, thus they have the resources to train new staff. In
particular, Manager-2 stated that “we have got full training when any
body starts; we do not actually advertise system experience prerequisite
for the job”. This is consistent with Manager-4 who reported that previous
system experience is not essential because “we do full training on how it
fits to our procedures and policies”. Another, possible explanation for this
is that off-the-shelf systems are easy to use and to learn, thus they do not
require any previous system experience, as evidenced below:
We do not do any practical test in the interview to be honest because
the system is quite easy to use and we have got good training system,
we just rely on, you know, we can train them on the job. So we do not
really focus too much on IT side of things.
[Manager-2]
To that end, all the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that
they do not conduct any practical system trials for the new staff; however,
they ask general questions about system experience. More specifically,
Manager-4 stated that “we do not really go around the track giving them
like a practical test in front of the computer”. A possible explanation by
Manager-1 for this might be that managers may trust on people
experience on their C.V. Another possible explanation is that acquiring
system skills could be taught, as evidenced in the following quote:
If I am recruiting for reception, then would look to see if they used
systems before, not like a job trial. We would almost trust on their
experience on the C.V, we would trust them on what they say. We
Page 5-8
would not do a test. It is a bonus, but almost someone of our seniors

can train them latter to use the system. It is not a prerequisite; it is not
a deciding factor.
[Manager-1]
These findings suggest that if managers of budget hotels do not have the
facilities and time resources to train new staff, they have to recruit people
with previous system experience. Another important practical implication
is that managers of budget hotels have to conduct practical system trails
for new staff to know the degree of their system experience.
5.2.1.5 Basic IT skills

Most of the interviewed managers of the budget hotels reported that basic
IT skills, e.g. Windows and Word are essential skills for recruiting people
for the reception job. In particular, Manager-3 said that “I do insist that
receptionists know how to operate Windows, Word, Excel, also to know
how to reply to emails in a professional and courteous manner”. Further,
Manager-1 pointed that fluent typing has to be a basic skill for recruiting
receptionists. This finding has important implications for improving the
basic IT skills for receptionists, as follows:
Generally, looking for somebody who has got some IT skills, then they
need to have any thing, as once they have got the basic understanding
of computer systems that is fine and then we get full training anyway
but I would necessary look at the first stage for IT skills on C.V. For IT
skills, to be outstand Word, may possibly Excel because that a lot of
work so run a reception is based as well.
[Manager-2]
However, Manager-4 argued that it is not so much Word or Excel needed

to use hotel systems. The same manager was of the opinion that people
have to be only familiar with computers in general to be more confident
when using hotel systems. Similarly, Manager-3 said that “I do not expect
from receptionists to know Excel to professional level like an accountant
who use formulas and so on”, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Again from receptionist point of view, it is quite a lot in front of
computer but it is not a lot to do, it is not a lot to know and to learn in
Page 5-9
front of computer, it is not as they have got Excel or Word, it is nothing

of that at all. Computer experience is a lot beneficial how to use may
be a mouse, look at screen.
[Manager-4]
In addition, Manager-3 as well as Manager-4 claimed that managers of

budget hotels should have a better understanding of IT skills. They
declared that most hotels nowadays do not have on-site IT department,
therefore managers have to resolve the IT problems by themselves before
contacting the off-site IT department. More specifically, Manager-1 stated
that “hotel managers need to be aware of what is going wrong to be able
to report IT problems to get fixed”. The evidence from this finding
suggests that managers of budget hotels have to be trained properly to
resolve IT problems by themselves before contacting the off-site IT
department, as demonstrated in the following quote:
The external IT support people are really helpful to be honest. They
guide you through it bit by bit, step by step. They get a little bit
frustrated when your computer skills are not as good as it could be. To
be honest that problem is your fault, if you have not be exposed to be
before or perhaps you have not trained properly. The more you know,
the better is for you because when these people dial in they want to
speak to somebody who is better understanding and not just somebody
who is a user. If you do not know what the local area is, the server is,
the rooter is, what cables are and things like that then it would take
longer to solve an issue then you have people over the phone who is
beginning to describe to you things how they look visually, you know, if
you do not understand the property management system the engineer
over the phone will not be able to help you.
[Manager-3]
Despite the importance of IT skills for both end-user employees and

manager as well for using hotel systems, however, most managers (e.g.
Manager-1; Manager-2) reported that the recruitment application form
does not include a particular section for IT skills. In particular, Manager-2
stated that “the application form gets a section on it called skills and
qualifications but it is not specifically says IT skills”. In a similar vein,
Manager-1 said that “the application form asks do you have any of the
skills, but it is not say particularly IT, it does ask general questions but not
related to IT”. Further, most of the managers (e.g. Manager-1; Manager-2;
Page 5-10
Manager-4) reported that the job specification for receptionists does not
include any IT skills, as evidenced below:
Job specification is not include any IT skills, not at all really, again it is
just, it tells as part of job description, it tells you, you will have to use a
computer but does not say you need skills in job description to do. It
just tells you, you are responsible for customer face service, for
checking people in and out of the hotel, from that point of view rather
than this is a particular skill.
[Manager-4]
These findings suggest that managers of budget hotels have to recruit

people who have got basic IT skills. Further, managers of budget hotels
have to be trained properly to resolve IT problems by themselves before
contacting the off-site IT department. Another possible important
practical implication is that IT skills have to be included in the application
form and the receptionist job specification as well.

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
reported that it is quite important to recruit and select people who are
quite confident and calm. They reported several possible explanations for
their users computing anxiety. A possible explanation by Manager-1for
this might be related to user personality. In particular, Manager-3 declared
that some people are quite nervous as a part of their personality when they
face any stress. In particular, Manager-3 claimed that “if you have got
five customers waiting that makes stress on you and makes you nervous
because you would be forgetful, you will not follow the procedures”:
You often have employees who are say little bit nervous when using
computers. That comes down to personality. I recently had an employee
who left. She was quite nervous in way she doing things. Sometimes she
is panic. That is a part of her personality. I could not train her any-
more. I am just calm her down and remind her we done this job before.
Use this method or use that method to get around a certain problem
especially when we have overbooking.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-11
Another possible explanation for computing anxiety is the lack of IT

skills. In this regard, Manager-3 as well as Manager-4 reported that
people could be anxious if they do not have the basic IT skills. In
particular, Manager-3 said that “people get a little bit frustrated when
their computer skills are not as good as it could be”. This finding is
consistent with the initial findings of focus groups (e.g. PFGP-3; FGLP-1;
FGITTS-2) who revealed that users who experience a high level of CSE
are less likely to be anxious when using computers. This also is consistent
with previously-published results (e.g. Thatcher and Perrew, 2002).
Moreover, lack of system experience could be another reason for
computing anxiety. In this regard, Manager-4 revealed that people could
be anxious if they are not really sure what to do or if they are not familiar
with the computer systems. Similarly, Manager-2 declared that people
could be quite anxious the first time they use a particular computer
system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
What team we have got now, they all being here at least ten months or
more, so they are quite confident now. But initially, this one who first
goes on the computer system quite scar specially when the guest is
front of them they get so frustrated, so embarrassed. But the team we
have got now are familiar with the system.
[Manager-2]
There are, however, other possible explanations for computing anxiety. In

particular, Manager-2 declared that it is quite frustrating when the system
crashes or goes down. Similarly, Manager-4 said that “sometimes, the
system be slow, not very often, when that it is frustrating”. The present
finding seems to be consistent with the initial focus groups findings
(FGLP-3; FGITTS-1) who claimed that if the system is easy to use and
useful, users may be less anxious. Moreover, lack of IT support could be
another reason for computing anxiety. In that sense, Manager-1 stated that
“it is frustrating for example when your physical equipment breaks down
and you do not have somebody on site”. This finding is consistent with
the initial findings of focus groups (FGLP-1; FGLP-3) who reported that
users who have an adequate technical support from their IT departments
Page 5-12
experience less levels of computing anxiety. Therefore, managers as well

as IT help desk have to provide adequate IT support to users. This is
shown in the following quote:
I think my main problem I find is because the lack of IT support of ours.
I think guarantee when the system is not gonna work or if there is a fail
or if there is a power cut. Past experience showed couple of weeks ago
that we had a power cut with the system and the system was down.
There is always bank holidays and IT support was never around,
nothing key thing. It is very disheartening, it is very frustrating for
people on shift you cannot actually operate the system, for myself I get
call in to try fix the problem I am not an expert at all. That is the main
problem for the time I have been worked in the hotels with the front-
office systems to be honest. But I do not think it could change anything.
[Manager-2]
There are, however, possible solutions for reducing computing anxiety.

Manager-1 as well as Manager-2 reported that it is quite important to
recruit and select people who are quite confident and calm. In particular,
Manager-2 said that they are trying to pick somebody who remains calm
because “the front desk can be quite busy, quite so fast-paced, so we
require calm quality and suppose somebody who does not so get stressed
quite easily”. An implication of this finding is that managers have to use
self-confidence tests as well as system trials for the people who apply for
the reception job to know the degree of their CSE, as follows:
The last direct question if they are nervous to turn around, you know, if
they say computer worry me, then we have got problems because the
front desk you need to use computer systems to perform the job. So the
more apprehensive, over apprehensive, the body would not be selected
because if he/she will not willing to learn, if he/she will not able to be
trained so he/she would be a bad person for the job.
[Manager-1]
Another possible solution for reducing computing anxiety is training. In

particular, Manager-3 as well as Manager-4 believed that training people
on how to use the system is a successful key for people confidence. More
specifically, Manager-3 stated that “if I do realise that I have a trainee
who is new and still struggling with certain areas, I turn around and
address that by showing him/her more training”. Similarly, Manager-4
Page 5-13
said that “if someone would be confident with customers, it is about

training them on the system”. This finding is consistent with the initial
findings of focus groups (e.g. FGITTS-2) who reported that IT training
may help users to know how to use the computer system and, in turn, they
would be less anxious. An important implication of this finding is that in
developing a training programme, a clear focus has to be given to
people‟s confidence as well as people‟s CSE, as demonstrated below:
You know, how familiar you are with it and then at the end you add
more stress with something not familiar to them, unless we know again
from customer service delivered to that, we can give them the correct
training and the confidence in deliver rather than perhaps here you go,
there is the system, just what do you think because obviously the
information not to hand.
[Manager-4]
From the standpoint of end-user employees, survey results showed that

the computing self-efficacy construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.9;
Std. Dev. = 0.6). In particular, survey results revealed that most end-user
employees of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems had a high CSE
magnitude. In other words, they were capable of using hotel information
systems (HIS) with less support and assistance. More specifically, most of
end-user employees reported that they could complete a task using the
HIS: if there was no-one around to help them (sum = 192; 83.5%); if they
did not have the built-in help facility for assistance (sum = 185; 80.4%); if
they had not seen someone else using the HIS before trying it themselves
(sum = 181; 78.7%); if they could not call someone for help if they got
stuck (sum = 164; 71.3%). In the same way, survey results showed that
most end-user employees (sum = 158; 68.7%) had a high level of
confidence regarding their ability to complete a task using the HIS even if
they had limited time (a high level of CSE strength). To that end, survey
results indicated that most end-user employees (sum = 175; 76.1%) could
competently use different HIS packages (a high CSE generalisability).
This is demonstrated in Figure 5.2.
Page 5-14
Figure 5.2: The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100 I could complete a task using the HIS if

there was no-one around to help me.
90
80 I could complete a task using the HIS if I

had not seen someone else using it before
70 trying it myself.

could not call someone for help if I got
50 stuck.
I could complete a task using the HIS if I
40 did not have the built-in help facility for
assistance.
30
20 had limited time to complete the job for
which the software was provided.
had not used similar packages before this
0 one to do the same job.
% Computing self-efficacy scale items
On the other hand, the survey results showed that the computing anxiety
construct was insignificant (Mean = 2.2; Std. Dev. = 0.5). In particular,
only 30% of end-user employees mentioned that they are frightened of
using the HIS (sum = 69); 38.7% reported that they feel apprehensive
about using the HIS (sum = 89); 40.9% reported that they hesitate to use
the HIS for fear of making mistakes they cannot correct (sum = 94); 45.7%
reported that they could lose a lot of information by hitting the wrong key
(sum = 105). This is consistent with User-1 as well as User-2 who reported
that they are a little bit confident using HIS (see Figure 5.3). An
implication of these findings is that managers have to increase employees‟
confidence by showing them the right way of doing things.
Figure 5.3: The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
I feel apprehensive about using
90
the HIS.
80
70 It worries me to think that I
60 could lose a lot of information
50 by hitting the wrong key.
40 I hesitate to use the HIS for fear
of making mistakes I cannot
30 correct.
20 I am frightened of using the HIS.
10
0
%
Computing anxiety scale items
Page 5-15
5.2.1.7 End-user customer service experience

Customer service experience has emerged as an important factor for
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job in budget hotels. In
this regard, Manager-1 believed that system experience could be taught;
however, customer service experience could not because it is a part of
people‟s personality. Therefore, managers of budget hotels have to select
people with good customer service experience and system experience as
well, as evidenced below:
The main criteria is good customer service because the systems can
actually be taught, we are looking for somebody who has got good
customer service we can relate to the needs of the customers coming
for the door and be fine with them and be able to give them what they
want.
[Manager-4]
Moreover, Manager-3 as well as Manager-4 reported that managers of

budget hotels have to recruit people with good communication skills.
More specifically, Manager-3 was of the opinion that receptionists should
have good language skills to provide good customer service, as
For me it is important that they understand how to use the language. I
do insist that they know how to do a very good conversation and have a
good level of English because that eliminates any kind of
misunderstanding at front desk especially with guest who are upset.
[Manager-3]
5.2.2 Budget hotels using bespoke systems

The interviewed managers of the investigated budget hotels mentioned
some criteria of recruiting and selecting people for the reception job, as
follows:

Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
(e.g. Manager-5; Manager-6; Manager-7) reported that the age is not a
deciding factor for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. A
possible explanation by Manager-6 for this might be that both younger
Page 5-16
and older people are easily to be trained on the system because it is easy
to use. Similarly, Manager-7 said that “I think is nothing to do with Bart
system, Bart is easy for any age”. Another possible explanation by
Manager-5 for this might be that it is better to recruit people with good
personality as well as good customer service regardless of their age. This
is consistent with Manager-7 who stated that “it depends on what person
so like at the interview, I have to find out what type of personality they
had, it would not go on age; it depends on people‟s personality”. This is
I do not see a difference between younger and older people, if they
initially know how to go and turn computer on really. We have got two
night receptionists they both in their sixties, late sixties and they can
use it easily and they do not own computers at home, so that is how
easy the system is.
[Manager-6]
However, some of the interviewed managers of budget hotels argued that

younger people are quicker in using the system than older people. More
specifically, Manager-6 said that younger people pick things up quicker
these days because “they are more opined suggestions, there are a lot of
things they can do quicker in a way but older people tend to do the
longest way around, but all get done at the end”. Similarly, Manager-6 as
well as Manager-7 claimed that younger people are quicker to learn from
the training than older people. In this regard, Manager-7 stated that
younger people are easier to be trained because “they take things in
quicker, they retain things a lot easier, however, older people can become
stacking in their ways”. To that end, Manager-7 noted that younger
people might be quicker in using the system because they know where to
find the keys on the keyboard, as evidenced in the following quote:
The younger people seems to know the way around keyboard and the
way around computer more than the older generation do, that is the
only advantage and disadvantage, but I would not say anything to do
with Bart system, the younger people know how to use computers and
they know where the keys on the keyboard and what they do, whereas
the older people need to teach that as well as the system. Again the
older people are slower on the system because they did not used to
work on computers so much as younger generation are and they do not
Page 5-17
know like the shortcuts on the keyboard etc., but they still coming every
day willing to do what they can.
[Manager-7]
In addition, the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that

younger people are more confident to use the system than older people. In
particular, Manager-8 pointed that “younger generation has no fear from
computers they work with computers all their life, so it is quite easy for
them to use”. In contrast, Manager-7 stated that “some people are anxious
specially the older generation are very anxious when they first start”.
Another possible advantage of recruiting younger people might be that
they can adapt with any system changes or upgrades quite easily, while
older people might find difficulty to change their way of doing things, as
demonstrated by Manager-8 in the following quote:
The younger people are far quicker, they brought away much easier
than me, I was had not brought with computers, so I have to learn, so
for me to watch the younger people who use the system, they can adapt
with the system very easily and much quicker than me, much quicker
than older people. But when we keep at updating systems it is very
challenging, I would not say it is very hard, I would say it is very
challenging for the older generation to actually become able to use the
system easily and it is not very easy for us to use.
[Manager-8]
In the same way, there are several possible advantages of recruiting and
selecting older people for the reception job as emerged by some
managers. In particular, Manager-8 reported that “older people may be
more experienced with customer service than younger people”. Another
possible advantage of recruiting older people reported by Manager-8 is
that “they are more reliable, more trust with and they dedicated
themselves bit more than younger generation does”. Therefore, managers
of budget hotels have to recruit people who have good personality as well
as good customer service regardless of their age. Another important
practical implication is that managers of budget hotels have to develop a
training programme to improve the IT knowledge of their staff members
with a clear focus on improving the IT skills of older people.
Page 5-18

Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels (e.g. Manager-5;
Manager-6 as well as Manager-7) reported that the gender type is not a
determinant factor for recruiting and selecting people for the reception
job. In particular, Manager-7 said that “male or female users have the
same capabilities to use Bart system; I would not say there are many
differences”. In a similar vein, Manager-5 as well as Manager-7 noted
that the number of female users is greater than the number of male users
at the front desk. A possible explanation reported by Manager-7 for this
might be that “when you advertise, is just more females apply for the job
and come for the interview”. Another possible explanation for this might
be that most of female users work as day receptionists, while most of the
male users work as night receptionists, as demonstrated by Manager-6 in
I do not think I can answer that one, I cannot say who is better using
the system male or female users. I have not seen a difference between
male and female users to be honest. Most of receptionists to be honest
are females and you do not get a lot of day male receptionists, they
normally work at night, they do not do as many check-ins and things
anyway, but I have not really see any difference. I do not know, I think
male receptionists may be just not comfortable, that may be.
[Manager-6]
Conversely, Manager-8 argued that female users are better than male
users in using hotel information systems. A possible explanation for this
is that using hotel information systems might require more mental skills
rather than physical skills; therefore, female users might be more suitable
for this job than male users, as demonstrated by Manager-8 in the
following quote:
I would see girls use the system better than guys, I do not know why, I
think because using the system is more mental work as opposed to
physical work, so it is a little bit suitable for females, I do not know, but
I think women work on the system better.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-19
Therefore, these findings suggests that the managers of budget hotels

have to recruit and select people who have good personality as well as
good customer service regardless of their gender type. Another important
practical implication is that a balanced number of male users as well as
female users have to be presented because female users are more suitable
for the day work, while male users are more suitable for the night work.

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that hospitality
education is not essential for recruiting and selecting people for the
reception job. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this might be that
less educated people are easily to be trained on the system. In particular,
Manager-6 claimed that “if people could not read or write that would not
be an issue, it is easily to be trained on the system”. Similarly, Manager-8
said that “I have no computer knowledge or experience or previous
qualifications, it is just basically seen how to do it, learn how to do it and
going on training programmes”. Therefore, it is better to recruit people
with good personality as well as good customer service regardless of their
education, as demonstrated by Manager-6 in the following quote:
We do not require any education, again if they have got the right
customer service skills then we can train them up to use the computer
system but mainly because we deal with customers face-to-face, so
generally the personality how they can deal with people rather than the
actual skills on computers or academically.
[Manager-6]

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
reported that previous system experience is not essential for recruiting and
selecting people for the reception job. A possible explanation by
Manager-5 for this is that those hotels are using their bespoke chain
systems that are completely different from the other international hotel
systems (off-the-shelf systems). Particularly, Manager-6 pointed that
people do not need any previous system experience because “it is
Page 5-20
completely different system, so if you have used Opera or Fidelio it does

not really reflecting in Bart system”. In other words, if people have
previous experience with off-the-shelf hotel information systems, they
might lose their system experience in hotels using bespoke systems and
vice versa. In that sense, Manager-7 declared that “if somebody from here
wants to move to another hotel, they have not got the experience in more
broad systems”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
If it is not the same system you will lose all your system experience
because it is not needed here. I think if I have used really the same
system it would be a lot easier progression wise if I want to go for a
manager job in another hotel chain, but obviously if I have no
experience of there computer systems, so I have to be re-trained on that
system.
[Manager-6]
In addition, Manager-7 asserted that people do not need to have previous

system experience because “it goes on personality more than anything
else”. Further, other managers of budget hotels (Manager-5; Manager-7)
declared that they do not require any previous system experience because
their bespoke chain hotel systems are easy to use. In particular, Manager-
8 revealed that “the system is not that difficult to use, so it is training
where any new member staff we buddy them with somebody and they
learn how to run the system”. Similarly, Manager-7 reported that they do
not conduct any system trials during the interview because the system is
easy to use, as evidenced in the following quote:
We do not conduct any practical tests during the interview, I do not
think it is an issue at all because Bart system is so easy and
straightforward, so like the first day of training you will be able to do it
anyway, so it would not be part of the interview process to make
practical tests.
[Manager-7]
Moreover, all the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that

they do not insist on previous system experience because it is easily to
train new recruits on their bespoke chain systems. Manager-6 said that
they do not require any previous system experience because they turn
around and train new recruits. In a similar vein, Manager-8 stated that
Page 5-21
“we check how much knowledge they have in the first trial shift, if they
have relevant experience that is nice, if not we train them”, as below:
Like I said training is a bit easy, if they have got no computer
experience at all, they can be a bit slower from that way because
obviously they do not know how to work the way around the system
anyway, but generally teaching somebody how to make a reservation,
or how to check somebody in is the same steps you would take anyway,
so if they are quick learners generally is pretty easy.
[Manager-6]
To that end, Manager-6 as well as Manager-8 reported that since hotel

information systems are quite similar; therefore, if people have previous
experience with a particular hotel information system package, they can
use another hotel information system package. In that sense, Manager-6
pointed that “obviously if you have used another system, it helps because
you have worked on hotel information systems before and you have got
kind of idea what is going on”. Similarly, Manager-8 pointed that hotel
information systems are predominantly the same, as follows:
The system that we use may not be used in any other hotel, but they all
similar, they are not the same but similar, so when you had experience
on working with front-of-house computers, it is very easy to adapt from
one system to another. Different hotels use different systems, most
systems work the same, different names, different packages and it
depends on what main company want, our company want everything on
our system done one way, another company might want it in a different
way, but advantage here the whole systems are predominantly the
same.
[Manager-8]

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that people do not
need any particular IT skills, such as Word or Excel to be able to use their
bespoke chain systems. More specifically, Manager-8 reported that
“people who have got computer skills obviously give them a little better
chance definitely, but it is not a requirement”. This is consistent with
Manager-7 who declared that “Bart system would not require basic IT
skills because we do have Word and Excel separately to Bart”. In a
similar vein, Manager-6 declared that new people do not require to know
Page 5-22
Word or Excel because these skills are not linked to the actual bespoke
system as well as they are used by managers only, as evidenced below:
We do use Word and Excel for obviously letter templates and things
like that, but it is not linked to actual hotel reservation system, so if you
do a reception position you would not necessary need to use anything
else. The only other thing we use generally Excel and Word which quite
simple themselves, so I never get stressed when using the computer.
Excel and Word are used for managerial work, so it is just putting
rotas in place and things like that, so nothing to do with the actual
reservation point of view.
[Manager-6]
Moreover, Manager-6 revealed that basic IT skills is not essential for

recruiting people for the reception job because “we deal with customers
face-to-face, so generally the personality how they can deal with people
rather than the actual skills on computers”. In that respect, Manager-7
pointed that “basic IT knowledge is advantageous but again if you have
got the right personality you can teach everything anyway”. Further, all
the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that they do not insist
on basic IT skills because it is easy to train new recruits on their bespoke
chain systems. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
To be honest, we do not go for anybody that computer base, it is
normally as they are person to person level of thinking on people and
they can greet people, they good that way, then we can easily train
them because like I said it is really good simple system to use. But
again we would not really look at the actual computer skills that would
not be an issue, generally like I said it is easily to be trained on the
system; that is not a problem.
[Manager-6]

quite confident and calm. They also mentioned several possible reasons
for their employees computing anxiety. More specifically, Manager-7
stated that “the reasons behind user anxiety just generally people
personality, people may be worried about the first time they do
something”. Manager-5 as well as Manager-8 reported that lack of system
Page 5-23
experience and knowledge could be another possible reason for

computing anxiety. This is consistent with Manager-6 who said that “I
think it can be fear of the unknown or if you are not completely sure of
something, could be fear of doing wrong”. In the same way, Manager-7
revealed that some people are anxious, specially the older generation,
when they first start the job. Another possible reason for employees
computing anxiety might be the fear of making mistakes in front of the
customers, as reported by Manager-8 in the following quote:
Initially users are concerned, may be a little bit fear of making a big
mistake which is understandable, but people when get used to the
system they become more confident. On-the-job training, there is
always mistakes in front of the customers, but embarrassment have to
be overcome, if you made a mistake you just have to handle the
mistake, you know.
[Manager-8]
There are other possible reasons for employees computing anxiety.

Manager-5 said that system complexity could be another reason for
computing anxiety. In that sense, Manager-6 declared that “it is quite
straightforward simple system, if you need to do reservation is only one
way you can do it, you do not need to be worried”. Further, the same
manager reported that employees are likely to get more frustrated if the
system crashes a lot, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If they have a really bad day with the system, if the system is
particularly slow then they get frustrated. Like I said the only problem
with the system is possibly a bitty Monday night when the system is a
bit slower and it might crash then they get frustrated, may be.
[Manager-6]
There are, however, possible solutions for reducing employees computing

anxiety. Manager-5 declared that employees training might be a possible
way for reducing computing anxiety. This is consistent with Manager-6
who reported that employees training on a regular basis might reduce
employees‟ mistakes and as a result it reduces their computing anxiety, as
Page 5-24
Obviously, we trying to address user anxiety, we trying to give users

regular training on computer systems, you can have a training day on
the computer system off site, things like that. But I think you can really
make a mistake on the system and the mistake you do can be rectified,
so whatever you do generally will not cause a big problem, so you take
that fear away, so training may reduce user anxiety.
[Manager-6]
Moreover, Manager-6 as well as Manager-8 asserted that IT support

might be another possible solution for reducing employees computing
anxiety. More specifically, Manager-8 said that “we always have
somebody on hand that can help and alleviate the problem and sort the
problem out, so I suppose as a person you feel a little bite inhabitant, but
you have to overcome then”. In a similar vein, Manager-7 reported that
the IT help desk can rectify system mistakes and subsequently employees
are likely to be more confident, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I said to my employees, you cannot go wrong, you cannot make
mistakes, that can be rectified, so there is always help, so on their shift
there is always somebody there, if they are on their own, there is
always somebody at the end of the phone.
[Manager-7]
In addition, Manager-5 reported that motivating employees could be

another possible solution for reducing computing anxiety. More
specifically, Manager-7 recommended that managers need to encourage
people who are a little bit anxious to help them get over and use the
system effectively. To that end, Manager-8 reported that simplifying the
system procedures could be a possible way for reducing employees
computing anxiety. In other word, if the system is simple and easy to use,
employees are likely to be more confident, as demonstrated by Manager-8
We try to simplify the system procedures as much as possible. There
are certain processes they are looking a little more daunting than
others, so try to keep it as simple as possible.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-25
Therefore, managers of budget hotels have to recruit people who are

confident and calm by using a self-confidence test. Another important
practical implication is that managers of budget hotels have to train and
motivate all staff properly with a clear focus on people‟s confidence and
CSE.
From the perspective of end-user employees, survey results showed that

the CSE construct was initially significant (Mean = 4; Std. Dev. = 0.8). In
particular, survey results revealed that most end-user employees of budget
hotels using bespoke systems had a high CSE magnitude. In other words,
they were capable of using HIS with less support and assistance. More
specifically, most of end-user employees reported that they could
complete a task using the HIS: if there was no-one around to help them
(sum = 172; 90.5%); if they had not seen someone else using the HIS
before trying it themselves (sum = 158; 83.2%); if they could not call
someone for help if they got stuck (sum = 155; 81.8%); if they did not
have the built-in help facility for assistance (sum = 139; 73.2%). In the
same way, survey results showed that most end-user employees (sum =
146; 76.8%) had a high level of confidence regarding their ability to
complete a task using the HIS even if they had limited time (a high level
of CSE strength). To that end, survey results indicated that most end-user
employees (sum = 165; 86.8%) could competently use different HIS
packages (a high CSE generalisability). These finding are in agreement
with the interviewed users‟ findings (e.g. User-3; User-4) which showed
that end-user employees have high CSE because they are more
experienced with their bespoke hotel information systems. This is
Page 5-26
Figure 5.4: The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100 I could complete a task using the HIS if

90

50 stuck.
40 had not the built-in help facility for
30 assistance.
20 had limited time to complete the job for
which the software was provided.
10
0 had not used similar packages before this
one to do the same job.
only 33.2% of end-user employees mentioned that they are frightened of
using the HIS (sum = 63); 36.3% reported that they feel apprehensive
about using the HIS (sum = 69); 40.5% reported that they hesitate to use
the HIS for fear of making mistakes they cannot correct (sum = 94); 58.4%
reported that they could lose a lot of information by hitting the wrong key
(sum = 111). An implication of these findings is that managers have to
increase employees‟ confidence by showing them the right way of doing
things. This is demonstrated in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
I feel apprehensive about using
90
the HIS.
80
70 It worries me to think that I could
60 lose a lot of information by
hitting the wrong key.
50
I hesitate to use the HIS for fear
40
of making mistakes I cannot
30 correct.
20 I am frightened of using the HIS.
10
0
% Computing anxiety scale items
Page 5-27

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that customer
service experience is a determinant factor for recruiting and selecting
people for the reception job. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this
might be that system experience can be taught; however, customer
experience cannot be taught because it depends more on people‟s
personality. Another possible explanation reported by Manager-8 for this
might be that hospitality industry in general and budget hotels in
particular rely more on customer service. To that end, Manager-6
mentioned the importance of recruiting people with good customer
service, as follows:
To be honest, we do not go for anybody that computer base, it is
normally as they are person to person level of thinking on people and
they can greet people, they good that way, then we can easily train
them because like I said it is really good simple system to use. If they
have got the right customer service skills then we can train them up to
use the computer system but mainly because we deal with customers
face-to-face, so generally the personality how they can deal with
people rather than the actual skills on computers or academically.
[Manager-6]
5.3 Hotel information system development

There are two different types of hotel information systems, namely off-
the-shelf hotel information systems and bespoke hotel information
systems (see section 3.4.3.1). The former type is predominantly used in
budget hotels; however, only one investigated hotel of this category was
using a bespoke hotel information system.

Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that it is
better to use off-the-shelf hotel information system packages than
bespoke systems. More specifically, Manager-1 believed that hotels using
the same off-the-shelf systems can have standardised and consistent
reports. Further, Manager-2 asserted that using off-the-shelf hotel
information systems is advantageous for small hotels. In particular, the
Page 5-28
same manager said that probably international package is better because

“we can integrate with our reservation system”. This is demonstrated in
I think if you are working for a hotel chain, then each hotel needs to
have the same system, that is tailed to each hotel, the same system
across each property because you can get reports across for the
business and if each hotel gets a different system it might not produce
the same reports, so you cannot compare. So it is important to be the
same system across all properties, which is one we have, exactly with
the same system to each hotel. It is important for the standardisation
and consistency of the work.
[Manager-1]
Furthermore, Manager-3 reported that off-the-shelf system packages

perform a lot of functions such as reservations, check-ins and check-outs.
In that sense, Manager -6 said that “our system is ready to go system; it
manages maintenance; it manages rooms, reservations, strategy and also
financial reports”. However, Manager-4 reported that the functions of off-
the-shelf systems are different from one package to another. An
implication of this finding is that budget hotels have to select off-the-shelf
system packages that comply with their budget, facilities and staff skills,
Opera is an international system, a lot of hotels use it, but it is all suit
for different versions, so it depends on what package company buys
and how much it can actually do, it can do a little bit or it can do a lot
more of different reports. I am not sure of the version we have got, the
head office chose it, it is just comes up with the version we have on the
actual phase.
[Manager-4]

Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that off-the-
shelf hotel information systems have to be easy to use and to learn. In that
sense, Manager-4 recommended that the system should be simple, easy to
use and straightforward. Further, Manager-3 reported that off-the-shelf
hotel information systems have to backup data easily for the night audit
procedures. To that end, Manager-1 believed that off-the-shelf hotel
information systems have to be user friendly. This finding is consistent
Page 5-29
with the initial focus group findings (e.g. FGLP-3; FGAP-1) who implied
that new systems should be simple, proper, user friendly, easy to monitor
and more flexible to be updated and changed, as follows:
I do not personally consider hotel management systems to be over
complicated. Protel system is more complicated than Opera probably. I
would consider that, or can use the word friendly. Protel is less
friendly and Opera is more users friendly because it is windows-based
system which makes it easier. You can use mouse to interface with it
which makes it quicker and you can use the keyboard.
[Manager-1]
Furthermore, Manager-4 asserted that if an off-the-shelf system is easy to

use, then it would be easy to learn and subsequently users would
understand what they doing. More specifically, Manager-2 claimed that
“if the system is friendly and if it is questioning people, it is very
beneficial because people would understand what they doing”. This
finding is consistent with the initial focus group findings (e.g. PFGP-5;
FGLP-3) who suggested that software programmers should design new
systems to meet users‟ needs and capabilities and to be easy to learn.
Further, Manager-1 believed that an easy to use system is more beneficial
for the staff, as evidenced below:
What I seen on the system, on the whole is ok. The easy thing to do it,
the easy to use and the more complicated things you want to do, then it
comes a little bit harder, you know, so the more information you put in
the more you can get out of it really.
[Manager-4]
User satisfaction is another possible benefit of using an easy to use hotel

information system. In that sense, Manger-7 claimed that if off-the-shelf
system is user friendly, users are likely to be more satisfied. This finding
is in agreement with Al-Gahtani and King‟s (1999) findings which
showed that ease of system use has positive impact on user attitude, ICT
usage and user satisfaction. Further, this finding is consistent with the
initial focus group findings (e.g. PFGP-4; FGLP-1; FGAP-3). An
implication of this finding is that budget hotels have to select an easy to
use and easy to learn system because these properties may not have the
Page 5-30
enough time, resources and staff to conduct a longer training programme

in the case of selecting a more difficult hotel information system. This is
I think, I am not sure enjoyable is the right word. I think people
happier if the system is simple and it is not too many things they have
to do the process through, so from that point of view, it cause more
stress if it is harder, yeah.
[Manager-4]
From the standpoint of end-user employees, the survey results showed

that the perceived ease of use construct was initially significant (Mean =
3.8; Std. Dev. = 0.6). In particular, most end-user employees (sum = 185;
80.4%) reported that learning to operate off-the-shelf HIS is easy for them
in their job; followed by 78.3% of end-user employees (sum = 180) who
reported that they would find it easy to get the HIS to do what they want it
to do; 76.1% of end-user employees believed that the HIS is easy to use in
their job. To a lesser extent, 69.6% of end-user employees pointed that
interacting with the HIS does not require a lot of their mental effort,
followed by 64.3% of end-user employees who reported that it is easy to
become proficient in using the HIS. These findings are consistent with
User-1 and User-2 who reported that ease of system use is an important
criterion for ICT usage. This is shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
Learning to operate the HIS is easy
90
for me in my job.
80
70 I would find it easy to get the HIS to
do what I want it to do.
60
50 Interacting with the HIS does not
require a lot of my mental effort.
40
30 It is easy to become proficient in
20
using the HIS.
10
Overall, I believe the HIS is easy to
0 use in my job.
% Perceived ease of use scale items
Page 5-31

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that off-the-shelf
hotel information systems have to be fast in order to help users to
navigate quickly through the various system icons. In that sense,
Manager-2 said that “Fidelio is a good system, but it does take longer to
do things in certain times”. More specifically, Manager-3 claimed that
Dos-based systems (i.e. Fidelio) are faster than Windows-based systems
(i.e. Opera). However, Manager-1 argued that Windows-based systems
are faster than Dos-based systems because users can use both mouse and
keyboard to navigate through windows-based systems, while, they can
use only keyboard to navigate through Dos-based systems, as follows:
I think Protel is not user friendly and Opera is more user friendly
because it is windows-based system which makes it easier. You can use
mouse to interface with it which makes it quicker and you can use the
keyboard.
[Manager-1]
Besides the speed of the system, Manager-3 pointed that off-the-shelf

hotel information systems have to backup data quickly at the night. For
example, the same managers declared that some hotel information
systems may backup data within two hours; however, other information
systems may backup data within five minutes. Therefore, managers of
budget hotels have to take into account the capability of the new system
to backup data quickly, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Fidelio for example has one big negative affect. I used Fidelio when I
was night manager in Hilton here in Cardiff. The night auditor
procedures, the backup of the tapes used to take two hours times when
the backup procedures would kick you out and you would have to
restart it and you would have to call an administrator based on
Scotland who works for Fidelio. They would make sure that they
correct any corrupted files and then begin again. I would get the
system literally backup and ready before 7 a.m. before the reservation
starts go on. However with Opera literally it takes five minutes. That
all it takes, so Opera far easier than Fidelio.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-32
Moreover, Manager-4 reported that off-the-shelf hotel information

systems need to be fast in order to check customers in quickly and
subsequently reduce their waiting times and increase their satisfaction.
Further, the same manager also claimed that if the off-the-shelf hotel
information systems are quite slow users are more likely to be frustrated.
In that sense, the same manager said that “sometimes the system be slow,
not very often, when that it is frustrating”. This finding is consistent with
the initial focus groups findings (e.g. PFGP-5; FGLP-1; FGITTS-1) who
claimed that if the new system provides information and reports on time,
users are likely to be more satisfied, as evidenced in the following quote:
The system is always needs to be faster, however fast it is, it needs to be
faster, again, you know, if you have got a few people come in at the
same time, you want the transaction time to be fast, any interaction
with the customer comes in needs to be positive, but also then you need
to make sure as they come in the system checks them in as fast as
possible. So they do not wait or you do not wait on the computer to
update itself.
[Manager-4]
In order to increase the speed of hotel information systems, Manager-3 as

well as Manager-4 suggested that off-the-shelf hotel information systems
need to be updated regularly. This finding is consistent with the focus
groups initial findings (e.g. FGLP-2; FGAP-1) who reported that if the
computer systems provide up-to-date information and reports, users are
liable to be more satisfied. In general, therefore, it seems that IT support
team have to update hotel systems regularly since all the investigated
budget hotels do not have an on-site IT support, as follows:
Just being up-to-date really, there is no real problem with the system,
what make sure the system is always updated as much as possible,
which wise important from IT point of view that everything running
smoothly.
[Manager-4]
To that end, Manager-3 as well Manager-4 reported that off-the-shelf

hotel information systems should provide users with the information and
reports they need in order to help them take the right decision. In this
Page 5-33
respect, Manager-3 said that “Opera system has more reports than Fidelio
has, which is an advantageous”. This finding is consistent with the focus
groups initial findings (e.g. PFGP-1; FGITTS-3) which showed that new
systems have to provide precise, sufficient, proper and valuable
information and reports that users need. Similarly, this finding is
consistent with the literature review (e.g. Rai, Lang and Welker, 2002;
DeLone and McLean, 2003). An implication of this finding is that
managers of budget hotels have to select the system that provides the
needed information and reports, as follows:
The last one you want to do is to be handy around the computer system
to try finding something should be there, so anything relating to a
particular guest or a particular room should be all reported, interacted
and be called up early.
[Manager-4]
From the perspective of end-user employees, the survey results revealed

that the perceived usefulness construct was initially significant (Mean =
3.8; Std. Dev. = 0.6). More specifically, most end-user employees (sum =
196; 85.2%) reported that using the HIS in their jobs enables them to
improve their productivity, followed by 82.6% of end-user employees
who reported that using the HIS improves their performance in their job;
81.3% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS improves the
quality of their work. However, a lower percentage of end-user employees
(sum = 109; 47.4%) reported that using the HIS in their jobs enables them
to enhance their effectiveness, followed by 43.1% of end-user employees
who reported that using HIS improves their decision making. In other
words, the results revealed that effectiveness impact and decision-making
impact were insignificant. Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 180;
78.3%) believed using the HIS is useful in their jobs. These findings are
consistent with User-1 as well as User-2 who implied that system
usefulness is an important issue for ICT usage. This is shown in Figure
5.7.
Page 5-34
Figure 5.7: The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
Using the HIS in my job enables me
90 to improve my productivity.
80
70 to enhance my effectiveness.
60 Using the HIS improves the quality
50 of my work.
40 Using HIS improves my decision
making.
30
20 Using the HIS improves my
performance in my job.
10
Overall, I believe using the HIS is
0
useful in my job.
% Perceived usefulness scale items
5.3.1.3 System compatibility

The interviewed managers of budget hotel identified two types of system
compatibility, namely task compatibility and size compatibility. In terms
of task compatibility, most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels
(e.g. Manager-1; Manager-3; Manager-4) reported that off-the-shelf hotel
information systems have to be designed to do what users need to do. In
that sense, Manager-1 said that “the hotel information system needs to be
capable of doing what users need to do”. Further, manager-3 pointed that
hotel information systems have to be fitted-well with the tasks of
receptionists. Similarly, Manager-4 declared that “the new system needs
to be suitable for receptionists use”. These findings are consistent with the
focus groups initial findings (e.g. FGLP-3; FGITTS-1; FGITTS-3). To
that end, Manager-4 revealed that small budget hotels may have limited
services and facilities as compared to larger hotels and in turn, managers
of small hotels need to select systems that are compatible with their users‟
needs and the hotel facilities, as evidenced below:
I am not sure, I know a lot of other hotels use Opera, I am not sure to
what extent, I am not sure if it is an advantage, if the work is really
much better out of it, I just think something used widely within the
industry and it works for what we want to do, you know, we probably
as a company were asked to use it because with a budget hotel you do
not have so many extra things to offer through our reception, however
what it does do suite what we need to do.
[Manager-4]
Page 5-35
Therefore, Manager-1 as well as Manager-3 recommended that managers

of budget hotels should take into account the extent of system
functionality when selecting a new hotel information system. In
particular, Manager-1 said that “system functionality is coming as a
deciding factor for selecting a new hotel information system”. Similarly,
Manager-3 mentioned the importance of system functionality:
Concerning the criteria of selecting a new system, I would say the cost
of the system and its functions, because Fidelio does not have many
much functions like Opera and Opera is easy to use than is Fidelio.
[Manager-3]
There are a number of important functions which need to be included in

hotel information systems. More specifically, Manager-3 as well as
Manager-2 reported that hotel information systems have to guide users on
the way they navigate the system. In particular, Manager-3 said that
“Opera helps users, it guides them through things; it asks them so many
questions before they execute something”. This is demonstrated below:
I think Fidelio is effective; it does ask you on the way what you doing
and explain it to you, so users understanding rather than doing it for
the sake of doing it. So I think Fidelio is effective on that way.
[Manager-2]
Another possible important function of hotel information systems is the

possibility of the system to correct users‟ mistakes. In that sense,
Manager-3 stated that “Opera allows you to go back and correct mistakes
much easier than Fidelio does, so it is much better system”. Further, the
same manager reported that hotel information systems should have an
entire help screen in order to make a full exploitation of the system
functions, as evidenced in the following quote:
Also one thing about Opera, it has an entire help screen, very much
like to go on your PC and use Internet Explorer and when you stuck
with something you go and click on help. Exactly the same thing
applies here to Opera. So if you go here and click on help for example,
it will give you entire help screen with all various topics. So it gives
you everything absolutely you ask about exactly like Microsoft Office.
This feature does not exist on Fidelio.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-36
Besides, Manager-1 as well as Manager-3 reported that hotel information

systems need to have more advanced functions in order to help users
doing their job effectively. More specifically, Manager-1 said that “Protel
can manage finance for users, it can manage reservations, it collects
maintenance data as well, that adds bonus”. Further, Manager-3 declared
that hotel information systems may have advanced functions to perform
reservation and payment, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Opera has many more features. For example, when billing guests, it
uses so many options to turn around and to divide screen, to go back
and correct your errors, to select different payment methods. Fidelio
has some of those aspects but it is really much longer in backup. Also
you find Fidelio does not have other features when you come to making
reservation with a block booking. It is not good as Opera. So Opera is
far more advanced system.
[Manager-3]
With regards to the size compatibility, Manager-3 reported that the hotel
information system needs to be compatible with the size of the hotel.
More specifically, budget hotels do not require more advanced system
with a lot of functions as compared to upscale hotels. Therefore,
managers of budget hotels should select the hotel information systems
that comply with their hotel size, facilities and functions, as below:
However, you also must take into consideration the size of the hotel. A
hotel which is a sixty four bed rooms like ours and owns a small
restaurant does not need something which is interfaced with Micros. If
you have got a big hotel lets say a hundred and thirty rooms. You have
got a room service, a couple of bars, a restaurant, a cafe then you will
need a something like Micros because you will get much better
information and more consistency all over the day. You still have
people leave their departments and come down stairs to reception and
posting manually. It makes sense to have something like Micros. It is
time-consuming and it is open to mistakes.
[Manager-3]

that the perceived compatibility construct was initially significant (Mean =
79.6%) reported that using the HIS is compatible with all aspects of their
Page 5-37
work; 74.3% of end-user employees (sum = 171) reported that using the
HIS fits well with the way they work (see Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8: The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70
60 Using the HIS is compatible
with all aspects of my work.
50
40 Using the HIS fits well with the
way I work.
30
20
10
0
% Perceived compatibility scale items
Accordingly, these findings have a number of important implications for

future practice. More specifically, managers of budget hotels have to
select hotel information systems that do what users need to do. Another
important practical implication is that managers of budget hotels have to
select hotel systems that comply with their hotel size, facilities and
functions. This is consistent with the focus groups initial findings (e.g.
FGAP1) who reported that new computer systems have to be dedicated
systems that are designed for specific tasks.

Manager-3; Manager-4) reported that system enjoyment is not essential
for selecting a new hotel information system; however, ease of system
use, system usefulness and system compatibility are the most important
criteria. More specifically, Manager-3 said that “Opera is more enjoyable
to use because it allows you to go back and correct mistakes much easier
than Fidelio does, Opera has more reports than Fidelio has also”. In that
sense, Manager-1 said that “the head office crew is not going to select
something that is enjoyable; enjoyment is not coming as a deciding factor
for selecting a new system that is the functionality of the new system”.
Page 5-38
However, these findings do not support the previous research (e.g. Al-
Gahtani and King, 1999). An implication of these findings is that ease of
system use, system usefulness and system compatibility should be taken
into account when selecting a new hotel information system for budget
hotels, as demonstrated in the following quote:
The system does not have to be enjoyable, it helps. I think, I am not
sure enjoyable is the right word, I think people happier if it is simple
and it is not too many things they have to do the process through. So
from that point of view, it causes more stress if it is harder, yeah.
[Manager-4]
From the perspective of end-user employees, the survey results also

showed that the perceived enjoyment construct was initially insignificant
(Mean = 2.2; Std. Dev. = 0.7). The results showed that a small number of
end-user employees (sum = 108; 47%) found using the HIS to be
enjoyable, compared to only 41.7% of end-user employees who had fun
using the HIS. This is consistent with User-1 and User-2 (see Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9: The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70 I find using the HIS to
60
be enjoyable.
50
I have fun using the
40 HIS.
30
20
10
0
% Perceived enjyment scale items
5.3.1.5 System cost

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that system cost is
a deciding factor for selecting a new hotel information system. In
particular, Manager-3 said that “concerning the criteria of selecting a new
system, I would say the cost of the system and its functions”. Similarly,
Page 5-39
Manager-1 said that “cost would be a requirement, how much they gonna
to cost when installing a system, each system cost different money”. In
that sense, Manager-3 pointed that budget hotels are always looking for
the cheapest systems. A possible explanation of this trend is that budget
hotels might have limited resources to purchase more expensive systems,
as evidenced below:
It is really down to the price of the hotel if it is budget. If your hotel is
on a rate titled budget you will not go for Opera or Fidelio you will go
for other much cheapest systems which exist out there but they are not
so effective.
[Manager-3]
In addition, Manager-3 declared that the cost of the new system may
include different types of fees, such as software installation fees, IT
support fees, maintenance fees and training fees. Therefore, managers of
budget hotels have to take into account the cost of the new system as well
as the functionality of the system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If a management decide to go ahead and select a certain property
management system whether Fidelio or Opera they will never turn
around and ask the receptionists something to do that. It mostly goes
with price, mostly is go to be with price and interface because if you
think about it. Opera is going to be expensive because you are not just
paying for the software installation you also paying for the backup, you
know, any point if you get stuck with Opera let say crashes and your
server, you cannot get through to your server and you cannot turn
around and solve issues yourself. You need to be able to call a call
centre who at twenty four-hours. You also have to pay a maintenance
contract.
[Manager-3]
5.3.1.6 System popularity

Manager-3; Manager-4) reported that system popularity within the hotel
industry could be a determinant factor for selecting a new hotel
information system. In that respect, Manager-1 said that “we chose Protel
based on it being popular in Europe and it was load out across of whole
states”. Similarly, Manager-4 stated that “I know a lot of other hotels use
Opera, I just think something used widely within the industry”. An
Page 5-40
implication of these findings is that both system popularity and system

compatibility should be taken into account when selecting a new hotel
information system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Opera is considering the best property management system in UK right
now. It is used by a number of hotels in Cardiff and every hotel I know
has Fidelio is now switch over to Opera because it is a better system, it
is faster and it is much easier to do the backup at the evening.
[Manager-3]
5.3.1.8 System flexibility

Manager-4 reported that off-the-shelf hotel information systems have to
be more flexible. More specifically, Manager-2 as well as Manager-3
declared that hotel information systems have to be designed to help users
to modify what they have done. For example, hotel information systems
have to be flexible to modify a reservation. A possible explanation by
Manager-1 for this might be that off-the-shelf systems are designed for a
wide array of hotels as well as employees; therefore these systems have to
be flexible to be easily used by different employees. This finding is
consistent with the initial focus group findings (e.g. FGLP-3; FGAP-1)
which showed that new systems should be more flexible to be updated
and changed. Therefore, managers of budget hotels should select hotel
information systems that are more flexible. This is evidenced in the
following quote:
You know, if somebody comes in, they booked a room for one person
but they come in with two others, you know, three of them, if you
booked one rather than two, so it just possible to be that way really, be
flexible around it, to be adapted that quickly really.
[Manager-4]

The interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
reported that they are using their bespoke chain system. In particular,
Manager-6 said that “it is Premier Inn hotel system; I do not think any
other hotel chain uses this one, as I know Holiday Inn and Marriott use
different systems”. Similarly, Manager-7 said that “we are using Bart
Page 5-41
system, it is our chain system; it stands for brilliant automated reservation

thingy”. In that sense, Manager-6 asserted that it is better for budget
hotels to use bespoke systems because they predominantly are easy to use.
A possible explanation by Manager-6 for this might be that employees are
participated in designing the bespoke systems. However, Manager-6
argued that it is difficult for employees to cross brands if they have
experienced only bespoke systems, as evidenced in the following quote:
It is quite difficult to answer which is better to use a bespoke system or
an international system because it is good and bad for both. If
everybody has the same system, then you can always cross brands if
you need to, but like I said Bart system is the easiest system I have ever
used, so I probably stick to that. It is generally the speed but like I said
they have been done a lot of upgrades of the Bart few months ago, they
trying to get that better, they consistently asking for feedback from
team members on how they can improve the system, they regular do
make adjustments to the system as well, I started three years ago and
there is a lot more on the system now useful than it used to be.
[Manager-6]

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that bespoke
systems have to be designed to be easy to use and to learn. More
specifically, Manager-6 pointed that “the system has to be just simple
because you have to know every where on the system”. This is consistent
with Manager-8 who revealed that “the system is not that difficult to use,
the system is easy to use, if I can use it, so it is simple”. Added to that,
Manager-6 reported that bespoke systems need to have minimal
categories as well as minimal options to be easy to use:
The system has to be simple and easy to use. So I think you need
minimal categories to know where to go if you need to do something.
So if you need to do a reservation you know to go to that part, if you
need to check guest details from previous stay you go to that part, so I
think is just simplicity. Generally, it is quite good system for finding
out guest history and things like that, if you need to find information it
is easy, it is quite straightforward simple system, if you need to do
reservation is only one way you can do it, you do not need to be
worried.
[Manager-6]
Page 5-42
There are several possible benefits of using an easy to use bespoke

system. In that sense, Manager-5 pointed that people do not need to have
previous system experience to be able to use the bespoke system because
the system is easy to learn. In that sense, Manager-6 said that “we can
easily train them because it is really good simple system to use”.
Similarly, Manager-7 claimed that “because Bart system is so easy to use
and straightforward, so like the first day at training you will be able to do
it anyway”. Another possible benefit reported by Manager-6 for using a
simple system is that “you can talk to the guests while you checking them
in because the system is so simple”. Further, Manager-6 as well as
Manager-7 believed that users do not need to be motivated to use the
system because it is easy to use. To that end, Manager-7 claimed that if
bespoke systems are easy to use, employees are likely to be more satisfied
because they might not face so many problems with the systems:
Bart system is easy to use now because it has step by step instructions
or help section if you need as well, so it is really straightforward. The
new recruits do not face any problems with Bart system, not anymore
because it is step by step and you cannot make a mistake and you
cannot go any further until every field actually been filled in and it says
all the questions you need to ask, all the information you need to get is
actually on that screen, so you cannot go wrong.
[Manager-7]

76.3%) reported that learning to operate bespoke HIS is easy for them in
their job; followed by 72.6% of end-user employees (sum = 180) who
to do. To a lesser extent, 64.2% of end-user employees reported that it is
easy to become proficient in using the HIS, followed by 60% of end-user
employees who pointed that interacting with the HIS does not require a
lot of my mental effort. Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 140;
73.7%) believed that the HIS is easy to use in their job (Figure 5.10). This
is consistent with the interviewed users (User-3; User-4).
Page 5-43
Figure 5.10: The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90 for me in my job.
80
70
I would find it easy to get the HIS
to do what I want it to do.
60
40
using the HIS.
20
10 Overall, I believe the HIS is easy to
0 use in my job.
% Perceived ease of use scale items

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that bespoke hotel
information systems need to be quick enough. In that sense, Manager-6
asserted that “speed can be an issue; systems need to be as quicker than
persons in front of them”. More specifically, Manager-8 declared that
“Bart system is a lot faster than it was; when I first started three years ago
it was really slow, but now with advanced technology it become faster as
well”. An implication of this finding is that managers of budget hotels
have to upgrade their bespoke systems regularly to increase their speed:
The computer system we use is called Bart which just goes for a
process and upgrade at the moment. It is not performing in the best at
the moment; the upgrade is trying to make it quicker because it is quite
slow at the moment. It is generally the speed but like I said they have
been done a lot of upgrades of the Bart few months, they trying to get
that better, they regular do make adjustments to the system as well, I
started three years ago and there is a lot more on the system now
useful than it used to be.
[Manager-6]
Moreover, most of the interviewed managers (Manager-5; Manager-6;

Manager-8) reported that bespoke hotel information systems should
provide employees as well as managers with the information and reports
they need. In that respect, Manager-6 declared hotel managers are using
system reports more than employees. An implication of this finding is that
Page 5-44
managers of budget hotels have to consult their employees in designing

the bespoke systems to know what reports employees need in their daily
work, as evidenced in the following quote:
The reports we have got on the Bart system is quite good, I think we
need to put them on an Excel format perhaps sometime you need to use
Excel format. I think there is few things there they can do, but
management use that reports and it is not an issue for general day-to-
day staff who using the system.
[Manager-6]

improve their productivity, followed by 76.36% of end-user employees
who reported that using the HIS improves their performance in their job;
74.2% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS improves the
quality of their work. However, a lower percentage of end-user employees
(sum = 104; 54.7%) reported that using the HIS in their jobs enables them
to enhance their effectiveness, followed by 51.6% of end-user employees
who reported that using HIS improves their decision making. In other
words, the results revealed that effectiveness impact and decision-making
impact were insignificant. Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 148;
77.9%) believed using the HIS is useful in their jobs (Figure 5.11). This is
consistent with the interviewed users (User-3; User-4).
Figure 5.11: The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
Using the HIS in my job enables
90 me to improve my productivity.
80 Using the HIS in my job enables
70 me to enhance my effectiveness.
of my work.
50
40
Using HIS improves my decision
making.
30
Using the HIS improves my
20 performance in my job.
10 Overall, I believe using the HIS is
0 useful in my job.
Page 5-45

All interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that bespoke hotel
information systems have to do what users need to do. More specifically,
Manager-6 said that “anything you do incorrect your system can rectify,
so you never gonna to make a massive mistake”. In that sense, Manager-7
declared that “Bart system has everything you need for the hotel, it just
gives you a control of the hotel functions and gives you all the
information you need”. An implication of this finding is that managers of
budget hotels have to design bespoke systems to be compatible with their
employees‟ needs as well as skills. To that end, Manager-6 mentioned an
example of the task compatibility in the following quote:
For instance if you do a reservation for someone you ask for the credit
card and then if you click on the breakfast option for that customer, the
system asks you to put the credit card details again for payment, it is
not really needed to enter card details twice, it needs to be entered
once when making reservation, they could take that page out.
[Manager-6]

4; Std. Dev. = 0.7). In particular, most end-user employees (sum = 159;
Figure 5.12: The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70 Using the HIS is compatible with
all aspects of my work.
60
50
Using the HIS fits well with the
40 way I work.
30
20
10
0
Page 5-46

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that bespoke hotel
information systems do not need to be more enjoyable; however, they
have to be easy to use, useful and compatible with employees work. In
that respect, Manager-6 said that “I do not think system enjoyment is an
issue, the system has to be just simple”. Similarly, Manager-7 declared
that “I would not say it is enjoyable, but it is quite straightforward, I do
not think any hotel system needs to be enjoyable at all because it is your
job”. A possible explanation by Manager-6 for this is that hotel
information systems always crash and subsequently they are less
enjoyable. Another possible explanation reported by Manager-8 for this is
that hotel information systems are predominantly perform auditing
functions that might be less enjoyable, as follows:
I do not think the hotel information systems are quite enjoyable. It is
obviously cash and auditing process, so at the end of every day we do
our cash finalisation on our banking, it can tell whether there is any
discrepancies cash and the staff members need to know that.
[Manager-8]

that the perceived enjoyment construct was initially insignificant (Mean =
2.8; Std. Dev. = 0.8). The results showed that a small number of end-user
employees (sum = 106; 55.8%) found using the HIS to be enjoyable,
compared to only 52.6% of end-user employees who had fun using the
HIS. This is shown in Figure 5.13.
Figure 5.13: The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70
60 I find using the HIS to be
enjoyable.
50
40 I have fun using the HIS.
30
20
10
0
% Perceived enjoyment scale items
Page 5-47
5.3.2.5 System cost

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that system cost is
not a deciding factor for designing bespoke hotel information systems. In
particular, Manager-6 said that “I do not think the cost of the system is an
issue”. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this might be that hotels
using bespoke systems would only pay for the system functions that their
users need; however, off-the-shelf systems are bought as packages with
definite prices and as a result bespoke systems might be less expensive as
compared to off-the-shelf systems. Another possible explanation by
Manager-6 for this might be that budget hotels using bespoke systems do
not pay extra system fees, such as IT support fees, maintenance fees or
training fees. An implication of this finding is that a clear focus has to be
given to the functionality of the bespoke systems regardless of their costs.
5.3.2.6 System reliability

Manager-6 reported that bespoke hotel information systems have to be
reliable. In other words, bespoke systems have to be designed in a way to
comply with employees expectations. A possible explanation by
Manager-5 for this might be that employees rely more on the bespoke
systems because they are designed to do what users need to do. Another
possible explanation by Manager-6 for this might be that bespoke systems
are not changed so regular, as compared to off-the-shelf hotel information
systems and subsequently employees rely more on the bespoke systems
because they take to use them for a long time. In that respect, Manager-7
said that “we are using Bart system probably from very basic about
twelve years ago if not longer”. An implication of these findings is that
both system compatibility and system reliability should be taken into
account when designing bespoke hotel information systems, as
Like I said generally, the system is pretty reliable and the head
management do not get a lot of bad feedback, most feedback they get is
just slightly instead of doing this that way why cannot we have this
page come in up before the other one. I think generally the system
Page 5-48
reliability is quite good, even it is freezing quite a bite than normal at

check-in times, you know, five o’clock when everybody processing
arrivals on Monday because it is a busy night, you know, you might get
an issue then. Generally, it is quite reliable, so I think that is why they
sticking to it.
[Manager-6]
5.4 Participation and consultation in the system development

Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels using off-the-shelf
systems reported that their end-user employees have not been consulted in
the selection of the new hotel information system. However, the decision
has been made by the hotel head management. More specifically,
Manager-1 revealed that employees have not been consulted in any stage
of the information system development; “Protel was chosen by the head
office management, there was no consultation with the staff”. Similarly,
Manager-4 said that “we were just told that is the system and that is all”.
In that respect, Manager-1 reported that employees have not been asked
about their opinions, needs or preferences of the new system, as
Before the system implementation we were told there was going to be a
new front-office system and when the new front-office system came in,
obviously we were trained, that was it. There was no questionnaire
about what you would like it to be. However, this is what gonna to be,
this is your training and go live date is x date, whatever date, and that
would be the end. The only customisation or input from the hotel is
what system you had. So they can make sure it is linked to Protel. That
was the only question asked.
[Manager-1]
Moreover, all the interviewed managers of budget hotels revealed that

their end-user employees have not participated in the selection of the new
hotel information system. In that sense, Manager-1 said that “the decision
was made by the head office and involved out all the property”. Similarly,
Manager-4 stated that “it was the head office decision; it supposed
something suits the whole company really”. This is consistent with
Manager-2 who declared that employees had no choice to select the hotel
Page 5-49
information system; however, they were reinforced to change from an old

system to a new system. To that end, Manager-1 asserted that employees
have not been asked to participate in the selection of the hardware of the
new system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Users have not participated or involved in Opera selection. If a
management decide to go ahead and select a certain property
management system whether Fidelio or Opera they will never turn
around and ask the receptionists something to do that.
[Manager-3]
There are possible barriers confronting end-user employees in the new

system development as emerged by the interviewed manager of budget
hotels. In this respect, Manager-2 as well as Manager-3 reported that the
limited system experience of end-user employees could be a possible
barrier confronting participating them in the new system development.
More specifically, Manager-3 said that they did not ask about the opinions
of the receptionists because “if we would ask for example people who
worked with that, it is only one of them who before has worked to Fidelio
or Opera”. Further, the extensive number of end-user employees to
participate could be another possible barrier. In that sense, Manager-1
claimed that “if you ask several thousands employees what their
preferences would be, you would be there forever trying to satisfy
everybody”. These findings are consistent with previously-published
results (e.g. Clegg et al., 1997; Wilson et al., 1997), as follows:
To be honest if users have the choice to be participated and involved in
the new system selection, they probably have got too many people put
their opinions in, probably all are valid. I do not know to be honest,
may be probably get good ideas from employees but I think it is too
broad, for this hotel, there are too many hotels within the network, so
they will not listen to individually anyway. So, I do not think that would
be a good idea [Involving and participating users], I think there would
be too many ideas and not enough key influential people who know
what they talking about.
[Manager-2]
Page 5-50

that the user participation construct was initially insignificant (Mean = 1.3;
Std. Dev. = 0.3). The results showed that only 37% of end-user employees
(sum = 85) had main responsibility for the development of their HIS
(overall responsibility). The results also revealed that only 31.3% of end-
user employees (sum = 72) had formally reviewed the work done by their
information system staff (user-IS relationship). In the same way, only
20% of end-user employees (sum = 46) had designed the user training
programme for their HIS; only 18.3% of end-user employees (sum = 42)
had created the user procedure manual for their HIS (hands-on activity).
This is shown in Figure 5.14. There similarities between these results and
those reported by User-1 as well as User-2.
Figure 5.14: The participation activities emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100 I had main responsibility for the

90 development of the HIS (during
system definition/ during physical
80 design/ during implementation).
70 I formally reviewed the work done
by information system staff (during
60 system definition/ during physical
50
design/ during implementation).
I designed the user training
40 programme for the HIS.
30
20 I created the user procedure manual
for the HIS.
10
0
% User participation scale items
On the other hand, the survey results showed that the user involvement
construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.9; Std. Dev. = 0.8). The
majority of end-user employees (sum = 195; 84.8%) considered the new
system to be important as well as 71.7% of end-user employees (sum =
165) who considered the new system to be relevant to them. Therefore,
end-user employees are more likely to have a positive attitude towards
using HIS. This is shown in Figure 5.15.
Page 5-51
Figure 5.15: The perceived involvement emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70
60 I consider the new system to
50 be important.
40
I consider the new system to
30 be relevant to me.
20
10
0
% User involvement scale items
These findings suggest several courses of action for consulting and

participating hotel end-users employees in the new system development.
An implication of these findings is that both the needs and preferences of
end users should be taken into account when selecting hotel information
systems (consultative participation). Similarly, Manager-4 recommended
that “the head management must get feedback from people to know how
easy the system is to use and to get people involved when making that
decision”. This implication is consistent with the focus groups initial
findings (e.g.FGCP-3; FGAP-3; FGFAP-2) as well as the literature that
supports this implication (e.g. Power, 2004). Another important practical
implication for managers of budget hotels is that a sample of experienced
and non-experienced end-user employees has to participate in the hotel
information system development (representative participation) in order to
get feedback from a different range of users. In that sense, more hands-on
activity should be made available for end-user employees in various
stages of the hotel information system development. For example, key
end-user employees may design a user training programme for the new
system as recommended by Hartwick and Barki (1994). This is
I mean welcome feedback, as a good thing a bout it. There was always
involvement and there was no problem giving feedback on that type of
stuff really. We have got something called a team talk, people from
staff level can go and say what is positive about things more all over
Page 5-52
the district back to a national level to get positive feedback, good

feedback from every hotel up really.
[Manager-4]

reported that their employees have been consulted in selecting and
upgrading the system. In that sense, Manager-7 declared that their users
are satisfied with the system because “they give their inputs to the
company, what they feel would work better or what they would prefer and
then the company see what they can do”. A possible explanation by
Manager-5 for this is that bespoke systems are primarily designed to be
easy to use as well as to do what users need to do; therefore, there is an
opportunity for end-user employees to give their feedback and opinions.
To that end, Manager-6 pointed that their IT team take employees
feedback first before managers because end-user employees are using the
system more than managers, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Well the team in the head office, actually IT team, once they usually set
the update or things like that, so they would come up with the initial
idea and obviously felt it down to the team members first because they
use the system more than management level and get their feedback and
then obviously get management feedback, then try to create the system
as it is. Take the feedback of users first before the management,
obviously we as managers use it but the girls or the guys on the desk
they do check-ins every day then get feedback from them first. They
consistently asking for feedback from team members on how they can
improve the system, you know, they regular do make adjustments to the
system as well. I started three years ago and there is a lot more on the
system now useful than it used to be.
[Manager-6]
Moreover, Manager-7 as well as Manager-8 reported that their

employees have the opportunity to modify or change any system function
through a particular process. For example, if employees have any
opinions to modify the system, they can send these opinions to the head
office. Thereafter, the head office held a forum to discuss employees‟
inputs. If the head office sorted these inputs as good ideas, then the IT
department makes the required changes to the system:
Page 5-53
If staff had an idea how to make Bart system better, there is a forum
through the whole company, they fill up a form and send it to the head
office and they discuss it with say forty yard of our hotels and if they
sorted it as a good idea then they put it forward and they would get it
changed or modified. Like I said when people thought oh that does not
work or that should not be there, then they contact this forum who
discuss the changes then that goes to the IT department who make the
changes. So users have had a lot of inputs into the new system anyway.
The selection of the system happened in 2000 then the system put into
place and then between then and now people giving their opinion, so
the system changes slightly over the years.
[Manager-7]
However, the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that their

end-user employees have not been represented in the IT team who
designed the system. In that sense, Manager-6 revealed that the system
has been designed by the head office IT team before end-user employees
have been employed. Therefore, end-users employees have not been
asked to participate in selecting the hardware or the software, as
We have got a whole IT department within the head office, the system
selection just comes from complete IT department, IT managers;
initially it was IT. The system was put into the place, you have got the
system in place before actually people have been employed to use the
system; you cannot give feedback on something you have never used.
So you have got the system, use it then give feedback and get changes.
[Manager-6]
There are several possible barriers confronting consulting and

participating end-users employees during the various stages of the system
development. Manager-5 pointed that lack of employees IT knowledge
could be a possible barrier facing consulting employees. In that sense,
Manager-8 declared that “sometimes it is very difficult for employees to
change the system”. In a similar vein, Manager-8 pointed that the
extensive number of employees to be consulted could be another barrier
because “if you open that out, it is opened to abuse and then they may
make mistakes, so it is far better to be only for management”. To that end,
Manager-6 reported that end-user employees might be unwilling to give
their feedback; therefore, the collected feedback might not reflect all
Page 5-54
employees‟ needs, as demonstrated in the following quote:

I think a lot of sites do not feedback so the information they have got
might not be a reflection on how the whole UK hotels are running, but
may be they should dedicate one person in each site to get feedback
and to collect it back, that is the only issue they may have add, not
everybody is willing to give his/her feedback.
[Manager-6]

Std. Dev. = 0.6). The results showed that only 33.2% of end-user
employees (sum = 63) had main responsibility for the development of their
HIS (overall responsibility). The results also revealed that only 31.6% of
end-user employees (sum = 60) had formally reviewed the work done by
their information system staff (user-IS relationship). In the same way,
only 23.7% of end-user employees (sum = 45) had designed the user
training programme for their HIS; only 23.7% of end-user employees
(sum = 45) had created the user procedure manual for their HIS (hands-on
activity). These results are consistent with User-3 as well as User-4. This
is shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: The participation activities emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
I had main responsibility for the
50
30
20 I created the user procedure manual

10 for the HIS.
Page 5-55
end-user employees are more likely to have positive attitude towards
using HIS. This is shown in Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17: The perceived involvement emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70
I consider the new system to be
60
important.
50
40 I consider the new system to be
30 relevant to me.
20
10
0
5.5 IT training and development

The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified the types of IT
training conducted in their hotels, such as internal, external, on-the-job
and off-the-job training. Further, they mentioned the possible ways to
identify the training needs of their users as well as the frequency of the
training. In that respect, they revealed the barriers confronting end-user
training and their suggestions to avoid these training barriers. The
following sections demonstrate all these issues in the budget hotels using
off-the-shelf hotel information systems as well as the budget hotels using
bespoke systems.
Page 5-56

5.5.1.1 Internal IT training
Manager-2; Manager-3) reported that it is better for budget hotels to
conduct internal or in-house training by the hotel training team rather than
to conduct external or off-house training by an external training company.
A possible explanation reported by Manager-2 for this is that external IT
training is more expensive as compared to internal training. Another
possible explanation by Manager-1 for this is that budget hotels do not
have enough staff to release some of them for external training, as
They have got external IT training in the part of the company, but they
decided it is easy to do the training on the hotel level. There are
external training courses they can go on, but they are expensive on the
cost of them. Sometimes it is better to run in-house training in the hotel
instead.
[Manager-2]
With regards to the hotel training team, Manager-2 reported that the
internal IT training is conducted by the departments heads, e.g. front-
office manager. This is consistent with Manager-1 who said that “if it is a
training issue, it would be referred to duty manager or heads of
departments or their assistances”. Further, Manager-1 pointed that the
internal training could be conducted by their external IT support team, as
demonstrated below:
We have somebody who manages Protel from the head office, his job is
to manage the hotel system, it is important, he manages upgrades, he
manages system downtimes, he manages latest features, training,
everything that is for all twenty one hotels now.
[Manager-1]
There are several possible benefits of conducting internal IT training as

emerged by the interviewed managers of budget hotels. Manager-3
reported that increasing users‟ confidence is a possible benefit of internal
IT training. Similarly, Manager-4 declared that “if someone is confident
Page 5-57
with customers, it is about training them on the system”. Further,

Manager-1 pointed that increasing users‟ knowledge is another possible
benefit of internal IT training. This finding is consistent with the focus
groups initial findings (e.g. PFGP-3; FGLP-2; FGITTS-2). To that end,
Manager-4 reported that internal IT training could improve customer
service. There are similarities between this result and those reported by
PFGP-1 and PFGP-3, as evidenced in the following quote:
You could look at that and specially from training point of view. Some
people are quite conscious off because some people concentrate on
computers rather than concentrate on customers, you know, that can
happen but I think again if you look at recruitment, when we talk about
recruitment earlier, you look in recruit people who really good with
customer service, so they already thinking on customers rather than
computers and then it is about training to ensure that they know what
they do on computer so they have not to concentrate so much on
computer screen, so they can concentrate on customers as well, that is
might be a case.
[Manager-4]
5.5.1.2 External IT training

The interviewed managers of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
identified three possible types of external IT training: external IT training
conducted by system vendor, external IT training conducted by a training
company and external IT training conducted by another hotel. With
regards to the former type of external IT training, Manager-2 said that
“Fidelio training came out for two days to migrate the system and
training”. Similarly, Manager-1 declared that “when Protel was installed,
it was over training done formally by Protel Company, every single hotel
provided training for the new system”. This is evidenced below:
I have never been in a hotel just installed a property management
system. But from what I know that happens in every hotel whenever you
install a new property management system then you do get people who
do work for a company and they come in and train your staff. I do not
know if it is a part of the contract or extra. I do not know to be honest.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-58
In addition, another possible type of external IT training could be

conducted by an external training company. In that sense, Manager-4 said
that “the training was done via a training company; they gave us
guidelines and materials to be able to train users effectively”. To that end,
Manager-2 implied that if budget hotels do not have the resources to
conduct internal IT training, in this case, their employees may be trained
on the system in another larger hotel. Similarly, Manager-4 declared that
“we may go to another hotel before these rooms open to practice and get
use of the new system”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
I suppose going to different hotel, we have got the Holland House
Hotel which is the same chain but a larger property, we have done
training over there in the past because it is lot more fast-paced and it is
a four star hotel so you have got all different types of people coming in
at the desk, so we have done a multi-skilled training session across
there before.
[Manager-2]
These findings have a number of important implications for future

practice. An implication of these findings is that both internal and external
training have to be conducted. In other words, when the new system is
installed the system vendor has to conduct training for managers and end-
user employees as well to be able to use the system. Thereafter, the
managers of budget hotels could conduct internal training for all staff. In
that sense, Manager-1 declared that when the new system has been
installed the system vendor conducted training on the new system for all
staff. Then, after six months of system installation the hotel training team
conducted an internal IT training for all staff, as follows:
When Protel was installed, it was over training done formally by Protel
Company. They have done this training themselves and they had every
single hotel provided training for the new system. Once it has been
installed about six month later; then workshops done by our in-house
training, our in-house human resources. There is specific quality
standard training officer who conducted courses for Protel after the
initial six months of installation. Also he had basic Protel, advanced
Protel, Protel for reservationists, Protel for senior managers and
Protel for new starters. So it gets different levels and, you know, couple
of hours course. So it gives them formal training on the system.
[Manager-1]
Page 5-59
5.5.1.3 On-the-job training

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that it is better for
budget hotels to conduct on-the-job training rather than off-the-job
training. A possible explanation by Manager-4 for this is that budget
hotels may not have adequate training rooms and materials to conduct off-
the-job training. Another possible explanation by Manager-1 for this is
that budget hotels may not have enough staff to release some people for
training. In that sense, Manager-3 reported that on-the-job training in
budget hotels is much simpler as compared to training in upscale hotels,
Here in small budget hotels we try to do on-the-job training as much as
we can but it is not does have a luxury like would be in a bigger hotel
four or five stars where you have a training manager who can turn
around and constantly improve the receptionists by offering them a
training programmes, it could be open up them opportunities to
another departments like reservation or sales.
[Manager-3]
Most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels (Manager-2; Manager-

3; Manager-4) reported that all new recruits are trained on the job. More
specifically, the same managers declared that new recruits are paired up
with more experienced staff members. In that sense, Manager-3 pointed
that this type of training is called a „buddy system training method‟ or
„on-the-job training‟. To that end, Manager-4 revealed that “we have got
training system, we can buddy them up with people to ensure that the
training is going on”. This is demonstrated as follows:
Whenever I employed someone new we normally pair him/her up with
somebody else who is more experienced. This is called a buddy system
method where you pair up somebody who is more experienced and that
person would have the manual and with the manual the experienced
person begins to show the new one all the modules and goes through
with him/her and explains everything from the reservation stage to the
check in, the paying, the checkout, the reporting. The new receptionist
trainee can watch and copy what experienced person is doing and also
makes notes at the same time.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-60
There are several possible advantages of conducting on-the-job training as

reported by the interviewed managers of budget hotels. In that respect,
Manager-3 mentioned that new staff learn quicker during on-the-job
training as compared to other types of training because “it is taken into
your brain a lot faster when you get to see what you need to learn and you
practice it”. Further, Manager-4 declared that the advantage of on-the-job
training is that “people can see the customers come in through in a real
life environment”. In a similar vein, Manager-2 pointed that it is easy to
train new recruits on the job because they can see the life scenario, as
We do not face any problem with the on-the-job training because
sometimes in the hotel environment it is easy to do on-the-job training
because you have got all the data trying to show them examples of
something but if you physically have not got the scenario in front of
you, it is very difficult to show them. So it is better to have everything
on the job as you go.
[Manager-2]
Moreover, Manager-2 reported that on-the-job training is quite interesting

as compared to other types of training because “the person who is
learning might be learning in front of a queue of check-ins ten deep, so it
is quite interesting”. Another possible advantage of on-the-job training is
that the more experienced staff member can correct the mistakes of the
new recruits, as demonstrated by Manager-3 in the following quote:
So if let say the receptionist trainee have watch the other most
experienced member makes six or seven check-in then he will be more
relaxed and perhaps being able to do the eighth check-in himself or
herself. However the trainer, the more senior member, would step back
and observe the trainee and watch how he/she is conducting let say the
check-in and he/she can turn around and correct after the guest left
and say ‘well done you did eighty percent correct however twenty
percent of it need to be corrected and show him/her what to do’.
[Manager-3]
Conversely, Manager-3 reported that a possible disadvantage of

conducting on-the-job training is that new recruits may take long time to
perform a task in front of the customer and subsequently it might have
negative impact on customer service. Similarly, Manger-7 said that “only
Page 5-61
problem you may get from management point of view is if mistakes have
been made in front of customers”. Another possible disadvantage of on-
the-job training as reported by Manager-2 is that if the new recruits do not
find any customers to interact with, as follows:
Sometimes it can be quite boring if there is a quiet time and if we are
trying to train someone and nothing is happening, you are waiting for
somebody to come in so they can learn something. So it is depending
on the needs of the business, so it is quite varied.
[Manager-2]
5.5.1.4 Off-the-job training

Manager-1 as well as Manager-4 identified two possible types of off-the-
job training: practical off-the-job training and theoretical off-the-job
training. With regards to the former type, Manager-1 as well as Manager-
4 reported that receptionists could be trained on how to use the system
practically in a training room. In particular, Manager-4 said that they have
got a separate training package, “we have got back-office system training
version which does not affect anything, so they can play around and learn
the system”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
It is off-the-job training; the training is done using alive like a training
system, exactly with the same system but in training room with PCs,
away from the desk, away from guests, if you like in a training room
and they have the training done.
[Manager-1]
Theoretical training is another possible type of off-the-job training. In that

sense, Manager-4 declared that receptionists could be trained on how to
use the system theoretically in a training room. In other words,
receptionists might go through theoretical modules and are evaluated at
the end of each module, as demonstrated in the following quote:
It is a training on how the system works, it is module training, they
have certain modules they need to go through and stand to get sign off
to understand them, they would be assisted on how to do that, may be a
little quiz at the end to make sure they happy with it and again there
are a lot of modules you get signed off to make sure they fully
understand how to use the system.
[Manager-4]
Page 5-62
In terms to the advantages of conducting off-the-job training, Manager-4

reported that a possible advantage of off-the-job training is that it helps
receptionists to be more familiar with the basics of the system before
training them on the job, as demonstrated in the following quote:
They still do back-office training, so they still go through the same
process to fully understand the system really. You know, and that is
why again you have got the back office training system out of that
environment to be able to get familiar with computers or get familiar
with Opera system as well, you know, so it becomes a little bit easier.
[Manager-4]
On the other hand, Manager-3 revealed that limited time and money
resources could be possible barriers confronting conducting off-the-job
training in budget hotels. In other words, Manager-3 said that “I do not
have enough time to be able to take receptionists off from their job to
bring them in the back office for couple of hours training”. Further,
Manager-4 reported that people do not get the real-life scenario when they
are trained off the job, “they have not got customers in front of them; they
have not got the real-time experience; so they can do it a little bit slower”.
This is demonstrated as follows:
Luxury hotels are able to take more people from the front desk one time
to make off-job-training for them. However, I have a small budget hotel
to run and small department. Here when you doing with small hotel,
you must think if you take a receptionist from the front desk who is
going to cover the front desk. So it is important that you do have
somebody to cover you on the front desk when you are conducting off-
the-job training. However, saying that it is not always possible.
[Manager-3]
Therefore, these findings have a number of important implications for

future practice. An implication of these findings is that combinations of
off-the-job training and on-the-job training have to be provided. In that
sense, Manager-4 revealed that “most of training is on-the-job training or
a bit of the off-the-job training may be at the back office”. Similarly,
FGAP-5 and FGAP-1 implied that organisations have to do off-job and
on-job training for every potential user of the new system. To that end,
Manager-1 recommended that people have to be training off the job to
Page 5-63
understand the system basics; thereafter, they need to be trained on the

job to interact with the customers while using the system, as evidenced in
If it is a new system, I would say off-the job training if somebody just
starters with you and the system has been established for a while then
you can do combination of off-the-job and on-the-job training. On-the-
job training because they need to be interfaced with the system while
talking to guests and off-the-job training because they need to have
basic understanding how to use it before you put them in front of
guests. Combination of off-the-job and on-the-job training is provided.
[Manager-1]
5.5.1.5 Identifying the training needs of end users

There are several possible ways to identify that end-user employees need
to be trained as emerged by the interviewed managers of budget hotels. In
that respect, Manager-3 reported that employees‟ mistakes could be an
indicator that current employees need to be trained. More specifically,
Manager-2 revealed that “for existent employees, basically it is
monitoring what they can do on the system, I can go on the report from
Fidelio and see who makes errors and re-train him/her”. Similarly,
Manager-3 declared that system reports could be used to identify
employees‟ mistakes and subsequently re-train them, as follows:
So I have to constantly pick up the mistakes which I see them anywhere
because they go through daily and I have my ways to identify these
mistakes because we have reports. So let say a receptionist tonight put
in a reservation and he/she done it wrong I would pick up it tomorrow
by printing a report which shows me which reservation was put
yesterday and then I would be able to find out who made the mistake
and go and assist a training to help them.
[Manager-3]
Another possible way of identifying the training needs of current

employees is observing them on the job. In that sense, Manager-4 said
that to know that users need training “through reviews, observations when
things done”. Moreover, Manager-4 declared that another possible way of
identifying the training needs of current employees is through testing
them and getting their feedback, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Page 5-64
Obviously do review for them at certain times and get feedback from
them and observe them to know how they perform at the actually desk
on the system and test them as well, you know, ask them few questions
to see how they respond to the training.
[Manager-4]
With regards to the ways of identifying the training needs of new

employees, Manager-2 reported that “we try to assess new employees on
a way to find out exactly how competent they are and what they know to
adopt training”. Similarly, Manager-2 said that “we have got employee
file which includes career progression”. Further, Manager-1 pointed that
the heads of department identify the knowledge gaps of their new
employees and subsequently train them to improve their skills, as below:
Initially it is the responsibility of the heads of departments. So the
heads of departments would know any knowledge gaps of new starters
and they issue on the usage of the system and they would communicate
that to human resources who then nominate these people to go on a
training course or allow the heads of departments to train these people
to improve their skills.
[Manager-1]
Therefore, an implication of these findings is that the needs of users

should be taken into account when developing a training programme for
new and current employees. In that respect, FGITTS-4 pointed that there
is a gap between what users need from the IT training and what IT
department provides to users.
5.5.1.6 Frequency of IT training

Manager-2; Manager-3) reported that they do not provide training on a
regular basis for their employees. A possible explanation by Manager-1
for this is that employees are quite experienced with the system and they
do not need to be trained regularly. This is consistent with Manager-2
who declared that they do not train their employees regularly because
“they use the system in the day-to-day basis”. Another possible
explanation reported by Manager-3 for this is that managers of budget
Page 5-65
hotels do not have enough time and money to train people regularly, as
When I worked for a bigger hotel we had off-the-job training which
was constant because of many other things. However, when you have a
small company like this for example after we train the people who are
at the front desk initially for induction for two or three weeks we leave
them alone for a long time until we need to conduct more training.
[Manager-3]
However, most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that

they conduct refresher training when new procedures are added. In
particular, Manager-3 revealed that “when we have a new website added
obviously we have to create two sheets training manual for staff on how
to use the new website”. In that sense, Manager-1 pointed that if one issue
arises or the system process is changed then refresher training on the new
process is provided. Further, Manager-4 reported that “any updated
version or anything else comes through then we all get training from the
head office”. To that end, Manager-2 reported that training is provided
when the system is updated, as demonstrated below:
We probably do not do training often to be honest, unless anything new
or changes in the system. We have got new things when we implement
Fidelio version 7, in terms of tracking a company, anything I want to
use for my report. So user training is not very often. I think it is better
to have if you have got sort of any thing new arisen then you want to
recover and refresh users with.
[Manager-2]
Moreover, Manager-2 stated that refresher training is provided if staff

members request training in a particular function of the system or if they
face any problem with the system. In that respect, Manager-1 implied that
“if there is a problem with the system, then would be immediate training
to correct the problem”. However, FGITTS-4 argued that when there are
common problems with particular software, it is an indication of technical
problems rather than an indication of training needs, e.g. problems of
password change. To that end, Manager-1 reported that if employees
make any mistakes then refresher training would be provided to prevent
and correct these mistakes, as evidenced in the following quote:
Page 5-66
It is important to train people to keep them learning and to prevent

mistakes and correct them. You need to correct behaviour and mistakes
and correct the way of doing things. It is important really to keep
training fresh, you know.
[Manager-1]
There are a number of important changes which need to be made for

training people of budget hotels. An implication of these findings is that
managers of budget hotels have to be proactive and conduct bite-sized
training on a regular basis, for example every week to keep employees
up-to-date with the system. In that sense, Manager-1 said that “every
month we have certain types of training, it is important really to keep
training fresh”. Another important practical implication is that managers
of budget hotels have to conduct refresher training if the system is
upgraded or if their employees face any problem with the system. In that
respect, Manager-4 pointed that “it is important to provide refresher
training on certain parts of the system to make sure everything is ok”.
This is consistent with FGCP-3 who mentioned that organisations should
do training sessions for their users on a frequent basis.
5.5.1.7 Barriers confronting IT training

There are several possible barriers confronting training end-user
employees in budget hotels as emerged by the interviewed managers.
Manager-4 reported that limited time could be a possible barrier
confronting training. In particular, Manager-3 reported that receptionists
of budget hotels are always busy because they may have to perform a lot
of functions as a part of their job role; therefore, it is difficult to find a
suitable time to train them on the job or off the job. In that sense,
Manager-2 said that “to be honest, probably time it takes to train
somebody, it takes a bit long on the computer systems”. This finding is in
agreement with Law and Jogaratnam‟s (2005) findings which showed that
ICT training is time consuming, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Training specific barriers here I would say time and money. First of all
I do not have enough time to be able to take receptionists off from their
job to bring them in the back office for couple of hours to show them
Page 5-67
new system or show them new method. It is not always possible. So

during quiet times let say after people check-out or before the check-in
begins, this would be ideal opportunity let say between eleven and two
to go outside at the front desk speak to receptionists show them what
they need to do or what I need them to learn. So barriers I would say
one of them the biggest time and second one is money.
[Manager-3]
Another possible barrier confronting training end-user employees in

budget hotels is the limited budget. In that regard, Manager-3 claimed that
budget hotels do not have enough money to recruit a training manager as
do upscale hotels. Similarly, FGITTS-1 believed that most problems of
the IT training come down to the training cost because IT training is very
expensive. This is consistent with previously-published results (e.g.
Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005). In that sense, Manager-3 declared
that budget hotels do not have enough money to train people in another
hotel, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If your hotel is a small operation you do not have a big budget. So you
cannot turn around and hire a training manager and properly do not
have the enough money to go ahead and pay for these people who were
trained in another hotel or in another facility. I worked for a certain
company where we went for another hotel and been trained for the new
system and our company paid for us to go to another hotel and have
training and the trainer paid by the company who showed us how to
use the new system and then I passed these information to my
employees when I go back to my hotel. So the barriers of training are
time and money.
[Manager-3]
In addition, Manager-2 declared that one barrier confronting training end-

user employees in budget hotels is that bad training habits are transferred
from one employee to another employee because people are trained on the
job by a more experienced staff member. This finding further supports
Law and Jogaratnam‟s (2005) findings which revealed that most ICT
training happens on the job; as a result skills are passed over from one
employee to another in an unstructured manner, which easily leads to
inconsistent standards of ICT utilisation. This finding suggests several
courses of actions for developing a training manual in order to standardise
the learning process in budget hotels, as evidenced in the following quote:
Page 5-68
Manager trains somebody who trains somebody else who trains

somebody else, you have got the bad habits which get anyway they are
transferred across. So I think it does need to be so set or manual
because we now have manuals for ever, so I think a manual would be
or on-line manual where you can go and have a look on something that
would be very beneficial.
[Manager-2]
To that end, Manager-2 as well as Manager-4 reported that in some cases

users might not be able to practice what they learned from the training. In
particular, Manager-2 declared a possible barrier of training end-user
employees “if somebody does not understand the system, it is the main
training problem we face”. In this case, managers of budget hotels have to
identify the reasons behind that and re-train their employees again.
Similarly, Manager-2 recommended re-training users again, as
We have to adopt training again; we have that issue when somebody
does not get an understanding of the training. So we have to re-assess
what we have got down on the training schedule, re-think how we
gonna to explain it because something is bit more difficult to explain on
Fidelio, so yeah we re-assess what we do in the training.
[Manager-2]

that the IT training construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.4; Std.
Dev. = 0.7). Most end-user employees (sum = 155; 67.4%) reported that
the HIS training is readily available, followed by 60.4 % of end-user
employees (sum = 139) who reported that they were satisfied with their
level of learning from the HIS training; 60% of end-user employees (sum
= 138) reported that the HIS trainers were well qualified; 58.7% of end-
user employees (sum = 135) reported that the HIS training provided was
excellent. In the same way, 57.4% of end-user employees reported that
they enjoyed the HIS training (sum = 132) as well as 56.1% of end-user
employees who pointed that the HIS training met their expectations (sum
= 129). These findings are consistent with User-a as well as user-2. This is
shown in Figure 5.18.
Page 5-69
Figure 5.18: The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
In my organisation, the HIS
90 training is readily available.
80 The HIS trainers are well qualified.
70
60 The HIS training provided is

always excellent.
50
40
I am satisfied with my level of
learning from the HIS training.
30
The HIS training sessions met my
20 expectations.
10
Overall, I enjoyed the HIS training.
0
% IT training scale items
5.5.1.8 Improving IT training

As mentioned above in the previous section, the biggest training problem
confronting managers of budget hotels is the limited training budget.
Therefore, Manager-3 recommended that a more budget has to be paid for
end-users training; however, “hotels would like to make more money and
do not want to pay more for training”. Similarly, Gallivan, Spitler and
Koufaris (2005) reported ICT training is often the first expense cut when
corporations need to tighten their spending. Another important practical
implication by Manager-2 to improve end-user training is that managers
of budget hotels have to develop a training manual in order to standardise
the learning process and to reduce the bad training habits. To that end,
Manager-1 recommended to add more visual procedures in order to
remind users in their way, as follows:
I have a reference manual for the staff and more visual processes on
the wall to remind them, like visual posters saying, this is change the
read code because this is a way of making mistakes at the moment, this
is how you change the read code and how make a visual but a side
from the schedule training. But there is a great idea that I would make
certain things more visual like a sheet or help sheet.
[Manager-1]
Page 5-70
Moreover, Manager-4 implied that managers of budget hotels have to

make sure that the trained people understand what they actually trying to
do. In other words, managers have to evaluate their staff after conducting
training and develop an evaluation sheet for each staff member. Further, a
clear focus has to be given to the practical off-the-job training. In that
respect, Manager-4 recommended that people might be trained off the job
on a demo training system as well as having a demo customer to interact
with, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think the training is really effective as it is, to be honest. To be more
effective I think perhaps to some demo training. What I am saying
people practice on the back office, on training side of things an
improvement would be to actually have some people doing live
examples so I am pretend to have some real customers, you know, that
type of things or even doing from the desk where you have demo
customers who actually come in, you know, to test them because the
first time they got lost when checking customers in to the hotel, you
know, and that is why important to have somebody beside them and so
to speed what they are doing.
[Manager-4]

reported that it is better to train their end-user employees internally by the
hotel training team rather than to train them externally by an external
training company. A possible explanation reported by Manager-7 for this
is that the IT team might have a better understanding of the system than
any other external training company. In a similar vein, Manager-6
declared that “we can easily train them because it is really good simple
system to use”. Another possible explanation by Manager-8 might be that
external training might be quite expensive as compared to internal
training; therefore, most of the investigated budget hotels prefer to train
their employees internally, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Obviously, we trying to address user anxiety, we trying giving users
regular training on computer systems; however, it is difficult for them
to have a training day on the computer system off site, things like that.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-71
Furthermore, most of interviewed managers of budget hotels (e.g.

Manager-5; Manager-7) reported that internal training is conducted by the
front-office manager. A possible explanation by Manager-8 for this is that
budget hotels do not have training department; therefore, the heads of
departments take the responsibility of training their employees. Further,
Manager-6 declared that each staff member is trained internally by the
hotel IT team, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We have got training days that are run by somebody from the IT system
in the head office at various locations. So there is basic training for
new starters, there is one for management, they can learn the
management side of the system and there is one for team leaders which
dealing with things more than receptionists but not as such as
managers, so they can go on them as well, so there are specific types of
training for each level.
[Manager-6]

As mentioned in the previous section, all the interviewed managers of
budget hotels reported that they do not conduct any sort of external IT
training; however, all the training is done internally by the hotel training
team. A possible explanation by Manager-7 for this might be that because
the system is designed by the hotel IT team; therefore they might have a
better understanding of the system than any other training company. In a
similar vein, Manager-6 argued that it is difficult to train their employees
in another hotel because the system might be different. These findings
have a number of important practical implications for future practice. An
implication of these findings is that the hotel IT team have to train
managers and end-user employees as well to enable them to use the
system. Another important practical implication is that managers of
budget hotels have to conduct refresher training for their end-user
employees on a regular basis to keep them up-to-date with changes.

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that it is better to
conduct on-the-job training rather than off-the-job training. A possible
Page 5-72
explanation by Manager-6 for this might be that they do not have enough
staff to release some people for training. Another possible explanation
reported by Manager-7 for this is that they do not have enough time to
conduct off-the-job training, as follows:
On-the-job training is the only way to go, there is no way to go off-the-
job training, there are some courses available through our hotel chain,
but personally I have been in a lot of them and I do not personally feel
they were very useful. The training has to be on the desk because we do
not get enough hours giving to us to actually go out the office;
somebody has to be on the desk twenty-four hours because customers
always do around here.
[Manager-7]
The interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that their new

employees are trained on the job by pairing them up with more
experienced staff members. More specifically, Manager-6 said that new
recruits usually work three weeks with somebody and then they work
couple of weeks on their own but somebody watches over them.
Similarly, Manager-7 stated that “new recruits go through step by step on
how to do things on the system until they have got everything
themselves”. To that end, Manager-8 declared that this type of training is
called „buddy system training‟ or „new starter champion training‟, as
We get what is known as a new starter champion, a current member
staff who knows the system, who is actually making sure that new
people are taught the system correctly, but they never left on their own
until such time we feel they have got through the right procedures. The
system is not that difficult to use, so it is training where any new
member staff we buddy them up with somebody and they learn how to
run the system, once we feel confident they know how the system works,
we leave them to do it.
[Manager-8]
Besides the buddy system training, Manager-6 as well as Manager-8

reported that their employees might learn how to use the system by trying
to do particular tasks on their own. More specifically, Manager-8 pointed
that “we have got what is called a „skills work book‟, it is a little book
which give them specific tasks and when they feel they are competent
Page 5-73
they sign it, but when we feel they competent and confident that is when
we sign it”. In that sense, Manager-6 claimed it is better for employees to
learn how to use hotel information systems on their own. A possible
explanation by Manager-5 for this might be that employees would be less
forgetful when doing things by themselves than if somebody teach them
how to do it, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We have got what is called skills work book, which is basically how
they do a particular task comes up on the computer and fill in details
as they doing it, they learned that way, you filling on details in the
skills work book rather than you been told the details, so you have to
find out by yourself.
[Manager-6]
There are several possible benefits of conducting on-the-job training.

Manager-5 pointed that increasing system experience is a possible benefit
of training employees on the job. In that sense, Manager-7 said that “on-
the-job training is practical experience more than anything; you need to
be with the customers, so like an experience not just make beliefs”. In a
similar vein, Manager-8 claimed that on-the-job training is better than off-
the-job training because employees are trained in the real-life
environment. Further, Manager-5 declared that employees are trained on
the job practically; however they are trained off the job theoretically, as
Definitely on-the-job training is better, if you have on-the-job training
you are in the real-life environment, you see how it works, off-job
modules are very good, but they are theoretical, they do put theoretical
problems in front of you and you have to solve them, but when you need
to solve them you cannot solve them in the classroom, you have plenty
of time to look and evaluate, here you have to do it immediately, so far
better you work in it, so if you made a mistake, you will not make that
mistake again specially in a real-life environment, you do not make
mistakes twice.
[Manager-8]
There are, however, several possible barriers confronting managers to

train their employees on the job. Customer dissatisfaction might be a
possible barrier of conducting on-the-job training. More specifically,
Manager-6 revealed that “guests want to be checked in quickly, they do
Page 5-74
not want to be checked by somebody who just learns the system; it takes
time because obviously they do not sure how it runs”. Similarly,
Manager-7 reported that “obviously new trainees are slower, so
sometimes the customers get a bit upset”. Manager-5 reported that
employees‟ anxiety might be another possible barrier facing on-the-job
training. In that respect, Manager-8 mentioned that “on-the-job training,
there are always mistakes in front of the customers, employees feel a little
bit inhibited”. Added to that, Manager-6 revealed that the limited time as
well as the limited number of trainers might be another possible barriers
confronting on-the-job training, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Obviously, just general time, you need staff to do the training, the
trainer receptionist has check the daily function routines and things
like that, obviously if they doing that they cannot train the person, but
that is normally scheduled around the training, the training becomes a
priority than somebody else does bit some pops.
[Manager-6]
These findings have a number of important practical implications for

future practice. An implication of these findings is that managers of
budget hotels have to train their employees on the job to learn how to use
the system in the real-life environment. Another important practical
implication is that on-going help has to be provided for employees who
are trained on the job. In that sense, Manager-6 said that “so obviously I
am always there or somebody is always there to help them”. Similarly,
Manager-8 stated that “we always have somebody on hand that can help
alleviate the problem and sort the problem out”. Further, managers of
budget hotels have to encourage and motivate their employees to learn
how to use the system on their own.

The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified two possible types
of off-the-job training, namely practical off-the-job training as well as
theoretical off-the-job training. More specifically, the interviewed
managers reported that their employees might be trained practically on
Page 5-75
their own by using the system training programme. In that sense,

Manager-6 declared that “you can just use a user name and password for
the system training programme and you go on it, so you will not affecting
any system anyway, it is good way of learning”. However, Manager-7
argued that they do not use the system training programme because their
employees do not make so many mistakes in front of the customers, as
You have got your own training system on Bart, so you can make as
many reservations, make many like what ever you want to do on Bart,
everything you can do on Bart, you can do on this training and then put
into practice on your own as well, but I do not tend to use that often
because I do not know, because I do not feel they can make that many
mistakes anyway, so even if they go straight into their own using user
name and password, they get an experience by speaking to the
customers as well, so like I find it better for them to get experience with
the customers and using the system at the same time instead of just
making up scenario for the training system, you cannot make that all
mistakes in front of customers.
[Manager-7]
Theoretical training could be another possible type of off-the-job training.

The interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that their employees
might be trained theoretically in a training room. In particular, Manager-6
pointed that “there are training courses conducted on the head office by
the IT department; we do the general day-to-day training sort of handouts
and workshops”. However, Manager-7 argued that the training courses
conducted by their IT department are mainly for managers not end-user
employees, as evidenced in the following quote:
Our company do a lot of courses, there are courses on Bart system,
there are courses on health and safety, food, it is quite few different
courses you go, employment law and things like that, this courses are
generally for managers but again I do not find them useful unless you
actually go through you learn by experience.
[Manager-7]
There are, however, several possible barriers confronting training

employees off the job. In particular, Manager-8 reported that employees
need to be trained on the real-life environment because “off-the-job
Page 5-76
training courses are theoretical, they do put theoretical problems in front

of you, but you cannot solve them in the classroom”. Further, Manager-7
revealed that employees might not get the real system experience as well
as customer experience from the off-the-job training courses, as
We do not have any off-the-job training, it is all on-the-job training
because you cannot get experience on doing something, you cannot
teach everything because so many different things happen during the
shift, you have to let them so like take it themselves and waiting to lay
experience themselves. But again I do not find off-the-job training
courses are useful unless you actually go through, you learn by
experience.
[Manager-7]

The interviewed managers of budget hotels pointed that there are several
possible ways to know whether the current employees as well as new
employees need to be trained. Manager-5 implied that observing the
current employees on the job could be a possible way to know that they
need training. Testing the current employees could be another possible
way to identify that they need to be trained. In particular, Manager-7
stated that “when I do the monthly training questionnaire if they cannot
answer the questions, it means they do not know something, so you get
extra training then”. Further, Manager-7 claimed that if users regularly do
mistakes using the system; therefore, they need to be re-trained. This is
consistent with Manager-6 who reported that repeated mistakes could be
an indicator that employees need to be trained, as follow:
To be honest, we conduct training if there are mistakes, I think, you
know, when people learn the system they really make mistakes a part of
that, the system is so simple to use obviously somebody does make a
mistake then you can easily rectify that and show them how they should
done it and what to do if they do wrong again, once they are trained
they are pretty good.
[Manager-6]
Furthermore, there are several possible ways to know whether the new
employees need to be trained. More specifically, Manager-8 reported that
Page 5-77
interviewing new employees could be a possible way to know that they

need training. In a similar vein, Manager-8 declared that new employees
are evaluated in the first trial shift to identify their knowledge, as follows:
We know users need training, on the interview we check how much
knowledge they have and as I said in the first trial shift we give them
the opportunity to see what is done and if they have any relevant
experience they will say ‘oh yes I have used this, I know this system’, if
not we train them, so they have a trial shift to check whether we feel
that they want to work for.
[Manager-8]

practice. An implication of these findings is that managers of budget
hotels have to identify the training needs of the new employees during the
interview and to establish a training book for each new staff member.
Another important practical implication is that managers of budget hotels
have to be more proactive and train their current employees before they
make mistakes to avoid the time it takes to rectify those mistakes.

Manager-7 as well as Manager-8 reported that they train their employees
on how to use the system on a regular basis. In particular, Manager-8
implied that “the training is on-going, we do on-the-job training; we do
short-take training, so all we do is basically train employees regularly to
make sure that they still speed up with everything”. There are several
possible benefits of conducting regular short-take training. In that respect,
Manager-8 mentioned that training employees on a regular basis has
positive impact on their performance, satisfaction as well as loyalty.
Further, Manager-7 reported that regular training keeps employees up-to-
date with any system changes as well as reminds them with the hotel
policies and procedures, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We have got something called short-take training which is a lot of
questionnaires, tests they do every month, just like get them speed on
their knowledge, these training is for everyone, every month I give a
questionnaire for every team member, so everybody at the same
level. We have monthly training because in Premier Inn a lot of things
Page 5-78
change quite often, so every month there is new changes, there is new
procedures, there is new policies, so just keep users up-to-date and
make sure they know, because you have got with Premier Inn so many
things, so many updates , it just keeps things fresh in their minds, also
in Premier Inn you have got so many things you have to say to every
person checking in or things you have to do on day-to-day basis, I just
remind them, make sure they know what they suppose to do in
everyday, that is why we need monthly training.
[Manager-7]
However, Manager-6 argued that they do not conduct any sort of regular
training; whereas refresher training is only provided. A possible
explanation by Manager-5 for this is that employees are quite experienced
with the system; therefore they do not need to be trained regularly.
Another possible explanation by Manager-6 is that the system is easy to
use, therefore it is easy to train employees how to use it from the first
time, as demonstrated in the following quote:
It is initial training when they start the job and then after that just
refresher training, just questionnaire to find that they actually do know
what they doing so how they do a deposit for instance that is every
couple of month then. We do not conduct any regular training; like I
said when they know the system we do not really need it.
[Manager-6]
The interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that they conduct

refresher training for their employees if they face any problem with the
system. In particular, Manager-7 said that “we train users if they make
mistakes or if they say they do not know how to do something”. Further,
Manager-5 declared that they conduct refresher training if the system is
changed or upgraded. In that sense, Manager-8 pointed that “if any piece
of equipment or piece of the computer changed, we make sure that we
train the team”. Therefore, managers of budget hotels have to provide
both regular training as well as refresher training in order to keep their
employees up-to-date with the system changes.

There are several possible barriers confronting managers of budget hotels
to train their employees. Manager-5 mentioned that the limited number of
Page 5-79
trainers might be a possible barrier confronting training employees. In

Further, Manager-6 reported that the more experienced staff members
have to train new employees as well as doing their day-to-day jobs. The
limited time for the training could be another barrier facing managers in
budget hotels. In particular, Manager-7 said that “budget hotels obviously
like us face a lot of problems, like we do not have enough hours to
actually be able to sit down together and train people”. To that end,
Manager-7 revealed that employees might resist change and in turn it will
affect their ability to acquire new skills from the training, as demonstrated
Another problem is that users get stay on their ways and they do not
like change and they do not willing sometimes to actually learn
something new or make changes themselves which is really required,
that are just main things, like staying in their way and stopping and
just not changing, but in a company like this the climate at the moment
everybody needs to change.
[Manager-7]

the HIS training is readily available, followed by 79.5% of end-user
employees (sum = 151) who reported that the HIS trainers were well
qualified; 77.9 % of end-user employees (sum = 148) reported that they
were satisfied with their level of learning from the HIS training. In the
same way, 73.2% of end-user employees (sum = 139) reported that the
HIS training provided was excellent; 72.1% of end-user employees
pointed that the HIS training met their expectations (sum = 137). Overall,
most end-user employees (sum = 142; 74.7%) reported that they enjoyed
the HIS training. There are similarities between these findings and those
reported by the interviewed end-user employees (User-3; user-4). This is
Page 5-80
Figure 5.19: The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
80
The HIS trainers are well
70 qualified.

always excellent.
50
I am satisfied with my level of
40
30
The HIS training sessions met
20 my expectations.
10 Overall, I enjoyed the HIS
0 training.
IT training scale items

%

In order to improve the training in budget hotels, Manager-6
recommended that both regular training as well as refresher training have
to be provided to keep employees up-to-date with new things. Another
important practical implication is that more time has to be given to train
employees on the job. In that sense, Manager-7 reported that new
employees need more time to learn how to use the system, as follows:
We need more time to train people, besides time nothing, most
companies give you less time as possible to actually train new people
and new persons and I cannot do for two weeks or three weeks, but
obviously on the desk you cannot train for every single occurrence is
gonna happen, but I think new starters need more time with somebody
that more experienced for little bite longer, so they have got more time
to actually see and gain confidence in actually dealing with different
situations.
[Manager-7]

have to get the feedback of their employees to know what they expect
from the training. In that respect, Manager-6 said that “I think probably, it
would be to ask for employees feedback and ask them what they need, not
just give them updated training on something they might be hundred
Page 5-81
percent competent”. Further, managers of budget hotels have to review

the content of the training regularly, as follows:
I think our company’s training is quite comprehensive anyway, so it is
something that being reviewed regularly by our HR department and
our sales department to make things as simple as possible, so they are
always checking the training.
[Manager-8]
5.6 End-user IT support

The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified two possible types
of IT support; on-site IT support and off-site IT support. Further, the
interviewed managers revealed the reasons for using off-site IT support.
In that respect, the managers declared the barriers confronting end-user IT
support and their suggestions to improve the IT support. The following
sections demonstrate all these issues in the budget hotels using off-the-
shelf hotel information systems as well as the budget hotels using bespoke
systems.

5.6.1.1 On-site IT support
All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that they do not
have an on-site IT department; while, they have an off-site IT department
based on their head office. There are several possible explanations for this
trend. A possible explanation by Manager-4 for this might be that budget
hotels do not have enough budgets to hire an on-site IT manager. In that
sense, Manager-3 claimed that “if anybody is gonna to implement an IT
strategy in the hotel, they will not gonna to pay for an on-site IT manager
because they do not have enough budgets”. Further, Manager-2 reported
that they would prefer off-site IT department because “on the day-to-day
basis you do not always need anybody that wastes your costs”. To that
end, Manager-3 declared that their hotel is too small to justify an on-site
IT manager, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We have an external IT support not internal IT support. Our hotel is
just to small to justify IT manager, most hotels in Cardiff to be honest
Page 5-82
between let say sixty and hundred and thirty rooms do not have an IT
manager because it is very hard to justify an on-site IT manager all the
times, an on-site IT manager is going to be paid an original from
eighteen to twenty four thousands pounds and it is very difficult
because that person does not generate you money, he/she is not a sales
person working in reservations, meeting and events or perhaps in sales
team making money for the company that person is just used in the
backup.
[Manager-3]
Another possible explanation reported by Manager-3 for not having an

on-site IT department is that hotel information systems do not crash
enough times to justify the recruitment of an on-site IT manager. More
specifically, Manager-3 stated that “how many printers and how many
PCs you get a day which is crashed, it is not many to be honest”.
Similarly, Manager-4 declared that off-site IT department is better
because “the amount goes wrong is minimal, it is not very often we have
any big issue”. Further, Manager-2 as well as Manager-4 reported that
with the advanced technology nowadays it is easy to dial in and rectify IT
problems from off site. To that end, Manager-1 mentioned that off-site IT
departments became a trend in most hotels within the last ten years, as
I think if you go back ten years, it used to be IT in each hotel. I think
the trend now the IT is a central function, you call up Protel or
whoever support for this software and I think the way the industry gone
over the last ten years, also there is no more in-house IT now, so
clustered or central function. I think that makes sense because it is cost
implication but as systems modified and new puts come out they are
supported by the manufacturers.
[Manager-1]
However, Manager-3 argued that they face particular problems because

they do not have an on-site IT manager, as follows: (1) it may take a lot of
time to solve the system problems and subsequently it may have negative
impact on customer service, (2) it may add a lot of stress on managers as
well as it may take them away from their main job, (3) the limited IT
knowledge of managers that help them to solve the IT problems on their
own and (4) the possibility of increasing the IT problems because
Page 5-83
managers are not specialised in solving IT problems. Added to that,

Manager-1 stated that “there is frustration if your physical equipment
breaks down because you do not have somebody on-site”. The following
quote illustrates an example of IT problem occurred during conducting an
interview with front-office manager in a budget hotel:
That how we solve issues without having an IT manager, it takes a lot
of time, of course it takes me away from my work that things I need to
do and have to deal with this to be honest I prefer somebody else to do
this because they will have more idea than me. I have to find keyboard
entry to fix this problem. I now plugged the keyboard, he asks me to
wait for few minutes and then I will restart it. I am gonna to have to try
to find a solution with the instructions he gives me with the telephone, I
might doing things wrong and this why you actually need an on-site IT
manager because few people can do this as I will go. If we have an on-
site IT manager he/she probably looking at things differently than what
I am, I have to do things over the phone that is so much complicated.
[Manager-3]
5.6.1.2 Off-site IT support
The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified two types of off-site
IT support, namely off-site IT support by the hotel central IT department
and off-site IT support by the system vendor. With regards to the former
type of the IT support, Manager-2 stated that they have an off-site IT
department based on the central office, “it is a part of the company but it
is based on a different hotel, we can just dial in and they respond and sort
our problems out”. This is consistent with Manager-4 who pointed that
“we have a technical department, so any problem we just ring them and
somebody dials in and sorts it out or somebody comes out if needed”. In
that sense, Manager-1 declared that the off-site IT department performs a
lot of functions, such as managing the system crashes and upgrades,
training end-user employees and handling the physical equipment, as
We have an off-site IT department, it is based in the head office and
they support the twenty-one hotels. We have somebody manages Protel
from the head office, his job is to manage the hotel system, it is
important, he manages upgrades, he manages system downtimes, he
manages latest features, training, everything that is for all twenty-one
hotels. Off-site IT is here to manage the physical side of IT, so the
networks, the equipment, people accesses, rights, over sort of things.
Page 5-84
The support is only a phone call away and if you need physical
equipment it can be carried or posted with a day. So I do not see it as a
problem.
[Manager-1]
With regards to the system vendor support, Manager-1 maintained that if

the system is always crashing, it is better to contact the system vendor for
support. Similarly, Manager-2 declared that “if our IT department can
handle the system problems they respond, if not they escalated up Fidelio
company and Fidelio company will call you back”. A possible
explanation by Manager-4 for this might be that the system vendor team
are specialists and more knowledgeable with the system than the hotel IT
team. This is consistent with Manager-1 who pointed that “our IT people
have an understanding of the Protel but the Protel people themselves have
the specialist knowledge”. To that end, Manager-3 reported that the hotel
is paying an annual fee for the system upgrade, the system maintenance as
well as the system support, as evidenced below:
If you get stuck with Opera let say crashes and you cannot get through
to your server and you cannot turn around and solve issues yourself.
You need to be able to call Opera centre who at twenty four-hours a
day can be reached and then they would dial in remotely in your server
and try to fix and to correct any corrupted files and perhaps give you
some instructions on how to reboot it and how to get up and running
because you can have Opera out for few days.
[Manager-3]
5.6.1.3 Barriers confronting IT support

There are several possible barriers confronting IT support in budget hotels
as emerged by the interviewed managers. In particular, Manager-3
declared that when the off-site IT team dial in they want to speak to
somebody who understands the system and not just somebody who is a
user because “if you do not understand the system the engineer over the
phone will not be able to help you”. Another possible barrier confronting
IT support in budget hotels is the difficulty to contact the off-site IT help
desk at night. In that sense, Manager-2 reported that “during the night
time, the response of our IT support is very poor or quite slow, it is a
Page 5-85
nightmare”. Further, Manager-2 reported that there is a difficulty to

contact the off-site IT help desk in weekends and bank holidays.
Another possible barrier confronting IT support is the limited number of

people in the support team. In that sense, Manager-2 declared that “there
are so many hotels and usually one person working in IT support
department”. Further, Manager-1 claimed that if the physical equipment
breaks down users could be more frustrated because the time it takes to
replace that equipment by the off-site IT department. To that end,
Manager-2 reported that the system network is very slow and
subsequently off-site IT support team may take long time to backup data
and download the system files, as evidenced below:
Our networks used to be very slow which we certain have problem with
and an upgrade was done, so the network is faster now. We used to find
first thing in the morning when every body was in and because we link
to Paris, the IT advisor takes quite long time to load anything because
everyone was on the system. But it is not bad now but other that; I
would not say there are any IT key problems that cause any defects.
[Manager-2]
From the standpoint of end-user employees, the survey results revealed

that the IT support construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.3; Std.
Dev. = 0.8). In particular, most end-user employees (sum = 164; 71.3%)
reported that their information system department is available for
assistance with HIS difficulties, followed by 68.3% of end-user
employees (sum = 157) who mentioned that they have the technological IT
resources (e.g. hardware and software) necessary to use the HIS; 65.2% of
end-user employees (sum = 150) pointed that the technological IT
resources are of high quality; 64.3% of end-user employees revealed that
they have knowledgeable IT technical staff (sum = 150). However, only
52.2% and 50.4% of end-user employees mentioned that the number of
the IT technical staff is adequate and the IT technical staff resolve HIS
problems quickly, respectively. Therefore, adequate number of IT
technical staff has to be available for assistance with HIS difficulties as
well as they have to resolve HIS problems quickly (see Figure 5.20).
Page 5-86
Figure 5.20: The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
The information system department
90 is available for assistance with HIS
difficulties.
80 To interact with the HIS, I have
knowledgeable IT technical staff.
70
60 The number of the IT technical staff

is adequate.
50
The IT technical staff resolve HIS
40 problems quickly.
30
I have the technological IT
20 resources (e.g. hardware and
software) necessary to use the HIS.
10 The technological IT resources (e.g.
hardware and software) are of high
0 quality.
% IT support scale items
5.6.1.4 Improving IT support

The previous findings have a number of important implications for future
practice if budget hotels do not have an on-site IT department. In that
regard, budget hotels have to invest on one manager to be able to solve
the IT problems. Manager-3 claimed that if a hotel is not going to invest
in an on-site engineer, “this means this role needs to be undertaken by
either night manager or front-of-house manager or maintenance team”.
Another important practical implication is that appropriate IT training and
resources have to be provided to managers of budget hotels. In this
regard, Manager-3 indicated that “it is important that all the tools are
presented to these guys; the training and the resources”. To that end,
Manager-4 recommended that managers of budget hotels need to have the
intention to learn and to improve their IT skills, as evidenced below:
However it is also down to the manager to turn around and learn more
about the business, learn more about the IT, learn more about the
software, the server, it is all there. If you want to open your eyes is
there, it makes you more efficient organisation and you can turn
around and correct problems faster if you know how to do it. Otherwise
you literally shooting on the dark and you do not know what you are
doing, you making more mistakes by possibly trying new things and
that can jeopardise the company business and can jeopardise the
company profit because if for example you did not have Opera support
Page 5-87
and you went down and you do not know how to restart it, reboot it
then you could loose potentially ten thousands of pounds a day and this
something is need to be considered.
[Manager-3]

have to improve the IT skills of their staff to be able to interact with the
off-site IT support by conducting on-line learning courses. In that sense,
Manager-1 stated that “I think if there is an access to people to learn on-
line, a complete on-line learning course that would be the next stage of
IT”. Further, increasing the number of IT support team could be another
possible suggestion to facilitate employees‟ accessibility to the off-site IT
support. Similarly, FGLP-3 recommended that a suitable number of
technical IT staff has to be available to help users on time:
We get trouble in contacting IT support, so I mean ideally it would be
better for us to have more people on the IT support on call or remote-
based with the laptops they can dial in to any of the systems. But I do
not think that is gonna happen.
[Manager-2]

reported that they do not have an on-site IT manager; however, they have
an off-site IT help desk. A possible explanation by Manager-7 for this is
that an on-site IT department might be quite expensive for small budget
hotels. Further, Manager-8 declared that the system does not crash often
enough to recruit an on-site IT manager. Similarly, Manager-6 reported
that the system is quite simple and easy to use; therefore there is no need
to have an on-site IT department. Another possible explanation reported
by Manager-7 for this might be that off-site IT help desk can dial in into
the system and solve any system problem, as follows:
The amount of money would cost if have a small IT department in every
hotel, it would be crazy, so not worth because the system does not
break down that often to allow somebody to be here and the things do
happen, generally I could fix or somebody around could fix, there is no
Page 5-88
need for an IT department in individual sites because help desk can

actually dial into our computers, so they actually can look on what we
are looking at and fix it in front of us as well. Having an on-site IT
department depends on how big the hotel is and what the system is like
and what sort of problems, if it is just a single hotel not a chain then
you would need some sort of IT experience somewhere, but if it is like a
chain of ten hotels you would not need one person in each site, you
need somebody on call but you would not need an IT person on site.
[Manager-7]

The interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that if they face any
problem with their chain systems, they could contact their off-site IT help
desks. In particular, Manager-7 said that “we have got a help line support
that opens from eight o‟clock at the morning till eleven o‟clock at the
night, so you always get support at the end of the phone”. Similarly,
Manager-6 stated that “we have got help desk, it is opened twenty-four
hours a day, so we telephone them they can dial in to our computers and
sort problems out then”. In a similar vein, some of the interviewed
managers (e.g. Manager-7; Manager-8) declared that their off-site IT help
desk could fix any system problems on the phone; they do not need to
come to the site. However, if it is a big problem with a particular
hardware, they might send somebody out to fix the problem. This is
consistent with Manager-7 who pointed that “the IT help desk either fix it
on the phone or within twenty-four hours somebody will be out”, as
demonstrated below:
Our IT help desk can dial in to our system at any time and have a look
to our system and see where the problem is and if they can alleviate the
problem and solve the problem they will do straightaway. The IT help
desk is very good, sometimes the system goes down but that is a cliché
in the system, but the system packs itself up on a regular basis, so the
information that being inputted is usually saved and if you phone our
system team up and go on the line, explain the problem, nine times of
ten times they solve that problem.
[Manager-8]
Moreover, all the interviewed managers reported that they only have
support from their IT help desk and they do not have any other external
support. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this is that their IT help
Page 5-89
desk might be more experienced with their chain systems than any other
external company. In that respect, Manager-7 declared that “it is
beneficial for us to have somebody who knows our system and not going
out for a different company who does not know the system as well as we
do”. Similarly, Manager-8 pointed that their off-site IT help desk can
solve the system problems on the phone. In particular, Manager-7 implied
that “for Bart system, all the IT problems can be solved through the
phone”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
It is better to have off-site IT department like now. I think because it is
literately just a telephone call and somebody asking, dealing with the
issue, talking to staff, trying to find the problem themselves. So, staff
members know they get somebody they can call and get it sorted. We
have never placed a call and have not got it sorted; so off-site IT
department is pretty good.
[Manager-6]

There are several possible barriers facing IT support in budget hotels as
reported by the interviewed managers. Manager-5 reported that
sometimes it is difficult to contact the IT help desk in weekends and bank
holidays. More specifically, Manager-6 said that “we have certain times
when the IT help desk is actually out for twenty-four hours”. Further,
Manager-7 reported that it is difficult to contact their off-site IT help desk
at night because the IT help desk opens from eight o‟clock at the morning
till eleven o‟clock at the night, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If users face any problem after eleven o’clock either phone me or
model through or just wait until the office opens again in the morning.
It depends on what sort of problem is, they would not make a customer
stand on front desk for eight hours, I do not know what problem would
come about with the system that would make the customers wait, there
is nothing, you can check somebody manually let them go to the room,
take money and then sort that in the morning with the company.
[Manager-7]
Another possible barrier facing IT support is that sometimes the IT help

desk might not be able to solve the problems quickly because they might
have a lot of problems at the same time. In particular, Manager-7 declared
Page 5-90
that “the IT help desk might have problems from more than five hundreds
hotels at the same time; it can happen because Bart system is actually
linked to every single hotel in that company”. To that end, Manager-8
claimed that employees as well as managers might be frustrated if the
problems are not solved quickly, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I could fix the problem myself. Receptionist phone me, if they can fix it
they phone me, if they cannot fix then they can phone like the help desk,
but I am always available on the phone and obviously I have been with
the company for a while I know a lot of things that we can do to
actually fix different problems. If I am not on the shift they also call me,
I am manager available all the times anyway, it can make stress on me
sometimes but I find it better to actually deal with the problem on the
time instead of leaving them and I coming after my two days off and it
escalated from little problem to huge problem.
[Manager-8]

revealed that they have knowledgeable IT technical staff, followed by
82.6% of end-user employees who reported that their information system
department is available for assistance with HIS difficulties; 81.1% of end-
user employees reported that the IT technical staff resolve HIS problems
quickly; 77.9% of end-user employees pointed that the number of the IT
technical staff is adequate. However, to a lesser extent, 75.8% of end-user
employees reported that they have the technological IT resources (e.g.
hardware and software) necessary to use the HIS, followed by 70.5% of
end-user employees who reported that the technological IT resources are
of high quality. Therefore, the technological IT resources have to be
updated regularly to meet end-user employees‟ expectations. The present
findings seem to be consistent with User-3 and User-4 who reported that
the IT support in their hotels is pretty good; however, they may find some
difficulties in contacting the IT help desk in weekends. This is
Page 5-91
Figure 5.21: The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
is available for assistance with HIS
difficulties.
70
The number of the IT technical
60
staff is adequate.
50
30
10 The technological IT resources
(e.g. hardware and software) are of
0 high quality.

The previous findings suggest several courses of action for improving the
IT support in budget hotels. An implication of these findings is that
employees as well as managers have to try to solve the simple problems
by using the system help icon instead of contacting the off-site IT help
desk directly. In particular, Manager-8 declared that “the system help icon
gives you step by step guide if certain things happen which prevent you
from contacting the system help desk but if you could not solve the
problem you contact the IT help desk”. Another important practical
implication is that managers have to learn more about their hotel chain
systems to be able to solve the problems on their own before phoning the
IT help desk. In that sense, Manager-7 said that “there is no courses to be
able to gain experience with IT, not with problems we need to fix; you
actually go through and learn by experience”. Further, the IT help desk
have to be in a direct contact with the employees as well as managers to
be familiar with the common system problems, as follows:
The IT help desk have to make sure they actually experience using the
system. They need to know what is like to actually be on the desk, how
people are using the system when things go wrong. So they should like
go out and visit sites by themselves and see what people experience.
[Manager-7]
Page 5-92
5.7 End-user motivation

There are several possible ways of motivating people to use the system as
reported by the interviewed managers of budget hotels. One possible way
of motivating users is by making them more interested and helping them
to enjoy using the system (intrinsic motivation). For example, Manager-2
reported they motivate their users by encouraging them to use the system
as well as involving them in the decision making subsequently they would
be more interested to use the system. In that sense, Manager-3 stated that
“I motivate my staff by giving them support all the time as much as I can;
by showing them the best ways of using the system effectively”. This is
consistent with previously-published results (e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and
Warshaw, 1992; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Chiang and Jang, 2008). The
following quote shows some examples of the intrinsic motivation:
To motivate users, difficult one, I mean it is all about what we want
users to enjoy the job, to be honest, and if they enjoy and understand
they will use the system effectively. I suppose the incentives we do, we
have different incentives in place within the reception role, sort of
encouraging them, sort of getting them involved in the role. So, you
know, we have got incentive in place to get so many people enrolled in
one system which talk to another system.
[Manager-2]
Another possible way of motivating people to use the system is by

rewarding them (extrinsic motivation). In that respect, Manager-3
revealed that “I motivate my staff by giving them holidays when they
need”. Further, Manager-2 said that “I get sort of prizes and things like
that to motivate my staff”. This finding is consistent with the literature
(e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1992; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Chiang
and Jang, 2008). To that end, Manager-4 declared that motivating users
has a lot of benefits such as helping them to do the job more effectively
and more easily. Similarly, Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge (2008) declared
that users who enjoy the process of using technology may tend to
underestimate its difficulty and find it easier to use, as follows:
Page 5-93
To motivate the users to use Opera system, again motivation is a tool to

do the job, is not it, so by motivating users these actually can help you
to do the job easier, more effectively, better, support you, it is a good
tool actually to get them up to speed really.
[Manager-4]
However, Manager-1 argued that motivating people to use the system is

not needed. A possible explanation for this might be that using the system
is a part of people‟s job role; therefore, they do not need to be motivated
to use the system. In that sense, manager-1 declared that “I do not
motivate my staff to use the system, a part of their job they need to use
the system”.
These findings suggest several courses of action for encouraging people

to use the system and giving them the support they need. This implication
further supports Venkatesh, Speier and Morris‟s (2002) findings which
showed that the use of an intrinsic motivator during training could help
users to create positive perceptions of IS applications. This is consistent
with Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge (2008) who demonstrated that intrinsic
motivation can increase time spent on tasks, result in more productive
work, increase cognitive processing and enhanced extrinsic motivation
perceptions.

All the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that their
employees do not need to be motivated to use the system. A possible
explanation by Manager-5 for this might be that bespoke systems are
usually designed to be easy to use; therefore, employees do not need to be
motivated to use easy systems. In that sense, Manager-7 declared that “I
would not say to use the system, users need to be motivated to work; the
system is just so straightforward and easy to use”. Similarly, Manager-6
demonstrated that employees do not need to be motivated to use the
system because it is easy to use; however, they might need to be
motivated when they are frustrated, as follows:
Page 5-94
Only if they have a really bad day with the system, if the system is
particularly slow then they get frustrated, but they do not need
motivation to use the system because I think it is quite simple system to
use, there is no motivation, may be if the computer being really slow
and they get frustrated because they often get away from the system to
catch up with them, but they do not need motivation to use it.
[Manager-6]
Another possible explanation by Manager-5 for not motivating employees

to use the system might be that the system is a basic tool to do the job;
therefore, employees do not need to be motivated to use this tool which is
part of their job. In that respect, Manager-7 implied that “users cannot do
their job without using the system either, so I do not look at system as one
thing, it is just a tool to help users do their job”. Similarly, Manager-8
declared that employees do not need to be motivated to use that system
because they have to be experienced to use it as part of their job, as
Users do not need to be motivated to use the system because it is part
of their job, it is something that everybody has to be experienced and
knowledgeable about it because it is part of their job, nobody here who
works for the front of house does not know how to work the system,
everybody knows how to keen what they need to use.
[Manager-8]
A practical implication of these findings is that managers of budget hotels

have to encourage their employees to work better. Another important
practical implication of these findings is that managers of budget hotels
have to motivate their older employees who might find working with
hotel information systems more frustrating than younger employees.
5.8 An evaluation of the findings in respect of theory of planned

behaviour (TPB)
The theory of planned behaviour has been adopted in this study as a
theoretical basis to predict and understand the behaviour of users towards
hotel information systems. The TPB postulates that behavioural intention
to use is jointly determined by three factors, which are: attitude towards
Page 5-95
use, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen &

Fishbein, 1980; Huh, Kim & Law, 2009). The three main components of
the TPB were tested in budget hotel, as follows:

that the attitude towards use construct was initially significant (Mean =
3.7; Std. Dev. = 0.7). Most end-user employees (sum = 186; 80.9%)
reported that using the HIS is a good idea, followed by 77.8% of end-user
employee who reported that they like the idea of using the HIS. To a
lesser extent, 70% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS is
pleasant compared to 67.8% of end-user employees who reported that
using the HIS is a wise idea. This is shown in Figure 5.22.
Figure 5.22: The attitude towards use emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
Using the HIS is a good
70 idea.
60 Using the HIS is a wise
idea.
50
Using the HIS is pleasant.
40
30
I like the idea of using the
20 HIS.
10
% Attitude towards use scale items
On the other hand, the survey results showed that the subjective norms
construct was initially insignificant (Mean = 1.9; Std. Dev. = 0.5). The
survey results revealed that most end-user employees had low normative
beliefs concerning their referents (i.e. superiors; peers; customers) as well
as low motivation to comply with their referents‟ opinions. From one
hand, a small number of end-user employees believed that their superiors
(sum = 122; 53%); their peers (sum = 113; 49.1%); their customers (sum =
54; 23.5%) would think that they should have the knowledge and ability
Page 5-96
to use the HIS. From the other hand, to a lesser extent, only 31.3% of end-
user employees who wanted to comply with their superiors‟ opinions
concerning using HIS, followed by 28.3% of end-user employees who
wanted to comply with their peers‟ opinions concerning using HIS; 23.5%
of end-user employees wanted to comply with their customers‟ opinions
concerning using HIS, as demonstrated in Figure 5.23. These findings are
inconsistent with those of Burnkrant and Page (1988) who reported that
peers and superiors have a profound effect on employees‟ technology
acceptance.
Figure 5.23: The subjective norms emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100 My peers would think that I should

90 have the knowledge and ability to
use the HIS.
80 Generally speaking, I want to do
what my peers think I should do.
70
60
My superiors would think that I
should have the knowledge and
50 ability to use the HIS.
Generally speaking, I want to do
40 what my superiors think I should
30
do.
Customers would think that I
20 should have the knowledge and
ability to use the HIS.
what customers think I should do.
0
% Subjective norms scale items
In addition, the survey results showed that the perceived behaviour

control construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.9; Std. Dev. = 0.7). In
particular, most end-user employees (sum = 186; 80.9%) reported that
there is no gap between their existing skills and knowledge and those
required by the HIS, followed by 78.3% of end-user employees who
reported that they had the knowledge and ability to make use of the HIS;
74.8% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS is entirely
within their control. This is shown in Figure 5.24.
Page 5-97
Figure 5.24: The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
I feel that there is no gap
80 between my existing skills and
knowledge and those required
70 by the HIS.
Using the HIS is entirely within
60
my control.
50
40 I have the knowledge and ability

to make use of the HIS.
30
20
10
0
% Perceived behaviour control scale items

employee who reported that they like the idea of using the HIS. To a
lesser extent, 73.7% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS is
a wise idea, followed by 69.5% of end-user employees who reported that
using the HIS is pleasant (see Figure 5.25).
Figure 5.25: The attitude towards use emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
Using the HIS is a good idea.
70
60 Using the HIS is a wise idea.

50
Using the HIS is pleasant.
40
30 I like the idea of using the

20 HIS.
10
0
Page 5-98
On the other hand, the survey results also showed that the subjective
norms construct was initially insignificant (Mean = 2.1; Std. Dev. = 0.8).
The survey results revealed that most end-user employees had low
normative beliefs concerning their referents (i.e. superiors; peers;
customers) as well as low motivation to comply with their referents‟
opinions. From one hand, a small number of end-user employees believed
that their superiors (sum = 107; 56.3%); their peers (sum = 103; 54.2%);
their customers (sum = 70; 46.8%) would think that they should have the
knowledge and ability to use the HIS. From the other hand, to a lesser
extent, only 42.1% of end-user employees who wanted to comply with
their superiors‟ opinions concerning using HIS, followed by 40.5% of
end-user employees who wanted to comply with their peers‟ opinions
concerning using HIS; 36.8% of end-user employees wanted to comply
with their customers‟ opinions concerning using HIS, as demonstrated in
Figure 5.26. These findings are consistent with those of the interviewed
end-user employees (User-3; User-4).
Figure 5.26: The subjective norms emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
My peers would think that I should
use the HIS.
70
60
do.
30
Customers would think that I
20 should have the knowledge and
ability to use the HIS.
0
From the perspective of end-user employees, the survey results showed

that the perceived behaviour control construct was initially significant
(Mean = 3.9; Std. Dev. = 0.6). In particular, most end-user employees (sum
Page 5-99
= 153; 80.5%) reported that they had the knowledge and ability to make
use of the HIS, followed by 77.9% of end-user employees who reported
that there is no gap between their existing skills and knowledge and those
required by the HIS; 74.2% of end-user reported that using the HIS is
entirely within their control. This is shown in Figure 2.27.
Figure 5.27: The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
I feel that there is no gap between
my existing skills and knowledge
70 and those required by the HIS.
60
50 my control.
40
30
I have the knowledge and ability to
20 make use of the HIS.
10
%
Perceived behaviour control scale items

The interviewed managers of budget hotels reported several possible
impacts of their hotel information systems, such as productivity,
competitive advantage, service quality, decision making and end-user
employees‟ satisfaction. The following sections demonstrate the impacts
of hotel information systems as emerged from transcribing the interviews
data, as follows:

5.9.1.1 Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
reported that hotel information systems make end-user employees more
productive. In particular, Manager-1 as well as Manager-3 pointed that
front-office systems help receptionists to check-in customer quickly and
Page 5-100
subsequently receptionists are more productive in their jobs. This finding

is consistent with the focus group initial findings (e.g. PFGP-4; FGLP-3)
as well as the literature that supports this relationship (e.g. Devaraj and
Kohli, 2000; Anandrajan, Igbaria and Anakwe, 2000; Menon, Lee and
Eldenburg, 2000; Kudyba and Diwan, 2002; Kohli and Devaraj, 2003). In
that sense, Manager-4 identified two possible benefits of using hotel
information systems that make users more productive. Firstly, hotel
information systems help users to follow set procedures. Secondly, hotel
information systems organise and standardise the job functions of users
and subsequently make them more productive, as evidenced below:
I think Opera makes users more productive because you need to follow
a set system to use it, so you can quite easily see how long it takes to
check out, how long it takes to check somebody in, you follow a set
format so by the time you done that it makes you productive to what
you doing, so when you look at staff level, you can quite easily see what
to do and once they done that it frees up time to do other things.
[Manager-4]
5.9.1.2 Budget hotels using bespoke systems

reported that their employees are more productive using their bespoke
hotel information systems. There are several possible explanations for
employees‟ productivity. A possible explanation reported by Manager-6
for employees‟ productivity might be that hotel information systems
guide employees step by step to accomplish their tasks, such as check-in
and check-out and subsequently employees might be less forgetful and
more productive, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think users are more productive using Bart system, they do not do
manually so often so they can panic because they have used to use the
computer system and they know what come in next on Bart, but like I
said we do not use manual system often, so they can panic a bit when
they have to use manual system, they forget stuff they know, whereas
the computer in front of them telling them what is next, it is easy system
to follow.
[Manager-6]
Page 5-101
Another possible explanation for employees‟ productivity might be that

hotel information systems help employees to accomplish their tasks more
quickly. In that sense, Manager-7 declared that their employees are more
productive because the hotel information system helps them to
accomplish their tasks more quickly as compared to the manual system
“for example, checking somebody in using the Bart system takes less
time, less than five minutes, I would say it is quicker”. Similarly,
Manager-8 claimed that employees are more productive using hotel
information systems because “the system stops mental arithmetic, stops
people remembering prices because all you need to do press button on
prices there, they rely on the system a lot more”. This is demonstrated in
Even you do manual check-in, manual check-out, you have to then go
into Bart when it is fixed, so it would be more productive not to have to
do manual work, all go through Bart. The fast of using the system
depends on the person because I am quite quick on the computer, I can
do check-in quite quickly, whereas other people a little bit slower, so
they take longer, it just depends who is using the system.
[Manager-7]

reported that hotel information systems do not create competitive
advantage for their hotels nor their employees. A possible explanation by
Manager-1 for this is that most hotels use the same hotel information
systems and subsequently they have the same competitive advantage.
Similarly, Manage-4 reported that hotel information systems are widely
used in the hotel industry; therefore, hotel information systems do not
create any competitive advantage for the hotels. This finding is consistent
with the focus groups initial findings (e.g. FGITTS4) which showed that
computer systems do not create any competitive advantage for the
organisations. Similarly, other researchers (Powell and Dent-Micallef,
1997; Weill and Broadbent, 1998) argued that ICT systems are unlikely to
Page 5-102
serve as a source of competitive advantage due to the fact that physical

ICT infrastructure can be purchased or duplicated fairly easily by
competitors, as demonstrated below:
I do not know if Opera system creates a competitive advantage for
Travelodge, I am not sure, I know a lot of other hotels use Opera, I am
not sure to what extent, I am not sure if it is an advantage, if the work
is really much better out of it, I just think something used widely within
the industry and it works for what we want to do.
[Manager-4]
However, FGAP-1 as well as FGAP-2 reported that if computer systems

are most updated, fast and easy to use, they might give more advantages
to the employees and their organisations. Similarly, several studies
(Brown, Gatian and Hicks, 1995; Farrell, 2003) showed that a firm‟s
technological ICT resource is a key source for attaining long-term
competitive advantage. Added to that, FGAP-5 implied that computer
systems can create competitive advantage, if employees have the
technical and managerial ICT skills to take the correct decisions. This is
consistent with previously-published results (Mata, Fuerst and Barney,
1995; Bharadwaj, 2000; Ray, Muhanna and Barney, 2005) which showed
that human ICT resources are difficult to acquire and complex to imitate,
thereby serving as sources of competitive advantage. An implication of
these findings is that managers of budget hotels have to improve the IT
skills of their employees; since budget hotels could not afford to create
competitive advantage by using the most advanced hotel information
systems.

reported that their systems do not create any competitive advantage for
their hotel nor their employees. A possible explanation reported by
Manager-8 for this might be that bespoke systems are not widely used
amongst hotels because they are designed for particular hotel chains;
therefore they do not create any sort of competitive advantage. Another
Page 5-103
possible explanation by Manager-5 for this is that both bespoke systems

as well as off-the-shelf systems might be quite similar; therefore, they do
not create any competitive advantage. More specifically, Manager-7 said
that hotel systems do not create any competitive advantage because “they
are quite similar, so I do not think systems make a difference”. This is
consistent with Manager-6 who revealed that bespoke systems as well as
off-the-shelf systems are quite similar; the only difference might be that
people need to be re-trained if they want to cross hotel brands, as
It is quite difficult to answer which is better to use a bespoke system or
an international system because it is good and bad for both. I do not
think the system itself can create any competitive advantage, there is no
relation. Hotels using international systems like Opera or Fidelio can
sort of cross brands, whereas at the moment anybody working at
Premier Inn would find a difficult going to Holiday Inn where Fidelio
for example because they have possibly never used the system, whereas
somebody in Holiday Inn could possibly go from there to Marriott
because it is the same system, so that is the only issue with people who
want to cross brands into different hotels, they need to be completely
re-trained.
[Manager-6]

systems (e.g. Manager-1; Manager-3) reported that hotel information
systems might improve customer service quality. More specifically,
Manager-1 asserted that hotel information systems help receptionists to
accomplish their tasks quickly and subsequently receptionists spend most
of the time with the customers. This finding is consistent with the focus
groups initial findings (e.g. PFGP-4; FGLP-2; FGAP-3) which showed
that technology improves the quality of service, reduces time of customer
service and subsequently increases customer satisfaction of perceived
service. This also is consistent with the literature that supports this
relationship (Hartman et al., 2002; Lin and Lee, 2006; Lin, 2007; Kim
and Kim, 2008). However, Manager-4 argued that hotel information
Page 5-104
systems might have negative impact on customer service. For example,

some receptionists might concentrate more on computer screens rather
concentrate with the customers. This is consistent with the focus groups
initial findings which showed that full automation services may have bad
effects on service quality. Sometimes, customers need a personalised
service, as evidenced below:
I think again if you look at recruitment, when we talk about recruitment
earlier, you look in recruit people who really good with customer
service, so they already thinking on customers rather than computers.
[Manager-4]

practice. An implication of these findings is that managers of budget
hotels have to train their employees to provide good customer service
using the hotel information systems. In that sense, Manager-4 declared
that “it is about training to ensure that they have not to concentrate so
much on computer screen, so they can concentrate on customers as well”.
have to recruit people with good customer service skills. In that respect,
Manager-4 implied that “we recruit people who really good with customer
service, so they already thinking on customers rather than computers”.
Similarly, Manager-3 mentioned the importance of customer service in
Good receptionist to me somebody who is proactive and somebody who
is professional beside all of that the good receptionist is somebody who
is good with customers, somebody who is polite and friendly. You do
not get a receptionist who like a robot does everything really well but
lacks the customer service because often you find many customers will
forgive a hotel for having let say bad bedrooms or bad breakfast they
will forgive it if the staff really polite and friendly.
[Manager-3]

reported that their systems improve the service quality provided to the
customers. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this might be that
Page 5-105
employees spend more time with customers because the information

system is quite easy use. In that sense, Manager-6 reported that their hotel
information system improves the customer service because “the system is
so simple you can talk to the guests while you checking them in”.
Similarly, Manager-8 revealed that “people have to be able to interact
with the customers and with the system at the same time”. In a similar
vein, Manager-7 claimed that it is easy to use the system and to speak to
the customers at the same time because the system is not so complicated,
If you are experienced enough in your job, you can sort of like give
enough focus on the customer as well as doing on Bart system as well.
If you are experienced enough, if you done manual check-in, so like
focus hundred percent on the customer, it might be a good idea, just
doing it on the computer and speaking to the customer at the same
time.
[Manager-7]
Another possible explanation for this might be that employees spend more
time with the customers because the information system helps employees
to accomplish their tasks more quickly. In particular, Manager-6 said that
with computer systems customer service is better because “it is quicker
than doing it manually, people can talk to the guests and computer
systems do what they need to do”. To that end, Manager-7 declared that
doing tasks using computer systems is quicker than using the manual
system, as evidenced in the following quote:
For example, checking somebody in using the Bart system takes less
time, less than five minutes, I would say it is quicker on the computer
because with this company is more what you have to say to the
customers, like you have to say certain things and that takes just the
same amount of time as it takes to actually go through the computer
system and check people in.
[Manager-7]
A practical implication of these findings is that managers of budget hotels

have to train their employees to provide a good customer service.
Manager-8 recommended that managers of budget hotels have to rectify
the mistakes of their employees to provide a good customer service:
Page 5-106
If I see anyone of my member staff focus more on the system screen

than on the customers, I have a word with them saying you are not
doing your job correctly. They have a certain protocol they have to go
through, they have to go through certain things and I have to make
sure they do those things and if they do not do those things and as a
manager when it is quiet, I obviously talk to them and say you not
doing this, you do not doing that.
[Manager-8]
5.9.4 Decision making impact

systems (Manager-1; Manager-2; Manager-3) reported that hotel
information systems provide employees with a lot of reports that help
them to take the correct decisions. However, Manager-4 argued that hotel
information systems do not make decisions; however, hotel information
systems might help employees to take fast decisions. There are
similarities between this finding and focus groups initial findings (FGLP-
2; FGLP-3; FGAP-1). This is also consistent with previously-published
results (e.g. Andersen, 2001; Hess, Fuller and Mathew, 2006; Kumar et
al., 2007) which showed that ICT increases speed and accuracy of
decisions, as demonstrated in the following quote:
It is not a lot of decision making in fairness, it is not of questions
asking, it is not a lot of decisions they need to do, they just need to
process the decisions already made by the customer, now when most of
our customers are prepaid because they pay on the internet or they pay
on the phone, just the case check them in, if they come in, the decision
has to be made on the questions they asking them how you would like
to pay, how would you like a breakfast, etc. but it is just a process
following really.
[Manager-4]

reported that there is no relation between computer systems and
employees decisions. A possible explanation by Manager-5 for this is that
employees might rely more on their experience to take decisions more
than on systems. In that sense, Manager-7 stated that “people need to have
Page 5-107
experience; they have to make their own decisions”. Another possible

explanation reported by Manager-6 for this might be that the bespoke
systems are designed to perform simple tasks. In particular, Manager-8
revealed that “Bart system is not that intelligent, it would not be able to
give people the answers; they have to follow the procedures on the
system”. To that end, Manager-6 reported that system reports might help
employees to take their decisions, as demonstrated in the following quote:
There is no relation between the computer system and the decisions you
take. It is quite straightforward simple system, if you need to do
reservation is only one way you can do it, you do not need to be
worried, any decision making would be just generally if there is a leak
coming from the ceiling what they would do, so normally nothing we
would do with the computer system, you can use the system reports but
not give you any decisions.
[Manager-6]
5.9.5 End-user satisfaction impact

reported that most of their employees are satisfied with hotel information
systems. In particular, Manager-1 reported that employees are likely to be
more satisfied if the hotel information system is easy to use. This is
consistent with Manager-4 who said that “I think people are more
satisfied if the system is simple and it is not too many things they have to
do the process through”. Added to that, Manager-2 claimed that people
with no previous system experience are likely to be more satisfied with
the system than people who experienced many hotel information systems.
A possible explanation by Manager-2 for this might be that people who
experienced different hotel information systems may perceive the
previous systems as easier than the current system and consequently they
might be less satisfied, as evidenced in the following quote:
Some of users are satisfied with the system and some of them are not.
The people who used a different system before may find the previous
system a lot easier than our system, so they not satisfied. But somebody
who use the system first time here, may be satisfied I think, I am
satisfied with the system.
[Manager-2]
Page 5-108
However, Manager-3 argued that people with previous system experience

are likely to be more satisfied than people with no previous system
experience. A possible explanation for this might be that people who are
more experienced with hotel information systems are likely to be less
anxious and subsequently more satisfied, as follows:
Yeah, I think, users are satisfied with Opera system, I think they are. It
is something they used to, is no other alternative, their frustration on
occasions, but most of them use the system correctly. They are satisfied
as much they can really, I suppose, you know.
[Manager-3]

that the user satisfaction construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.7;
Std. Dev. = 0.8). In particular, 81.7% of end-user employees were satisfied
with the speed of HIS, followed by 74.8% of end-user employees who
were satisfied with the sufficiency of information and reports; 73.5% of
end-user employees were satisfied with the accuracy of the HIS; 66.1% of
end-user employees were satisfied with the clear of information and
reports. Overall, the results showed that most end-user employees (sum =
175; 76.1%) were satisfied with the off-the-shelf HIS at work (see Figure
5.28). These results are consistent with User-1 as well as User-2 who
reported that they are quite satisfied with the HIS.
Figure 5.28: The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
The HIS provides sufficient
90 information and reports.
80
I am satisfied with the accuracy of
70 the HIS.
60
The HIS provides clear information
50 and reports.
40
30 me to accomplish tasks more
quickly.
20
Overall, I am satisfied with the HIS
10 at work.
0
% User satisfaction scale items
Page 5-109

The interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
reported that their employees are satisfied with the hotel information
systems. There are several possible reasons for employees‟ satisfaction. A
possible reason for employees‟ satisfaction reported by Manager-5 might
be that employees have been consulted in the system development
process. In that sense, Manager-7 reported that “users are satisfied with
Bart system because they give their inputs to the company”. Another
possible reason for employees‟ satisfaction might be that the system is
quite easy to use. In that respect, Manager-8 declared that “people are
satisfied with the system; it is simple and straightforward”. In a similar
vein, Manager-6 reported that employees might be satisfied with the
system because using the computer system to accomplish tasks is quicker
than using the manual system, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I like Bart to be honest because check-in can be just quicker on the
computer if you know your job, so Bart is really simple, easy system to
use when it is running hundred percent. Yeah, as far as I know users do
not complain to me, so they are satisfied with the system. Like I said the
only problem with the system is possibly a bitty Monday night when the
system is a bit slower and it might crash then they get frustrated, but
generally they do not have any major issue with the system, they do not
come to me complaining anyway, so that is always a good sign, they do
not coming complaining to management, that is would be ok.
[Manager-6]

that the user satisfaction construct was initially significant (Mean = 4; Std.
Dev. = 0.7). In particular, 81.6% of end-user employees were satisfied
with the sufficiency of information and reports followed by 78.4% of end-
user employees who were satisfied with the accuracy of the HIS; 73.7%
of end-user employees were satisfied with the clear of information and
reports; 71.1% of end-user employees were satisfied with the speed of
HIS. Overall, the results showed that most end-user employees (sum =
151; 79.5%) were satisfied with the bespoke HIS at work (Figure5.29).
These findings are in agreement with the interviewed end-user employees
(User-3; User-4).
Page 5-110
Figure 5.29: The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of budget hotels using bespoke systems
100
80
I am satisfied with the accuracy
70 of the HIS.
60
The HIS provides clear
40
30
me to accomplish tasks more
20 quickly.
10 Overall, I am satisfied with the
HIS at work.
0
5.9.6 IT barriers confronting budget hotels

5.8. 6.1 Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
There are several possible barriers confronting end-user employees in
budget hotels as reported by the interviewed managers. Manager-4
claimed that lack of system understanding might be a possible barrier
confronting employees of budget hotels. In particular, Manager-3 said
that “the problem I face sometimes is that receptionists do not quite
understand the procedures and they continue making mistakes”. Lack of
IT support is another possible barrier confronting end-user employees as
reported by Manager-2. Further, Manager-3 stated that lack of time could
be another possible barrier facing receptionists because “sometimes they
are so over warmed with the work”. To that end, Manager-2 implied that
lack of managers‟ technical knowledge is another possible barrier:
I am not trained to solve IT problems because I am the IT expert in this
hotel so I have adapted my skills to know how to fix some problems, but
obviously if it is a big monumental problem it does not always work
and I cannot fix it but I have to go around and fix small problems but
through my own self-knowledge, as opposed to through training for
example. There are lots of little things which you can feel around the
system and you can fix but I mean there are a lot of larger scale things
I cannot fix.
[Manager-2]
Page 5-111
Moreover, Manager-2 reported that bad training habits might be a

possible barrier confronting training end-user employees in budget hotels.
Further, Manager-4 mentioned that “employees‟ frustration and
repetitiveness might be problems; people very much repeat doing the
same thing”. To that end, Manager-1 reported that although there are
several problems related to end-user employees; however, any problem
could be rectified, as demonstrated in the following quote:
There is no issue, there are not particular problems related to users.
People are humans so they occasionally mistake. But they cannot make
big mistake because any financial changes are tracked anyway daily,
so there is no risk of major mistakes, for example someone checked
some guest in a wrong rate code that can be changed the following day
and it is monitored. So there is no real on-going issue. I think it is just
picked up as it is going along.
[Manager-2]
With regards to system problems, Manager-2 reported that system crashes

could be the biggest system. Further, Manager-4 pointed that during busy
times the system might be slow. Further, Manager-2 implied that “Fidelio
does have faults; it can check two people in the same room, so it has got
bad things about it”. To that end, Manager-2 implied that a possible
problem of the system is that it does not have any manual, as
Fidelio itself say, for example there is no manual for it, so if you want
to find out something, you do not really know where to go to find that
something. Fidelio has help line but it is not really helpful. I think if
you have on-line manual linked to the hotel website or intranet you can
go and pull up something or understand because all the time things we
do here, we do not really know how we doing them. So I think it would
be nice to have something to pull up as a poster printed manual which
navigate through that.
[Manager-2]
However, Manager-3 as well as Manager-4 reported that they do not face

any problems with the hotel information systems. In particular, Manager-
4 declared that “just been up-to-date really, there is no real problem with
the system, everything is running smoothly”. Similarly, Manager-1
revealed that the system does not crash so much, as follows:
Page 5-112
We are a small budget hotel, we have got every person in a position

that needs to use IT professionally even he/she had trained or had
recruited for that purpose. So there is no issue with the system, it is
managed centrally, so there is no problems that such, there is no down
time; there is no issue with that. So it is very settled, the system settled,
it is well, it is better than it was, yeah it is fine.
[Manager-1]
5.9. 6.2 Budget hotels using bespoke systems

There are several possible barriers facing managers as well as employees
of budget hotels. Manager-5 pointed that resistance to change might be a
possible barrier confronting budget hotels. In that sense, Manager-7
reported that “it takes time for users to get actually used to change and to
do something more”. Further, Manager-8 said that “we use the system, we
rely on the system too much, may be a problem”. System speed might be
another possible barrier confronting budget hotels using bespoke systems.
In that sense, Manager-8 stated that “speed of the system is a key
problem; Bart system is quite slow; it can be a bit pain”. Similarly,
Manager-6 declared that their bespoke system is quite slow because it is
linked to more than five hundreds hotels, as demonstrated below:
Bart system is not performing in the best at the moment, the upgrade is
trying to make it quicker because it is quite slow at the moment. The
only major issue we do get possibly the system performance can be
slow on key times when everybody check in into five hundreds hotels all
at the same times, so it can be slow, so it has a lot of things going on
the same time.
[Manager-6]
Another possible problem facing budget hotels might be the system

crashes. In particular, Manager-6 revealed that “the system crashes quite a
lot, so you could be doing a transaction and then you get restart the whole
computer system, which could be a nightmare”. Similarly, Manager-8
said that “sometimes the system goes down, it is a cliché in the system; it
crashes too much”. In a similar vein, Manager-7 reported that the system
crashes so often because it is linked to more than five hundreds hotels, as
Bart system crashes quite often, so a nightmare, Monday’s night is the
worst and Tuesday night and the amount of times it crashes is probably
Page 5-113
about ten times during an evening shift on Monday and Tuesday

because Bart is linked to every single Premier Inn. Monday and
Tuesday are the busiest check-in days, so everybody actually using it at
the same time, so it is overload on the system, over five hundreds and
ninety hotels using Bart system in the same time.
[Manager-7]
Moreover, the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that their

employees face some problems if they want to cross hotel brands. More
specifically, Manager-7 declared that “if somebody from here wants to
move to another hotel, they have not got the experience in more broad
systems”. In a similar vein, Manager-6 mentioned that people who want
to cross hotel brands might lose their system experience as well as they
might need to be trained in the new system, as follows:
So if you have used Opera or Fidelio, it does not really reflecting in
Bart, so you have to be completely re-trained on Bart anyway
obviously if you have used another system.
[Manager-6]
5.9.7 Improving IT-human interaction in budget hotels

5.9. 7.1 Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified several possible
ways to improve IT performance of their end-user employees. More
specifically, Manager-3 reported that managers of budget hotels have to
learn more about the IT in order to improve their technical skills. In a
similar vein, the same manager pointed that receptionists have to be more
proactive in their work, as demonstrated in the following quote:
To make receptionists more productive they need to come in every day
with a mindset. The kind of person I want at the front desk is the person
who comes in, is professional, is on time and the first thing he/she does
is to go straight into the Opera, print daily report and have a look, how
many check-outs have to be today, have they paid already, if no, who
owe this money, how much money do they owe, do they go to pay this
by credit card or cash, and then have a look which of these companies
is paying for guests staying at the night, are they through travel agent,
if they are through a travel agent, are they paying for the all bill or
they paying only for the bed and breakfast, if they whatever paying for,
do we have the right documentation to back it up.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-114

have to develop a checklist for all the system tasks. In that sense,
Manager-3 revealed that “the way I make receptionists productive from
the outside is by giving them a checklist”. Further, Manager-2 suggested
developing an on-line manual for the system procedures in order to
standardise the job functions. Another important practical implication by
Manager-4 is that managers of budget hotels have to be able to rectify the
mistake of their employees effectively. To that end, Manager-1 reported
that managers of budget hotels have to motivate and challenge their
employees to learn more about the systems, as evidenced below:
I would personally challenge the people to learn more beyond just
checking in and checking people out. I challenge the receptionists to
know how to print reports, so know how to, may be, check their own
work, to be able to close their cashier, you know, print relevant reports
there without having to request duty manager to help them do it. I
mean, you know, IT is about how much you want to learn, so like once
they learn the basics of their jobs taking them more top in then, they
would know how to access reports and may be look at the hotel
deterrent. But generally the use of the system is tracked, but it is open
for the staff to be able to use and learn beyond their job role if they
want to see that. So I would challenge anybody to learn more, not
because they can be familiar with the system, you know.
[Manager-1]
5.9. 7.2 Budget hotels using bespoke systems

The interviewed managers of budget hotels identified several possible
ways to improve IT performance of their employees. In particular,
Manager-6 as well as Manager-7 recommended that managers of budget
hotels have to train their employees on a regular basis. Further, Manager-
6 said that “the head office need to address the speed issue of the system
straightaway, it does run slow at certain times a day”. Similarly, Manager-
8 recommended that the system needs to be updated regularly as well as it
needs to be simplified, as demonstrated in the following quote:
All I would like to say to improve the system is that our own company is
consistently updating the system, consistently modifying the system,
making things easier and making things more simple, so you know, they
trying to streamline everything, so it is an on-going thing, it is working
progress, everything being reviewed on a regular basis, so if they can
make it more simple for everybody use the system they do.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-115
5.10 Web-based human resource functions

The ultimate goal of HR technology is to help the organisation meet its
business goals and objectives. In particular, adopting the HR technology
in organisations might have several possible advantages, as follows: (1)
helping managers deploy their employees more effectively, (2) ensuring
that employees receive proper training and development, (3) offering new
insights on how to increase productivity, (4) enabling employees and
managers to receive needed information faster, (5) reducing HR
administrative costs and (6) assisting with better employee assessment
and selection (Walker, 2001). There are several possible examples for the
HR technology adopted in hotels, such as web-based recruiting and
staffing, web-based IT training and web-based IT support. In order to
explore these web-based functions, websites analysis (see Appendix G)
was undertaken for the investigated hotels, as follows:
5.10.1 Web-based recruiting and selecting

Web-based technology has, in fact, created a global employment office
for companies seeking applicants from outside the organisation and from
internal staffing. Intranets permit electronic posting of open positions and
automate a full range of employment processes for both internal and
external candidates (Cohen, 2001). The following sections illustrate the
managers‟ viewpoints regarding the adoption of web-based recruiting and
selecting:

The process of web-based (on-line) recruiting and selecting involves two
steps which are: on-line applications then on-line interviews. Most of the
interviewed managers of the budged hotels using off-the-shelf systems
(Manager-1; Manager-2; Manager-4) reported that they advertise jobs on-
line through their hotel websites or through specific recruiting websites,
such as caterer.com and jobcentre.com. In particular, Manager-4 reported
that on-line applications are better than face-to-face applications because
“you get better choices as an employer, I would rather have a hundred of
applications rather than ten for the job, then you pick up the more super
one depending on the information given in the C.V or application form”.
Page 5-116
The process of on-line applications is shown in the following quote as

well as samples of recruiting webshots are presented in Appendix G:
We are recruiting people on-line, we just log on-line and it just comes
up in caterer.com. So caterer website is automatically linked to our
hotel website, so you go straight on both websites. Our website is
automatically linked into caterer, so you put the job advertisement on
your own hotel website and it is automatically feeds to the other caterer
website so you get coverage. For someone who would like to apply on-
line, go to the hotel website and find the job you want to apply for, you
just send details and it just comes straight to the hotel on an email link
to notify that somebody has actually applied on-line and then obviously
the hotel can respond straight back to the person with an email saying
no you do not meet the job specifications or go straight and contact this
person by email to arrange for an interview.
[Manager-2]
There are, however, several possible disadvantages of on-line applications

as reported by the interviewed managers. In this regard, Manager-2
pointed that the on-line applications do have slight problems “because
you judge people on their applications, you judge on what is written on
papers, it does not give people enough space to explain themselves and to
sell themselves on their skills”. In a similar vein, Manager-3 argued that
cost could be another barrier confronting advertising jobs on-line through
recruiting websites. More specifically, Manager-3 declared that they do
not advertise jobs on-line even through their hotel website or through
recruiting websites because they are small budget hotels, as demonstrated
We have a website for the hotel but we would not advertise jobs on it, it
is exclusively to make reservations through. We could add job
advertising to our website but we are a small company. If you are a
big hotel company, I do not mean individual hotels; I mean a big hotel
chain, so for example if you go on Radisson hotels, Hilton hotels,
Marriott hotels there is a section in their websites say either careers or
corporate. If you go under this section and you can advertise a lot of
jobs there. It would be all-over the country or possibly internationally.
We are just a small company here, unfortunately, we are just one hotel
and we are not part of a group. So, if any body wants a job here the
best way for them is to come in at the front desk and ask for the jobs
available and leave their C.Vs or fill in an application form. We do not
have a recruitment website for that.
[Manager-3]
Page 5-117
In addition, all the interviewed managers reported that they do not prefer
to interview people on-line; however, they prefer to conduct face-to-face
interviews. In this respect, Manager-4 reported that “when you see people
face-to-face that is the best thing and you always get good feedback when
you see people face-to-face, but from the screen point of view it might be
different”.

All the interviewed managers of the budget hotels using bespoke systems
reported that they advertise the jobs on-line through their hotel websites
or through specific recruiting websites. In particular, Manager-8 said that
“people can apply on-line for any position; we usually post our vacancies
in the job centre on-line, so people do actually contact the job centre on-
line for any relevant vacant positions”. In a similar vein, Manager-5
reported that “all our jobs are available on-line; we advertise them on-line
through our system but people selection most of the time, ninety-nine
percent, is face-to-face”.
On the contrary, all the interviewed managers reported that they do not
prefer to interview people on-line; however, they prefer to conduct face-
to-face interviews. Manager-5 pointed that “people apply on-line but
when we select them if the application is put forward then we do face-to-
face interviews because you can get the feeling before employing
people”. This is consistent with Manager-7 who said that “I prefer face-
to-face recruitment because you get better feeling about people, like you
can get better idea of the personality”. The advantages of face-to-face
interviews are demonstrated in the following quote:
Face-to-face recruitment is much better than on-line recruitment
because you cannot make on-line recruitment sound brilliant, you have
to be able to talk to somebody, you have to see whether you be able to
work with them, you know what I mean. Theoretically you can put it
down on a paper, which sounds really very good, but it is very difficult
on a piece of paper to say that whether that person is any good.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-118
5.10.2 Web-based IT training and development

Web-based training has radically altered the training field in a number of
ways, as follows: (1) enabled employees around the world to benefit from
knowledge previously available only in selected sites, (2) reduced the
attendant costs of training (travel; accommodation; class size limitations),
(3) enabled companies to purchase off-the-shelf courses instead of
developing them and providing stand-up trainers, (4) opened the doors to
innovation in distance learning by providing a business base for training
and (5) enabled trainees to be trained at anytime and anywhere (Gibbons,
2001). The following sections illustrate the managers‟ viewpoints
regarding the adoption of the web-based IT training:

Some of the interviewed managers reported that they provide on-line
training for their users through the hotel intranet (the internal network). In
this regard, Manager-2 reported that they prefer to conduct on-line
training because “sometimes you do not always have time to do full
training; if users set on-line they are away from their working
environment then they can actually learn better”. In the same way,
Manager-4 reported that “on-line training is a good way when you get
limited staff and limited managers‟ time”. In a similar vein, Manager-2
explained the process of on-line training (see also Appendix G), as
For the on-line training the employee would log in details and he/she
would just sit in front of the computer in quiet environment and he/she
just works on his/her own. There are also PowerPoint presentations
and questions at the end, so there are always questions to confirm
whether they understood and passed the exam and qualified to say
he/she learned that. The person can do the on-line training at home but
we would advise him/her to do that on the working environment, give
him/her time on shift to do that but you can do outside, it is linked to
the hotel website.
[Manager-2]
On the other hand, some of the interviewed managers reported that they
do only conduct face-to-face training and they do not conduct on-line
training. In particular, Manager-1 said that “we do not have on-line
training, if there is a training website setup for Opera users, it would be
Page 5-119
very useful”. In that respect, Manager-3 said that “there is no on-line

training for IT skills, we have got an on-line training in terms health and
safety, food hygiene and the disabled discriminations”.

Manager-5 reported that they do provide on-line training for the new
recruits. The same manager pointed some advantages of the on-line
training such as people can be trained in a more calm environment away
from the front desk, as well as people might be less anxious during the
training. The process of on-line training is demonstrated as follows:
Users get their own passwords and log in and they do the training
when they got a time on the job, they do not have to do it and go, they
can do half an hour today another hour next day. I can monitor how
they progress if they are jumping sections, if they go straight to
assessment and they did not do the modules, so I can go and ask them
to go back to make sure they go for the modules not just go to the
assessment and answer the questions to make sure they go for every
module before they go to the assessment. I can see everybody progress,
I can see who did what, what time, how long takes them to do, if they
skipped that, so I ask them ‘can you go back and do that’. The on-line
training system is called Aims Perform, a national company, so we got
a contract with them to use the training system.
[Manager-5]
On the contrary, most the interviewed managers of budget hotel using

bespoke systems (Manager-6; Manager-7; Manager-8) reported that they
do not prefer to conduct on-line training for system skills; however, they
prefer to conduct face-to-face training. In particular, Manager-6 said that
“there is no on-line training for the system skills; there is on-line training
but initially it is for health and safety”. In a similar, vein. Manager-8
reported that face-to-face IT training is better than on-line IT training;
therefore, they do not conduct on-line training for the system skills, as
There are some on-line training courses; there are different courses
you have to do like health and safety, DDA (Disability Discrimination
Act), so just questionnaires really like a project you go to read and
write and then a questionnaire at the end on the law of DDA. There is
no any on-line training for the IT skills or the system.
[Manager-8]
Page 5-120
5.10.3 Web-based IT support

With regards to the web-based (on-line) IT support, Manager-2 reported
that if they have a problem with the system they contact their off-site IT
department through the hotel website (on-line tracking system). However,
the same manager claimed that the on-line tracking system is not so
effective because it seems to be quite new system, as demonstrated in the
following quote:
We have got an on-line tracking system now, it has come out, we can
log on-line we can track our case on-line as well but it is totally quite
new to be honest, a lot of time we try to cheat the system and call them
anyway. It does not seem to be effective at the moment. We do this on-
line tracking through our website.
[Manager-2]
On the other hand, most the interviewed managers (Manager-1; Manager-

2; Manager-3) reported that they do not use the on-line IT support;
however, they log a call to their off-site IT department or their system
vendor if they face any technical problem with the system. In that sense,
Manager-3 said that “if we have a technical problem with the system, we
just call the IT number and they log the call and they will call back within
an hour”.

Manager-5 reported that sometimes they contact their off-site IT
department on-line. In particular, the same manager declared that if they
face a problem with the system they go on-line and report the system
problem then the off-site IT department log a call to the system and fix
the problem. Further, the same manager pointed that there are set of on-
line steps on how to fix system problems on your own; however, they do
not use this option so regular, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We can send an email to IT and they look at the problem so our IT
department can connect to our system and they can fix the problem
without even asking anybody about that, they know how to connect to
the computers. There are a lot of already easy steps on how to fix
problems on-line so you can go on-line and it is explained there what
to do when something happens but this is still working progress.
[Manager-5]
Page 5-121
Conversely, most the interviewed managers (Manager-6; Manager-7;

Manager-8) reported that they do not use the on-line IT support; however,
they log a call to their off-site IT department if they face any technical
problem with the system. In this regard, Manager-7 pointed that they do
prefer to contact the IT help desk by the phone because “you can get
across your point; the IT help desk can also help you to rectify the
problem rather than emailing back and forward”. Further, Manager-8
reported that “on-line IT support takes a little bit longer time, but over the
phone they can just say do this, do that, that will work”. To that end,
Manager-6 pointed that slow response might be one possible disadvantage
for the on-line IT support, as demonstrated below:
You can do on-line support but they respond slower because they deal
with the incoming telephone calls first, so it is easy to just place a call
with them, sometimes when they log on into the system they
communicate over the internet with you on the internal internet site, but
normally it is just quicker to give them a call, you get person on the
phone and then go straight into the problem rather than waiting for
them to pick up emails. If you want you can go and contact them
through the intranet, you would email them if you do not have an
urgent problem then they will get back to you within a couple of hours,
but if it is an urgent thing just give them a call.
[Manager-6]
5.11 Inferring the factors in IT-human interaction model
5.11.1 End-user recruitment and selection

With regards to the criteria of recruiting and selecting employees for the
reception job in the investigated budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems,
Figure 5.30 shows that the recruitment criteria that were mostly cited
included: end-user computing self-efficacy (n = 13; 19.8%) followed by
system experience (n = 8; 19.8%), basic IT skills (n = 7; 14.6%) and
customer service experience (n = 6; 11.1%). While, a number of other
criteria, notable by their low percentage, included: age (n = 3; 3.9%),
gender (n = 2; 2.7%) and hospitality education (n = 1; .9%).
Page 5-122
On the other hand, most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels

using bespoke systems, as shown in Figure 5.30, identified the criteria of
recruiting people, as follows: end-user computing self-efficacy (n = 9;
13.1%), customer service experience (n = 7; 10.1%). However, number of
other factors, notable by their low percentage, included: age (n = 3; 4.4%)
and gender (n = 1; 1.7%). Further, number of other factors, notable by
their absence, included: hospitality education, end-user system experience
and basic IT skills.
Figure 5.30: The criteria of recruiting employees emerged by the managers of budget hotels
Budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems Budget hotels using bespoke systems
25
20
15
10
0
% End-user age End-user gender End-user End-user system Basic IT skills End-user End-user
hospitality experience computing self- customer service
education efficacy experience
5.11.2 Hotel information system development

In terms to the types of hotel information systems used in the investigated
budget hotels, the interviewed managers of budget hotels revealed that
off-the-shelf hotel information systems are predominantly used in budget
hotels (n = 12; 12.1%), as compared to the bespoke hotel information
systems (n = 5; 5.6%). A possible explanation for this might be that
budget hotels might not have enough resources to establish a whole IT
department to be responsible for the system design and maintenance.
This is shown in Figure 5.31.
Page 5-123
Figure 5.31: The types of hotel systems emerged by the managers of budget hotels
Bespoke
systems
32%
Off the shelf
systems
68%
With regards to the criteria of selecting off-the-shelf systems, Figure 5.4

shows that the system criteria that were mostly cited included: system
compatibility (n = 12; 26.5%), ease of system use (n = 12; 26.3%), system
usefulness (n = 10; 23.1%), system popularity (n = 4; 8.4%), system cost (n
= 4; 8.2%) and system flexibility (n = 3; 4.7%). However, other criteria,
notable by their low percentage, included: system enjoyment (n = 1;

1.8%).
In addition, the criteria of designing bespoke systems, as reported by the

interviewed managers of budget hotels, included: ease of system use (n =
20; 31.6%), system usefulness (n = 11; 26.4%), system compatibility (n =
8; 20.8%) and system reliability (n = 2; 5.8%). While, other criteria,
notable by their absence, included: system enjoyment, system cost,
system popularity and system flexibility. This is shown in Figure 5.32.
Figure 5.32: The criteria of selecting hotel systems emerged by the managers of budget hotels
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
% Ease of System System System System cost System System System
system use usefulness compatibility Enjoyment popularity flexibility reliability
Page 5-124
5.11.3 Participation and involvement

systems reported that their employees have not participated in the system
development process (n = 11; 17.5%), compared to a small number of
managers who reported that their employees have been consulted in the
system development process (n = 2; 3.6%). However, all the interviewed
managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems reported that their
employees have been consulted in the system development process (n = 7;
20.4%). This is shown in Figure 5.33.
Figure 5.33: The types of end-user participation emerged by the managers of budget hotels
25
20
15
10
0
% Consultative participation Representative participation Consensus participation No participation
5.11.4 IT training and development

With regards to the types of training conducted in the investigated budget
hotels, Figure 5.34 shows that internal training is predominantly used in
budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems (n = 31; 66.2%), as compared to
external training (n = 10; 11.4%). Further, on-the-job training is mostly
used (n = 13; 28.6%), as compared to off-the-job training (n = 8; 12.9%).
However, all the interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke
systems reported that they conduct only internal training (n = 13; 24.6%).
In a similar vein, they declared that on-the-job training (n = 13; 30.2%) is
better than off-the-job training (n = 6; 16.1%).
Page 5-125
Figure 5.34: The types of IT training emerged by the managers of budget hotels
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
% Internal IT training External IT training On-the-job training Off-the-job training
With regards to the frequency of the training, the interviewed managers of

budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems reported that they train their
employees on the system upgrades (n = 4; 11%), followed by refresher
training on problems (n = 3; 4.7%), regular training (n = 2; 2.5%) and
refresher training when employees request (n = 1; .9%). However, the
interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems reported
that they train their employees regularly (n = 4; 7.4%), followed by
refresher training on problems (n = 3; 4.3%), refresher training on system
upgrades (n = 2; 3.6%) and refresher training on request (n = 1; 1.1%). This
Figure 5.35: The frequency of IT training emerged by the managers of budget hotels
12
10
0
% Regular training Refresher training on Refresher training on Refresher training on
system upgrades request problems
Page 5-126
5.11.5 End-user IT support

systems reported that they have IT support from their system vendor (n =
20; 40.6%), followed by those managers who reported that they have IT
support from their IT department (n = 11; 17.2%). However, all the
interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems reported
that they have IT support from their IT department (n = 12; 20.7%). In a
similar vein, all the interviewed managers of budget hotels reported that
they do not have an on-site IT department. This is demonstrated in Figure
5.36.
Figure 5.36: The types of IT support emerged by the managers of budget hotels
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
% On-site IT department Off-site IT department Off-site system vendor
5.11.6 End-user motivation

systems reported that their employees need to be motivated. More
specifically, they motivate their employees by encouraging them (n = 3;
4.1%), or by rewarding them (n = 2; 3.1%). However, all the interviewed
managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems reported that their
employees do not need to be motivated (n = 3; 6.7%) because the system
is easy to use as well as using the system is part of their job role. This is
Page 5-127
Table 5.37: The types of end-user motivation emerged by the managers of budget hotels
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

The hotel information systems have several possible impacts. In that
respect, most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels using off-the-
shelf systems strongly emphasized on the productivity impact (n = 9;
9.6%), followed closely by service quality impact (n = 5; 6.6%). Similarly,
the interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
reported that hotel information systems have positive impact on
employees‟ productivity (n = 7; 8.2%) as well as on their service quality (n
= 5; 7.3%). However, to a lesser extent, the other technology impacts,
notable by their low percentage or absence, included: competitive

advantage impact and decision making impact, as shown in Figure 5.38.
Figure 5.38: The types of performance impacts emerged by the managers of budget hotels
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
% Productivity impact Competitive advantage Service quality impact Decision-making impact
impact
Page 5-128

reported that ease of system use is an important motivator for employees
satisfaction (n = 4; 3.6%), followed by system usefulness (n = 2; 1.9%);
system experience (n = 1; 1%) and system enjoyment (n = 1; .7%).
Similarly the interviewed managers of budget hotels using bespoke
systems mentioned ease of system use (n = 3; 2.6%) as well as system
usefulness (n = 2; 2.4%), participation and consultation (n = 2; 1.7%) as
important factors for employees satisfaction. However, other satisfaction
motivators, notable by their low percentage, included: system enjoyment
and system experience (see Figure 5.39).
Figure 5.39: The motivators for user satisfaction emerged by the managers of budget hotels
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
% Ease of system use System usefulness System enjoyment System experience Participation and
consultation

This chapter aims to answer the first, the second and the third research
questions (the third objective). In terms the budget hotels using off-the-
shelf systems, it has been found that CSE, system experience, basic IT
skills and customer service experience are the most important criteria for
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. Further, ease of
system use, system usefulness, system compatibility, system popularity
and system flexibility are the most important criteria for selecting off-the-
shelf hotel information systems. The results also indicated that user
consultation and participation in the system development, IT training,
user motivation and IT support are important factors to improve IT-
human interaction in budget hotels and subsequently increase user
Page 5-129
satisfaction, productivity and improve service quality.
With regards to the budget hotels using bespoke systems, the results
showed that CSE and customer service experience are the most important
criteria for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. Further,
ease of system use, system usefulness, system compatibility and system
reliability are the most important criteria for designing bespoke hotel
information systems. The results also indicated that user consultation and
participation in the system development, IT training and IT support are
important factors to improve IT-human interaction in budget hotels and
subsequently increase user satisfaction, productivity and improve service
quality.
5.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in budget

hotels
A model has been developed to improve IT-human interaction in budget
hotels using off-the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke systems.
This model was primarily based upon the existing theories (i.e. the TPB),
the initial model as well as the perspectives of hotel managers and end-
user employees of the budget hotels. The developed model comprises
three main parts, namely IT-human critical success factors, the theory of
planned behaviour and the technology-related outcomes (see Figure 5.40).
The developed model identified the end-user employees‟ critical factors
(i.e. CSE; system experience; basic IT knowledge; customer service
skills), the organisational critical factors (i.e. consultation; IT training; IT
support; motivation) and the system critical factors (i.e. ease of system
use; system usefulness; system compatibility; system popularity; system
flexibility; system reliability). The theory of planned behaviour is the
second part of the developed model (i.e. attitude towards use, subjective
norms and perceived behaviour control). The last part of the developed
model explores the technology-related outcomes incorporating end-user
computing satisfaction and IT performance (i.e. productivity and service
quality).
Page 5-130
5.13 Summary
This chapter explored technology adoption in the budget hotels using off-
the-shelf systems as well as budget hotels using bespoke systems. More
specifically, this chapter presented technology adoption in the different
stages of employee life cycle, namely: recruitment and selection; hotel
information system development; participation and consultation; IT
training; IT support; motivation; IT performance and satisfaction impacts.
The chapter also highlighted the web-based human resource functions
Page 5-131
(web-based recruiting and selecting; web-based IT training; web-based IT

support). The chapter ends with developing an IT-human interaction
model to improve employees IT performance in budget hotels using off-
the-shelf systems as well as budget hotels using bespoke systems.
Therefore, the following chapter aims to explore technology adoption in
upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke
systems.
Page 5-132
TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN UPSCALE HOTELS: TWO
WELSH CASE STUDIES

6.2 End-User recruitment and selection 6-2
6.3 Hotel information system development 6-22
6.4 Participation and consultation in the system development 6-40
6.6 IT support 6-65
behaviour (TPB)

6.8.6 IT barriers confronting upscale hotels 6-88
6.8.7 Improving IT-human interaction in upscale hotels 6-90
6.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale 6-105
hotels
6.14 Summary 6-107
Page 6-1
Chapter Six: Technology Adoption in Upscale Hotels: Two Welsh Case Studies
6.1 Introduction
This chapter aims to investigate technology adoption in two case studies
of upscale hotels in Wales, namely twelve upscale hotels using off-the-
shelf hotel information systems and five upscale hotels using bespoke
hotel information systems. It presents technology adoption in the different
stages of the employee life cycle, namely: recruitment and selection; hotel
information system development; participation and consultation; IT
training and development; IT support; motivation; IT performance and
satisfaction impact. It highlights the web-based human resource functions.
Finally, the chapter presents a developed IT-human interaction model to
improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels.
6.2 End-user recruitment and selection

The criteria of recruiting and selecting hotel end-user employees varied
amongst the interviewed managers. These variations can be explained in
part by the proximity of the type of hotel information system (off-the-
shelf vs. bespoke). These criteria are explained in more detail in turns:
6.2.1 Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems

The interviewed managers of the upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems mentioned some criteria they take into consideration when
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job, as follows:

All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems reported that employees’ age is not a deciding factor for
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. In particular,
Manager-14 said that “the age does not really make much difference to be
honest, as long they can do the job; we have a night manager who is fifty
years old”. This is consistent with Manager-13 and Manager-15 who
reported that people willingness to use the system as well as their IT
knowledge are important factors regardless of their age. This finding is in
agreement with Ashman’s et al. (2003) findings which found no
Page 6-2
relationship between age and user ATTC as well as the findings of budget
hotels (e.g. Manager-2; Manager-4; Manager-6; Manager-7). Therefore,
managers have to recruit and select people who are more suitable for the
job regardless of their age. This is demonstrated as follows:
The people’s age does not really matter, you know, if younger people
and older people have similar experience of using computers, then it
does not matter, if the younger does not know anything about
computers and the other person knows a lot, I will choose the other
person, it is not only people age which matter, it is also other things.
[Manager-21]
There are several possible reasons for not considering age as a deciding
factor for recruiting people. More specifically, Manager-22 said that “a lot
of people now are more computer literate than used to be, my night
manager is in his sixties and he is very computer literate”. In that sense,
Manager-23 pointed that there is no age discrimination, as long as people
are legally allowed to work, i.e. people who are over eighteen years old.
Another possible reason reported by Manager-22 is that both younger and
older people are trained on the system, as below:
We have various ages working at the front desk, we just adopt the
whole training to their needs and how they actually use the system;
obviously I am looking at the weakness and strengths and training them
around that on the system.
[Manager-16]
However, Manager-14 reported that younger people are quicker in using

the system than older people. On the other hand, Manager-22 claimed that
older people have more experience in handling difficult situations. In
particular, Manager-15 declared that older people do not face any
problem with the system because “they have previous experience and they
know other systems”. This finding is consistent with those of budget
hotels (Manager-3; Manager-2; Manager-8). To that end, Manager-21
argued that older people might have limited IT knowledge compared to
younger people. This finding is consistent with those of Gallivan, Spitler
and Koufaris (2005) as well as the findings of budget hotels (e.g.
Manager-7; Manager-8). This difference is demonstrated as follows:
Page 6-3
There is some difference, I think you have to sort of, I think, if you look
at age, yes you can see difference in performance because I think
younger people nowadays are taught IT skills through schools, through
colleges, whereas older people, obviously, it requires a bit more
teaching, a bit more one-to-one training rather than may be someone
who has just come out of college or university for example.
[Manager-10]

Most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems reported that they do not require any specific gender type for
recruiting people for the reception job. In particular, Manager-22 reported
that “gender does not really make much difference; I have got half and
half in the reception, fifty percent in sexuality”. This is consistent with
Manager-16 who reported that it depends on people’s willingness to use
the system rather than their gender. Manager-17 also reported that it
depends on people computing experience rather than their gender.
Similarly, Manager-13 said that “it does not matter about people gender,
it goes purely on experience, ability and whether we think they gonna fit
and suit the role”. This finding is consistent with those of budget hotels
(Manager-2; Manager-3).This is shown in the following quote:
I think on the front office it is good to have a mix, I think because
otherwise if there are too many girls, it gets a bit girlish, make up
playing, where I think if you have got half males and half females then
you have an equal balance.
[Manager-10]
However, Manager-14 said that the number of female receptionists is

greater than the number of male receptionists. The same manager
declared that people who apply for the reception job are usually females.
This is in agreement with the findings of budget hotels (e.g. Manager-4).
A possible explanation by Manager-23 for this might be that “sometimes
females can type faster but to be honest we do not need that skill, for the
system and for most hotels you do not need to type fast”. Another
possible explanation reported by Manager-21 for this is that female
receptionists might provide better customer service, as follows:
Page 6-4
The gender does not really matter, it is the same, I would say females
they are quite often more customer focused, so they can provide better
customer service, they are gentle and much better in dealing with
customers, but if talking purely about using computers, it does not
matter if it is a man or a woman.
[Manager-21]

Some of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems (e.g. Manager-14; Manager-15) reported that hospitality
education is not a requirement criterion for recruiting and selecting people
for the reception job. More specifically, Manager-14 pointed that
hospitality education is desirable but it is not essential. This is consistent
with Manager-23 who said that “hospitality education is not essential but
could be preferred sometimes”. A possible explanation by Manager-17 for
this is that using hotel systems does not need any sort of education. To
that end, Manager-15 said that they tend to focus mainly on people’s
experience regardless their education because education does not make
part in that. This finding is consistent with the findings of budget hotels
(e.g. Manager-2; Manager-3), as evidenced in the following quote:
Hospitality education does not really matter, they know the business so
they kind of understand how the business works, but it does not mean
that they come with the knowledge of particular systems because you
do not get this specific training in school universities about various
systems, so you can come to your employer and just say yes I know the
system, you need to have work experience to know it.
[Manager-15]
However, other managers (e.g. Manager-13; Manager-16) reported that

hospitality education is a requirement criterion for recruiting people for
the reception job. In particular, Manager-13 pointed that “we do look at
the education side of it, it is definitely one of the factors that comes as a
part of the job specification as well, that we go through when recruiting
people”. This is in agreement with Manager-11 who claimed that more
educated people would have better understanding of the system as well as
the customer service. This is shown in the following quote:
Page 6-5
Obviously it makes a big difference to guests if they have hospitality

background because obviously it shows they actually want to be in the
industry and it is not just your job, so I mean if I had a C.V. I would
look at that previous experience, education, what their interests are
and make a decision on their previous experience.
[Manager-16]

systems reported that end-user computing experience is not essential
criterion for recruiting people for the reception job. In particular,
Manager-22 said that “if people have used Opera system before it would
help but it is not essential as long they have got a basic knowledge of
computers”. A possible explanation reported by Manager-23 for this is
that upscale hotels might have the resources to train new staff. This is
consistent with Manager-16 who pointed that it is an advantage if people
have previous experience with hotel information systems, but it is not
essential because all the new recruits are trained. To that end, Manager-12
claimed that computing experience might be needed when recruiting for
managers, as evidenced in the following quote:
The system experience does not really matter, all depends on the level
you employee people for, if you employ for reception, no experience is
necessary, you can just train people quickly. For employing managers
a bit more experience is needed, you would probably look at some
experience, may be not knowledge of Opera, but at least some
knowledge about other reservation systems, so at least people know
how it works.
[Manager-12]
Moreover, Manager-16 declared that the system is easy to use; therefore it

is easy to train all new recruits on the system. Further, Manager-11
reported that each hotel might have its own procedures and standards to
use the system; therefore, it is better to train new recruits internally. To
that end, Manager-14 pointed that it is better to train new recruits
internally by the hotel training team because “some people can pick up
bad habits from other hotels”. This is shown in the following quote:
Page 6-6
For my staff, when they start with us they have a training schedule, so
they spend time obviously learn the system and go through different
aspects. So they do not need to know everything about the system
because they all are trained and sometimes it is easier if they have no
previous system experience with a computer system such as Fidelio
because you could not change the bad training habits as well as you
can train them on how you want them to be.
[Manager-16]
Therefore, Manager-16 reported that they do not conduct any sort of

system trials during the interview because computing experience is not
needed. Further, Manager-23 reported that they do not test people during
the interview because they do not have a trial system. To that end,
Manager-14 pointed that they do not conduct system trials during the
interview; however, they conduct system trials after two weeks to know if
the new people can adjust the system, as shown in the following quote:
I do not conduct any system trial during the interview, like I said not
often people come here with knowledge of the systems, I do not have to
test them because most of them do not know, I cannot remember any
person who came to the hotel with knowledge about Opera they all
have to be trained, they might have some knowledge about other
systems, but about Opera not quite.
[Manager-15]
However, Manager-14 as well as Manager-21 reported that computing

experience is desirable for recruiting people, but it is not essential. In
particular, Manager-14 said that computing experience is desirable
because if people have got some experience obviously they can be trained
quicker and progress quicker. This is consistent with Manager-17 who
said that it is better for new people to have previous system experience
because “we do not have to train someone from scratch”. Further,
Manager-23 claimed that computing experience would be helpful because
the new system is difficult to learn and to use, as demonstrated below:
The system experience would be on the job specification, it is up to us
whether we decide we put it as essential or whether we put it as an
advantage to have that knowledge. We do prefer to recruit if somebody
has experience with Fidelio because obviously it makes that slightly
easier during the training process if they have got previous knowledge
of the system. For the reception, it is more Fidelio, obviously if they
Page 6-7
can use as a programme on the computer is an advantage, but it is not

always essential that they have to have that experience.
[Manager-13]

Most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels reported that basic IT
skills, i.e. Windows and Word are not essential skills for recruiting people
for the reception job. A possible explanation by Manager-14 for this is
that it is easy for people to learn the basic IT skills during their work.
Another possible explanation by Manager-22 for this is that nowadays
people are more computer literate than used to be. Further, Manager-16
reported that basic IT knowledge is an advantage, but not essential
because they have a structured training programme. This is consistent
with Manager-13 who claimed that there is no relation between basic IT
skills (i.e. Word skills) and system skills (i.e. check-in skills). To that end,
Manager-10 asserted that “we do not actually look for people based on
their knowledge or their IT skills; what we look for is personality, if they
have got IT skills that are definitely a plus point”, as evidenced below:
I mean most people these days know how to use a computer, so I won’t
say was essential to actually put down as you have to have experience
on these basic IT skills because we do not actually use those, we use
specific new systems which you have to have training on anyway. If we
assume that people have basic IT skills, I mean every home in this
country [UK] probably has computer now.
[Manager-23]
However, other managers reported that basic IT skills are essential skills
for recruiting people for the reception job. In particular, Manager-17 said
that “basic computer knowledge is obviously essential; they need to use
Word, Email and Excel this kind of packages”. This is in agreement with
Manager-21 who claimed that more IT skills are essential for the
reception job. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
People need to be computer literate, at least the basic knowledge is
essential, if someone needs to learn how to use the reservation system
they need to have a basic knowledge, they need to have this basic
knowledge of computers in general.
[Manager-12]
Page 6-8

systems reported that it is quite important to recruit and select people who
are quite confident and calm. Manager-14 reported that “obviously in the
reception you need to be quite bubbly, you need to be quite confident to
work in the reception”. In that sense, the interviewed managers reported
several possible explanations for their users’ computing anxiety. A
possible explanation for this is the lack of end-user computing self-
efficacy (CSE). This is shown as follows:
I think most users struggle initially to balance in their shift, at the end
of your shift you have to cash up and balance all the credit card
payments you take it with all the cash payments with Fidelio. I think
that, over my career, most people struggle to make sure it balanced. I
think it takes a little while once you understand how it works and even
if you did not balance you can usually see why you did not balance, I
think initially that is what people worry about and most struggle with a
little bit.
[Manager-17]
In addition, Manager-17 declared that lack of IT knowledge is another

possible explanation for computing anxiety. In a similar vein, Manager-12
pointed that “people cannot have confidence in using the new system,
they are always reluctant about using it; they get a little anxious about it”.
Similarly, Manager-22 reported that people are always resistant to
change, as evidenced below:
We first moved to Opera in February it was very difficult. We had
training about four weeks before the system went live and then we came
back to our system, so every one was a bit resistant to the new system,
some people picked up quicker than others, and some did struggle but
after about say six weeks every one was fine, but the first six weeks
were very hard with the new system, very hard indeed.
[Manager-22]
There are, however, other possible explanations for computing anxiety.

System complexity could be a reason for computing anxiety. In particular,
Manager-22 reported that “the system should be something that does not
cause stress; when the system goes down people panic”. Further, system
Page 6-9
crashes could be another possible reason for computing anxiety, as

I suppose the main problem that we do generally get is sometimes
system can crash which does not just affect our hotel but affects all the
properties and I suppose sometimes because the problem cannot be
controlled on the property then we have to wait to someone off the
property to resolve that issue before you continue. I suppose that is the
biggest frustration or may be the biggest problem we have here.
[Manager-10]
There are possible solutions for reducing computing anxiety. In particular,

Manager-14 reported that people are more confident over the time. This is
consistent with Manager-16 who pointed that “majority of the
receptionists are confident, obviously if I have new staff members so
starting their job is always a bit scary but it is practice pretty much on the
system”. To that end, Manager-17 claimed that people are likely to be
more confident, if they have got good IT knowledge as well as good level
of system understanding. This is shown as below:
To be honest, I can tell when some one is nervous when using the
system but usually it comes with the practice, so they get practice with
the system they get better and more confident, so as far actually the IT
goes I would say confidence only comes with time.
[Manager-23]
Furthermore, some of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-14;

Manager-15) reported that user training could be another possible solution
for reducing computing anxiety. More specifically, Manager-14 reported
that to make people more confident, “we buddy people up together, so we
have an experienced shift leader with new members of staff”. To that end,
Manager-13 declared that their employees are less anxious because the
system is easy to use, as evidenced below:
Generally, I mean if you are talking about Fidelio, it is a very good
system and it is quite easy to use and there is also training programmes
for people, so they can actually go and practice and gain confidence,
but like I said it is an easy system to use and any mistakes they are
making can generally be rectified, so people tend not to be nervous, I
had never know many people to be nervous while using the system.
[Manager-13]
Page 6-10
From the standpoint of end-user employees, survey results showed that

the CSE construct was initially significant (Mean = 4; Std. Dev. = 0.7). In
particular, survey results revealed that most end-user employees of
upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems had a high CSE magnitude. In
other words, they were capable of using HIS with less support and
assistance. More specifically, most of end-user employees reported that
they could complete a task using the HIS: if there was no-one around to
help them (sum = 570; 84.4%); if they had not seen someone else using
the HIS before trying it themselves (sum = 551; 81.6%); if they could not
call someone for help if they got stuck (sum = 534; 79.1%); if they did not
same way, survey results showed that most end-user employees (sum =
523; 77.5%) had a high level of confidence regarding their ability to
complete a task using the HIS even if they had limited time (a high level
of CSE strength). To that end, survey results indicated that most end-user
employees (sum = 540; 80%) could competently use different HIS
packages (a high CSE generalisability), as demonstrated in Figure 6.1.
These results are in agreement with those reported by the interviewed
end-user employees (User-5; User-6; User7).
Figure 6.1: The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
I could complete a task using the HIS if
90 there was no-one around to help me.


stuck.
50
40 did not have the built-in help facility for
assistance.
30
had limited time to complete the job for
20 which the software was provided.

one to do the same job.
0
Page 6-11
only 47.6% of end-user employees mentioned that they are frightened of
using the HIS; 50.2% reported that they feel apprehensive about using the
HIS; 53.8% who reported that they hesitate to use the HIS for fear of
making mistakes they cannot correct; 60% reported that they could lose a
lot of information by hitting the wrong key. An implication of these
findings is that managers have to increase employees’ confidence by
showing them the right way of doing things (see Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
I feel apprehensive about using the
90
HIS.
80
70 It worries me to think that I could

60 lose a lot of information by hitting
the wrong key.
50
40 I hesitate to use the HIS for fear of

making mistakes I cannot correct.
30
20
I am frightened of using the HIS.
10
0
Computing anxiety scale items
%

systems reported that customer service experience is a deciding factor for
recruiting people. Manager-14 reported that people need to have good
communication skills in order to be able to adapt to different situations.
This is consistent with Manager-22 who said that “the most important
thing for me is they know how to deal with customers, how to deal with
difficult situations”. In a similar vein, Manager-16 reported that customer
service skills could not be taught; however, it is easy to train people how
Page 6-12
to use the system. To that end, Manager-13 declared the importance of

customer service skills, as below:
A lot of questions are customer-based and how they would deal with
customer service, that is the main priority, the customer service. I think
technology, the computer systems, may be something that follows
behind that because we want to make sure our customers are looked
after first and foremost.
[Manager-13]
Furthermore, Manager-12 reported that personality is the most important

criterion for recruiting people. This is consistent with Manager-21 who
stated that “we have a full process of recruitment to know which one fits
with the organisation requirements, we mainly look for good customer
service skills; good personality”. To that end, Manager-10 reported that
customer service is their main target; therefore employees have to get
good customer service skills, as evidenced in the following quote:
We do not actually look for people based on their knowledge or their
skills. Here we believe that when we recruit people we actually recruit
based on personality because we believe that computer systems and the
system that we use on the day-to-day basis we can teach, what we
cannot teach someone is personality. People skills and knowledge that
sort come naturally. Personality is what we look for in the recruitment
process rather than skills and knowledge. Personality we look for, then
excellent staff that meet the targets. Our interview forms are based on
our core values so people, customers; they are not based on IT skills.
[Manager-10]
6.2.2 Upscale hotels using bespoke systems

The interviewed managers of the investigated upscale hotels using
bespoke systems mentioned the criteria of recruiting and selecting people
for the reception job, as follows:

Most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke
systems reported that age is not a determinant factor for recruiting and
selecting people for the reception job. In particular, Manager-25 said that
“we do not look at the age of people, younger and older people are the
Page 6-13
same because they can know the system; we have got people over sixty
years old”. Further, Manager-19 said that confidence and willingness to
use the system are the most important criteria regardless of age. To that
end, Manager-18 reported that age is not a deciding factor because both
younger and older people are easily trained on the system, as evidenced in
The age is not a requirement, obviously the age is required to be legal
for working, but it does not matter what the age is, as long as they are
competent enough to use the system. I mean the system that we use does
not require like very specific training, it just basic training, I am sure
anybody can do it, you know, does not matter what age is.
[Manager-18]
However, Manager-20 argued that older people might have better

interactive skills with guests because of their life experience. On the other
hand, Manager-18 claimed that younger people might be fast learner than
older people. Further, Manager-20 declared that “the younger generation
has more IT skills because they have grown up with it”. Similarly,
Manager-25 pointed that “people who are on internships have more
capability to learn because they are educated in a short time and they tend
to pick up a lot faster, they are in training mode”. To that end, Manager-
24 revealed that older people might not use computers as much as
younger people, so there may be some boundaries or may be some
difficulties facing older people, as shown in the following quote:
Obviously younger people pick up things easily, they know more about
the system, they know how to deal with the system problems, they
understand the system better than older people, however, older people
do not have enough knowledge and skills, so there is a difference but
not so big, older people can use the system and can work at the
reception.
[Manager-25]

Like the upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems, all the interviewed
managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems reported that gender is
not a deciding factor for recruiting people. In particular, Manager-18 said
Page 6-14
that “I do not think age or sex will make any difference in the use of the
system”. In that sense, Manager-20 pointed that both male and female
users have the same IT skills. Further, Manager-24 reported that both
male and female users have the same capability to learn and to use the
system. This is consistent with Manager-25 who reported that:
The both are the same; we do not look at the gender of the people. The
girls and the guys are the same exactly, nowadays there is no
difference between girls and guys they can do the system the same;
there is no difference at all for us.
[Manager-25]

systems reported that hospitality education is not a requirement criterion
for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. Manager-19
reported that they do not focus on hospitality education because “it
depends on how users are capable of doing their job more than how
educated they are”. Further, Manager-20 pointed that hospitality
education is not essential because the system is easy to use; therefore, it is
easy to train people how to use it. This is shown in the following quote:
To get a job you do not need to have hospitality background, not at all.
When interviewing or when we looking at a candidate for various
positions, we do not require hospitality education, it may help if they
have got some experience, but we do not solely rule people out because
they have not got hospitality education, because some of these people
they may be very good at computers and they just have not worked in
hospitality before.
[Manager-24]
However, other managers of upscale hotels reported that hospitality

education is desirable criterion for recruiting people for the reception job.
In particular, Manager-18 pointed that “there is some specific criteria
when selecting IT users; obviously you need to have people who are
competent and well-trained and educated enough to be able to use the
system in an efficient way”.
Page 6-15

All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that previous system experience is not essential for recruiting and
selecting people for the reception job. A possible explanation for this is
that those hotels are using their bespoke chain systems that are completely
different from the other international hotel systems (off-the-shelf
systems). In particular, Manager-18 said that “for the reception position
the experience is always different because different hotels use different
systems, so we ask general questions if they used our system before is a
plus”. This is consistent with Manager-19 who reported that they do not
require any previous computing experience with any particular system
because each hotel in the industry has its bespoke system. This is
Probably front-office experience, our hotel has its bespoke front-office
system which is unique to our hotel, so to have previous experience
with another system, it would not be possible because our hotel has its
bespoke system that is completely different from Fidelio and Opera
which is available to all hotels but our hotel has its bespoke system,
On-Q system, it is not possible they would have previous experience
with this system if they are not working for our hotel.
[Manager-25]
In addition, Manager-19 declared that they do not require any previous

system experience because their bespoke chain hotel system is easy to
use. Similarly, Manager-25 pointed that “we do not really put big pressure
on system experience because our system is pretty easy to use; it is very
easy to learn”. To that end, Manager-24 asserted that people can be easily
taught how to use the system; therefore, computing experience is
irrelevant for recruiting people. This is evidenced as below:
Previous computing experience with a particular system like Fidelio or
Opera is not required, it is obviously a benefit to be able to use it
because even if you used Opera or Fidelio you can pick up the system
quickly but as along as people have some computer knowledge, I do not
mind but I do not believe it is a requirement to have previous system
experience.
[Manager-20]
Page 6-16
Another possible reason for not insisting on previous system experience is

that it is easy to train new recruits on bespoke chain systems. Manager-18
pointed that “if people have got a little knowledge of how the system
works, we can train them to use our system”. This is consistent with
Manager-25 who said that computing experience is not essential because
“we have On-Q Training University, On-Q is the system we use and the
university will take you through the functionality of the system”:
The system we have got is not very common in the UK and I have not
met anyone who has worked on it, so everyone needs training on what
you have got, even if they said they used the system before I still go
through training with them to ensure they have got the knowledge I am
happy with it because you cannot always rely on somebody saying they
are good with the system before you know how they use it.
[Manager-20]
Therefore, Manager-24 reported that they do not conduct any system

trials during the interview. In particular, Manager-18 declared that in the
interview they do not ask practical questions; however, they ask only
general questions. A possible explanation by Manager-19 for this is that
those hotels are using different systems; therefore, computing experience
and system trials are not essential, as demonstrated below:
We do not give any practical tests for the use of the system during the
interview. What we would look for again obviously is getting in person
we do obviously ask them and learn a little bit about the background on
their customer service experience but no practical use of the system.
[Manager-20]
However, other interviewed managers of the upscale hotels using bespoke

systems reported that computing experience might be desirable for
recruiting people. A possible explanation by Manager-20 for this is that
hotel information systems are similar; therefore it is easy to adapt with
any new system:
Actually I found it as a benefit to know another system because
programmes are very similar, once you know one it is not very hard to
learn another hotel system, the check-in and procedures are nearly the
same, it is just a different colour, icons slightly worded differently, so
knowing another system is very helpful because of the similarity
between them.
[Manager-20]
Page 6-17

reported that basic IT skills, i.e. Word and Excel are not essential skills
for recruiting people for the reception job. In particular, Manager-20 as
well as Manager-24 reported that they do not use Word or Excel at all;
therefore, these basic IT skills are not essential. This is consistent with
Manager-18 who stated that basic IT skills are not essential because
people are easily trained as long as they can use the computer. Manager-
19 reported that basic IT skills are desirable for recruiting people, but it is
not essential. In that sense, Manager-24 pointed that they do not require
basic IT skills because “these days ninety-nine percent of the times
someone would use computers at some point of the life”. Manager-20
further stated that “the general people we do employ at the reception are a
little younger and generally that generation has the skills naturally”. To
that end, Manager-25 reported that the basic IT skills are not essential
because the system is easy to use, as demonstrated below:
You do not really put the basic IT skills to use in the system because it
is pretty easy, everything is explained, everything is there, you do not
need to know Excel or PowerPoint because everything is easy, our
system is windows-based, so if you want to check in, you go to the
button check in, if you want to do reservation you press on the button
reservation and it has just empty fields, so the system is pretty easy to
use, you do not need to know basic IT skills or to be expert in Excel or
Word or PowerPoint.
[Manager-25]

quite confident and calm. A possible explanation by Manager-19 for this
is that “if you work in hospitality, you need to be confident with
customers because if you are panicking on the system, it has a big impact
on the guest”. The interviewed managers reported several possible
explanations for their users computing anxiety. A possible explanation for
this is the system crashes. In that sense, Manager-19 said that “I used an
Page 6-18
old system and the system was always crashing and slow, people
checking in were really frustrated”. This is shown as follows:
If the system crashes, people may worry about it, we do get a very good
backup system here where if something happens, such as the computer
shutdown, or power cut, or the system crashed then we have got a
backup and we have got reports that printed every hour, so in case of
everything happens we have got everything packed in files and on
papers, so we can just go to manual check-in if we want to or manual
check-out.
[Manager-24]
Another possible explanation for computing anxiety is the lack of IT

knowledge. In that respect, Manager-20 pointed that “when initially users
start, I would say all of them had anxiety with using the system because it
is a new system; until they are familiar with the system they will have the
confidence to use it properly”. Further, Manager-25 reported that the lack
of CSE could be another reason for computing anxiety, as demonstrated
Not everybody is very confident with the system, some people who know
the basics, they do not know on the system how to look for things, how
to manage it, they will be very conscious where they do it and how they
do it. Some people who just did not have much IT experience before
and they are learning the system are very conscious with what they
want to do, they know how to do it, but they not confident they can do
it, is just they did not have experience before so it takes a time for them
to can use and not to be afraid from the system.
[Manager-25]
There are possible solutions for reducing computing anxiety. In particular,

Manager-20 as well as Manager-25 reported that end-user training is a
key issue for making people feel more confident. Further, end-user
consultation in the system development is another possible way for
reducing users computing anxiety. In that regard, Manager-25 pointed
that “people had tested the system prior and everything they needed to be
there, were there, so they had to be confident when using the new
system”. Further, Manager-20 recommended establishing set system
procedures in order to limit users computing anxiety, as follows:
Page 6-19
You can change a person’s personality, you can change how they use
things, there is always the elements of panic of the unknown, the main
reason of panic is unknown, uncertainly, fear, now if that person knows
if that dies I go to step B, C, D, E and it is a very streamlined logical
procedure, once you get that in place you limit a personality’s ability to
panic or opportunity to panic. So yes there is always people who panic
but as long you have got full procedures behind the scenes which they
can move into and know about them it does limit them panicking.
[Manager-20]
From the perspective of end-user employees, survey results showed that

the CSE construct was initially significant (Mean = 3.9; Std. Dev. = 0.8). In
particular, survey results revealed that most end-user employees of
upscale hotels using bespoke systems had a high CSE magnitude. In other
words, they were capable of using HIS with less support and assistance.
More specifically, most of end-user employees reported that they could
complete a task using the HIS: if there was no-one around to help them
(sum = 348; 82.9%); if they had not seen someone else using the HIS
before trying it themselves (sum = 340; 81%); if they could not call
someone for help if they got stuck (sum = 534; 79.1%); if they did not
same way, survey results showed that most end-user employees (sum = 18;
75.7%) had a high level of confidence regarding their ability to complete
a task using the HIS even if they had limited time (a high level of CSE
strength). To that end, survey results indicated that most end-user
employees (sum = 332; 79%) could competently use different HIS
packages (a high CSE generalisability). This is demonstrated in Figure
6.3. These findings are consistent with the interviewed end-user
employees (User-8; User-9; User-10) who reported that they have the
knowledge, skills and facilities to use their bespoke hotel information
systems.
Page 6-20
Figure 6.3: The degree of computing self-efficacy emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
I could complete a task using the HIS if
90

had not seen someone else using it
70 before trying it myself.
60
stuck.
50
40 had not the built-in help facility for
assistance.
30
had limited time to complete the job for
20 which the software was provided.
0 one to do the same job.
45.2% of end-user employees mentioned that they are frightened of using
the HIS; 47.4% reported that they hesitate to use the HIS for fear of
making mistakes they cannot correct; 59.5% reported that they feel
apprehensive about using the HIS; 59.5% reported that they could lose a
lot of information by hitting the wrong key. An implication of these
findings is that managers have to increase employees’ confidence by
showing them the right way of doing things (see Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: The degree of computing anxiety emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
I feel apprehensive about using the
80 HIS.
70
It worries me to think that I could
60 lose a lot of information by hitting
the wrong key.
50
I hesitate to use the HIS for fear of
40 making mistakes I cannot correct.
30
I am frightened of using the HIS.
20
10
% Computing anxiety scale items
Page 6-21

reported that customer service experience is a determinant factor for
recruiting people. Manager-25 indicated that “we look more how people
react with customers so we look more mainly for general skills not
specific, like computer skills”. In that respect, Manager-24 reported that
receptionists have to get good communication skills because the reception
is the first and last interaction point with every customer. To that end,
Manager-20 asserted that a person’s personality is the most important
criterion for recruiting people because it is difficult to change people’s
personality, as evidenced below:
The main criteria I have with staff are customer friendly, they have to
have bit of personality to go and interact with the guest, the main part
of customer service, the technology is important, most people can be
taught to use computer systems whereas teaching customer service and
friendliness is a little bit harder to change personality, so the main
criteria I have are the customer relation skills and obviously
professionalism and dedication as well I look for.
[Manager-20]
6.3 Hotel information system development

systems. The two types of hotel information systems are predominant in
upscale hotels, as demonstrated in the following sections.

Most of the interviewed managers of the upscale hotels reported that
using off-the-shelf hotel information systems is better than using bespoke
hotel information systems. Standardisation could be a possible benefit of
using off-the-shelf hotel information systems. In particular, Manager-23
said that “personally I like standardisation; I like everything to be the
same so personally I would say I recommend being better if it was just
one system across all hotels”. Further, Manager-14 pointed that off-the-
shelf system packages are quite the same; therefore, it is easy for people
Page 6-22
to adapt with any new system. This is consistent with the results of the
budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems (e.g. Manager-2; Manager-4).
Another possible benefit of using off-the-shelf hotel information systems
is the possibility of staff transfer across the hotel chains which use the
same system package, as demonstrated below:
So the bigger the system I think the better and also means if you do
have staff come from other hotels the chances they view that system
before which means quicker turn around and get them trained up,
which means if you lose staff members quickly, you can get someone
very fast or you know if I am very short staffed I can borrow
receptionists from another hotel because they are trained on the same
system, so sharing staff members as well sharing resources.
[Manager-22]
Furthermore, there are other several possible benefits of using off-the-

shelf hotel information systems. In particular, Manager-16 stated that
“personally I think Fidelio [off-the-shelf system] is better than On-Q
[bespoke system], it has got a lot options that you could not do on the
On-Q, I prefer working with Fidelio”. This is consistent with the results of
the budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems (e.g. Manager-3; Manager-
4). Furthermore, sharing information between hotel chains using the same
system could be another possible benefit of using off-the-shelf hotel
information systems. In that respect, Manager-22 declared that hotel
chains using the same hotel information system could share their guests’
information with the chain in order to provide personalised service, as
I think is better to have a big system and international system because
we now share information with the whole chain, so if the guest in
London has the Times Newspaper, we know he/she has a Times
Newspaper we order it for him/her ready, so it make sense to be more
proactive, make them feel personalised, we know who they are, we
know how much they spend, we know what favourite room they like, we
can share that with the group and that is very important.
[Manager-22]
Page 6-23

systems reported that hotel information systems have to be easy to use
and to learn. In particular, Manager-14 reported that “the system needs to
be quite a simple format, quite straightforward; it needs to be easy for us
to work around”. Manager-17 also reported that the system has to be user
friendly and it has to check customers easily without many problems. In
that sense, Manager-16 said that “Fidelio system is easier than On-Q
system, Fidelio has shortcut buttons and things like that; On-Q has word
only”. Similarly, Manager-22 declared that the system needs to be easy to
use and to learn by using shortcuts, logos and bright colours, as evidenced
It is mainly how easy the system is to use, how easy is it for me to train
people to use the system. The system needs to be easy, simple, you
know, like logos where they can see things not just words, so brightly
colours so it is not dull to look at, different ways of doing things. With
Opera, you can use the F1, F2, F3 buttons use all of them and you can
navigate way around it with different ways, if someone better using the
mouse or better using the keyboard, it is quite good.
[Manager-22]
Furthermore, Manager-23 reported that the system has to perform

transactions in quite an easy way. Manager-12 asserted that “for me is
simplicity, the system needs to be complex not complicated; I mean the
system should allow you to do a lot within it in the simplified possible
way”. This is consistent with the findings of budget hotels (e.g. Manager-
3; Manager-4). Manager-22 claimed that Opera is quite easy system to
use because “you can either use a mouse, you can use the keyboard and
Alt control buttons”. To that end, Manager-11 pointed that the system
needs to be windows-based, i.e. Opera system to allow people to use both
mouse and keyboard as well, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Nowadays because of using Windows, unfortunately I would say Opera
system is more easy to use because people are so used to use the mouse
that obviously you just want to use the mouse when you use a computer,
you get lost without the mouse but Fidelio does not have mouse option,
so yeah Opera is much easier.
[Manager-22]
Page 6-24

that the perceived ease of use construct was initially significant (Mean = 4;
Std. Dev. = 0.7). In particular, most end-user employees (sum = 562;
their job; followed by 81.8% of end-user employees (sum = 552) who
to do. To a lesser extent, 78.5% of end-user employees who reported that
it is easy to become proficient in using the HIS, followed by 76% of end-
user employees pointed that interacting with the HIS does not require a lot
of my mental effort. Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 541;
80.1%) believed that the HIS is easy to use in their job (see Figure 6.5).
These findings are consistent with User-5 as well as User-7.
Figure 6.5: The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
for me in my job.
80
70 I would find it easy to get the HIS to

do what I want it to do.
60

40

using the HIS.
20
10
Overall, I believe the HIS is easy to
0 use in my job.
%
Perceived ease of use scale items

All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf hotel
information systems reported that systems have to be fast. In particular,
Manager-14 pointed that hotel information system needs to be fast and
efficient because “you cannot have a system that takes you ten or fifteen
minutes to find one report or to check someone in, obviously guests will
not wait”. Manager-22 reported that hotels information systems have to
help users to perform their tasks quickly; therefore, they can spend most
Page 6-25
of the time interacting with the customers. In that sense, Manager-16 as

well as Manager-11 claimed that Dos-based systems, i.e. Fidelio are faster
than Windows-based systems, i.e. Opera, as evidence below:
I like the system which is mainly keyboard operated, like Fidelio for
instance, you have a combination of keys, like the combinations in
Windows which is very complicated for the first time users when you
have the knowledge how to use it, you can be much quicker using the
keyboard than using the mouse, so if you know how to use the
keyboard, once you learn it you can be much faster with the keyboard
rather than trying to work with the mouse.
[Manager-15]
Furthermore, the interviewed managers reported that hotel information

systems need to be accurate. In particular, Manager-23 said that “the new
system has to be accurate, it has to be reliable and it would have to be
able to handle a lot of information both storage and inputs as well”.
Manager-17 recommended that hotel information systems have to be
efficient, accurate and user friendly. Manager-22 also reported that hotel
information systems need to have sufficient information and reports. This
is consistent with Manager-17 who said that “the system has to have
different reports because obviously we rely on reports of the business
from management side, we need to know what occupancy is, what rooms
have sold”.

555; 82.2%) reported that using the HIS improves the quality of their
work, followed by 80% of end-user employees who reported that using
the HIS in their jobs enables them to improve their productivity; 79% of
end-user employees reported that using the HIS improves their
performance in their job. However, a lower percentage of end-user
employees (sum = 303; 44.9%) reported that using the HIS in their jobs
enables them to enhance their effectiveness, followed by 39.6% of end-
user employees who reported that using HIS improves their decision
Page 6-26
making. In other words, the results revealed that effectiveness impact and
decision-making impact were insignificant. Overall, most end-user
employees (sum = 582; 86.2%) believed using the HIS is useful in their
jobs. This is shown in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90 to improve my productivity.
80
70 to enhance my effectiveness.

of my work.
50
40
making.
30
Using the HIS improves my
20 performance in my job.
10
Overall, I believe using the HIS is
0 useful in my job.
%
Perceived usefulness scale items

systems reported that hotel systems need to have a lot of functions to help
users. In particular, Manager-12 said that “I mean the system should
allow you to do a lot within it in the simplified possible way”. Further,
hotel information systems have to guide users on the way they navigate
the system. In that respect, Manager-14 reported that “Opera system has a
help guide on there, so if you are stuck anyway, you can go to the search
system on it and work through step by step”. Manager-23 reported that
hotel systems have to be designed to do what users need to do. To that
end, Manager-14 reported that systems have to be linked together to help
users doing what they need quickly, as evidenced below:
People are satisfied with the Opera system, I think we all really like the
system; it does what it is supposed to do. Reception uses Opera and
Restaurants use a completely different system, they use Micros, so
Micros is linked to Opera, so obviously anything charged from the
restaurant can be send to the room, put into customer account, that
Page 6-27
mean they constantly work together, also we have got system in place
call Bartech and that we use at the minibar, it is electronic, that means
everything picked up go straight through the interface to front desk.
[Manager-23]
Another possible important function of hotel information systems is the

possibility of the system to correct users’ mistakes. In that sense,
Manager-13 reported that “any mistakes they made can generally be
rectified, so people tend not to be nervous”. Further, hotel information
systems need to have more advanced functions in order to help users
doing their job easily. More specifically, Manager-16 said that “Fidelio
system could cancel the check-in; you could not do that with On-Q”. To
that end, Manager-14 pointed hotel information systems need to keep and
retrieve guest records easily, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If you have got guests check in, you can find out their previous stay,
their history, how much the last rate was, obviously if our reservation
team is not in, we need to have the last stay rate, if it is the same rate, it
finds up the rate quickly, guests prefer not to wait, it is just handy.
[Manager-14]

work; 77% of end-user employees (sum = 520) reported that using the HIS
fits well with the way they work (see Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7: The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70 Using the HIS is
compatible with all aspects
60 of my work.
50
40 Using the HIS fits well
with the way I work.
30
20
10
0
Page 6-28

systems reported that system enjoyment is not a deciding factor for
selecting a new hotel information system. In particular, Manager-14
claimed that the hotel information system does not need to be enjoyable;
however, it needs to be easy to use. This is consistent with Manager-23
who pointed that the system would be enjoyable if it is easy to use.
Manager-16 stated that “I think the system has to be quite straightforward
and easy to use, enjoyable would not essential”. Further, Manager-11
reported that the system would be enjoyable if it is fast to use. To that
end, Manager-12 reported that the “computer system is just a tool like the
hammer; I use it because I use it and to make it more enjoyable it is too
difficult because it is just a tool”. This is shown in the following quote:
I think just easy to use really as long as it works it is really supposed to
be enjoyable? I do not think system enjoyment is a requirement, it just a
practical, we need a practical system rather than enjoyment and a
system talk to user job.
[Manager-17]
However, Manager-22 reported that hotel information systems have to be

enjoyable. More specifically, Manager-22 demonstrated that hotel
information systems need to have bright colours to make user feel
comfortable using it, as demonstrated in the following quote:
The system should be enjoyable, it should be easy to use, but it should
be something that does not cause them stress because they have got
guests in front of them so they need something, you know, like logos
where they can see things not just words, so bright colours so it is not
dull to look at, different ways of doing things, it is important they enjoy
using it or they comfortable using it at least.
[Manager-22]

2.9; Std. Dev. = 0.8). In particular, 58.5% of end-user employees (sum =
395) found using the HIS to be enjoyable, compared to only 56% of end-
user employees who had fun using the HIS. This is shown in Figure 6.8.
Page 6-29
Figure 5.9: The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
enjoyable.
60
50
I have fun using the HIS.
40
30
20
10
0
Perceived enjoyment scale items
%
6.3.1.5 System cost

systems reported that system cost is a deciding factor for selecting a new
hotel information system. Manager-16 as well as Manager-23 reported
that the cost of the new system is always an issue because hotel
information systems might be more expensive. Manager-15 reported that
the head management looked at the cost only when selecting the system
ignoring the system functionality. This is consistent with Manager-22
who reported that “Opera was quite expensive, the head management
went to different companies; they found out prices, they found what the
capabilities are”. To that end, Manager-17 reported that system cost is not
a deciding factor for employees or managers; it is mainly a management
concern, as below:
Personally I will not look at the cost of the system because I will not
have to pay for it but I am sure they do figure on the cost when they
think how much it is gonna to be. I think our system work perfectly,
adequately for this property and it has worry about the cost, but there
are systems probably more expensive than we do and more efficient
perhaps.
[Manager-17]

systems reported that system popularity within the hotel industry could be
Page 6-30
a determinant factor for selecting hotel information systems. In that sense,

Manager-22 said that “we changed from Protel system to Opera system
because Opera came at the top, so they then purchased it for the whole
group”. Similarly, Manager-14 pointed that they changed to Opera system
because it was actually used in a lot of hotels, as evidenced below:
Opera system is the best choice to be honest because it is actually used
in a lot of hotels, so if you use it in this hotel, it means if you go work in
somewhere else you have got those skills to take on, so Opera is really
a good system to work with. I think we use Opera because it is just a
good standardised system, everybody use it. I think the majority of
hotels, four star, five star hotels use this system.
[Manager-14]

systems reported that using generic hotel information systems is better
than using bespoke systems. In particular, Manager-25 said that “I believe
that the On-Q system [bespoke system] needs enhancement because it is
written for Hilton specifically, it needs enhancement to be graded
globally, whereas Opera [generic system] is brought as a whole package”.
More specifically, Manager-18 declared that generic systems have
standardised procedures, i.e. check-in and check-out; therefore it is easily
to train people on those systems. Another possible advantage of using
generic systems is that people are adapted with those systems easily;
therefore they can cross brands. Manager-19 reported that it would be
much better if all the systems in every hotel in the world are the same
“because it would be easy when you move jobs”, as evidenced below:
I think a generic system it will be a lot easier because we get
transferred people that moving round from hotel to hotel to use it again
without any problem of training them again on a new system. I think all
the hotel structures are the same, they all do the check-in, the check-out
nearly enough the same, so I think using a generic system provided by
(A) company will be a lot easier to get adapted rather than try to create
one, waste of time.
[Manager-18]
Page 6-31
In addition, Manager-20 argued that there are several possible limitations

of using bespoke hotel information systems. More specifically, any hotel
using its bespoke system has to be large enough as well as it needs to
have an expert IT team to be able to upgrade and maintain its system
properly, as evidenced in the following quote:
I would say it depends on the size of your operation, if you have got a
number of chains and very good IT department which is quite large
then yes your bespoke system might be beneficial because you can take
a lot of business, However, unless you have got the support there
because actually IT systems always have got problems, they always can
break, they always need upgrades, so unless you have got your own
dedicated team that can do programming and maintenance, it is always
be wise to have ready system package with external company that has
this team in place to support you the time you need.
[Manager-20]

systems reported that hotel information systems have to be easy to use
and to learn. In particular, Manager-20 said that “we happy with the ease
of system use, so obviously we always looking and speaking to
developers about something that is easy to use”. Further, Manager-25
claimed that “the easier to work with the system profile the better the
system for the hotel because you keep track of in-house guests”. In that
sense, Manager-24 reported that Windows-based systems (you can use
keyboard and mouse, i.e. On-Q system) are easier than Dos-based
systems (you can use only keyboard, i.e. Fidelio). More specifically,
Manager-25 reported that the system is easy to use and to learn because it
is Windows-based system, as evidenced below:
The main advantage of the system is easy as it is called front office
light system, so it is very easy and it is good important thing what we
need on reception, it does not have any extras which are unnecessary
and makes the system slow, the system is very light because it is an
important thing that we need. Our system is windows-based, so if you
want to check in, you go to the button check in, if you want to do
reservation you press on the button reservation and it is just been
empty fields, so the system is pretty easy to use, so it is very easy to
learn.
[Manager-25]
Page 6-32
However, Manager-20 argued that it is difficult to have an easy to use

system and a comprehensive system in the same time. More specifically,
Manager-20 said that the system is not easy to use because “it covers all
things in one, so our events, our sales, our reservation and our point of
sales, all are linked to this one to have a comprehensive programme”.
Further, Manager-18 pointed that it is also difficult to have an easy to use
system and perfection in the same time, as evidenced below:
Ease of use could be part of system criteria. But to get the perfection I
think to get perfect system, you cannot have perfection and ease of use.
I give you an example you cannot have perfect system to run a hotel
with three hundred bedrooms. You just work with two patterns because
three hundred bedrooms, for example, would include three types of
bedrooms. This would include many things that we sell and it has to be
separated into departments and everything. When you come to have six
or seven points of sale and five departments in the hotel, you know, you
need to use a system that is a little bit more detailed, more specific with
these departments. So ease of use is important again only for
employees but it is not benefit for the company at all.
[Manager-18]

their job; followed by 77.4% of end-user employees who reported that
they would find it easy to get the HIS to do what they want it to do; 75%
of end-user employees reported that interacting with the HIS does not
require a lot of their mental effort; 73.6% of end-user employees pointed
that it is easy to become proficient in using the HIS. Overall, most end-
user employees (sum = 322; 76.7%) believed that the HIS is easy to use in
their job. This is shown in Figure 6.9. Further, these findings are in
agreement with User-8 as well as User-10 who reported that their bespoke
systems easy to use and to learn.
Page 6-33
Figure 6.9: The perceived ease of system use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90 for me in my job.
80
70 I would find it easy to get the HIS
to do what I want it to do.
60
40
20 using the HIS.
10 Overall, I believe the HIS is easy to
0 use in my job.
% Peceived ease of use scale items

All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke hotel
information systems reported that systems have to be fast. In particular,
Manager-20 said that “the more we develop with the technology, the
quicker we want things and the quicker we expect”. Manager-19 as well
as Manager-25 agreed that hotel information systems have to backup and
update data quickly. More specifically, Manager-24 reported that “with
Fidelio system the night audit takes close to three hours, now it takes
about twenty minutes with On-Q system and it is done”. To that end,
Manager-18 claimed that hotel information systems have to be quick to
save users and customers’ time as well, as evidenced below:
I would say the criteria for any new hotel system from my experience,
my own opinion will be to save time for customers and staff, so the job
is done quicker and more efficient to protect our customers. Again I
think information technology is all about speed, is all about saving
time.
[Manager-18]
Moreover, the interviewed managers reported that hotel information

systems need to have sufficient information and reports. In particular,
Manager-25 pointed that “the system has to be able to figure your reports;
the report function is a lot in Opera system, On-Q system has reports but
Opera has more reports precisely for what you need”. Further, Manager-
Page 6-34
24 asserted that hotel information systems have to keep customer records,

such as number of visits and preferred room type; therefore, receptionists
can provide personalised service for the customers.

improve their productivity, followed by 79% of end-user employees who
pointed that using the HIS improves the quality of their work; 78.3% of
end-user employees reported that using the HIS improves their
performance in their job. However, a lower percentage of end-user
employees (sum = 193; 46%) reported that using the HIS in their jobs
enables them to enhance their effectiveness, followed by 45.5% of end-
user employees who reported that using HIS improves their decision
making. In other words, the results revealed that effectiveness impact and
decision-making impact were insignificant. Overall, most end-user
employees (sum = 358; 85.2%) believed using the HIS is useful in their
jobs. This is shown in Figure 6.10. These results are consistent with User-
8 as well as User-9.
Figure 6.10: The perceived system usefulness emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
Using the HIS in my job enables me to
90 improve my productivity.
80
Using the HIS in my job enables me to
70 enhance my effectiveness.
60 Using the HIS improves the quality of

my work.
50
40
making.
30
Using the HIS improves my performance
20 in my job.
10 Overall, I believe using the HIS is useful

in my job.
0
Page 6-35

All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke hotel
information systems reported that systems have to be designed to do what
users need to do. In particular, Manager-19 as well as Manager-24
reported that the hotel information systems need to be simple in order to
help users do their tasks. This is consistent with Manager-25 who reported
that “the system does not need to have much extra things which are
unnecessary and make the system slow”. However, Manager-25 argued
that the system needs to have a lot of functions to help users, such as
working from home. This is in agreement with Manager-18 who said that
“I think our system helps users to do an easy check-in because the system
has got a lot of details on it you can input when you taking a reservation”,
as demonstrated below:
From my experience Opera version 4 is better than On-Q system
because it has a lot more functions, it is available through Citrix,
which means I do not have to be in the hotel to do my work. Opera is
more advanced system. On-Q does not have a system for the wake-up
call; it is a manual system, hold on papers, whereas for Opera that is
available on check-in screen. Also with the complication transactions
On-Q does not help, Opera does. Also with Opera you can split
charges; you can put a limit on guest transactions on the day.
[Manager-25]
Furthermore, there are a number of other important functions which need

to be included in hotel information systems. In particular, Manager-24
reported that hotel information systems have to be more advanced in
order to help users doing their tasks, as demonstrated below:
Definitely On-Q is better. I mean the things you can do to make the
customer journey a lot better in those terms On-Q is really fantastic. I
mean it tells you everything about customers. However, Fidelio was
very limited to what you could do. On-Q you can do much more, it is so
much more advanced and the capability of what you can do with On-Q
compared to Fidelio is just something we had to change. Fidelio has
been around for fifteen years or so, it was not really advanced. The
capability of On-Q like I said is ten times better than Fidelio. The
things you can do with On-Q, you can pull reports on line; however,
with Fidelio you cannot go on line.
[Manager-24]
Page 6-36

Figure 6.11: The perceived system compatibility emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70 Using the HIS is compatible
with all aspects of my work.
60
50
Using the HIS fits well with
40 the way I work.
30
20
10
0

systems reported that system enjoyment is not a determinant factor for
selecting a new hotel information system; however, ease of system to use
and system speed are the most important criteria. Manager-24 said that “I
think the system does not have to be enjoyable, it needs to help you do
your task, it needs to be simple to use; it does not matter enjoyable”. In
other words, Manager-19 declared that if the hotel information system is
difficult to use, users might not enjoy using it. Manager-20 reported that
hotel systems do not need to be enjoyable because if people enjoy using
the system, they might not provide good customer service, as below:
I do not think enjoyable can be employed to any particular computer
programme unless you are taking about play station or an Xbox. Every
computer system we have got is a tool to be used. I do not think it is a
something we look for in a programme. Enjoyable system is not a
criteria of business the tool we have in business to be used to be able to
Page 6-37
perform and use well, as long as, it is easy of use included and has got
all the functions we need, it is a tool, it likes pen or a calculator, I
would not say I am picking up a pen to be enjoyable, it is a tool we use
without thinking and that how we look at IT system here. It is a tool to
meet our guest needs, the enjoyable part of our job is to interact with
the guests, to have that conversation, to have that personal interaction
not to use the computer because we want the team looking at the guest,
talking to the guest we do not want them have so much fun with the
computer that detracting from what they doing which is guest service.
[Manager-20]
However, Manager-18 argued that easy to use systems might not be

enjoyable because “it is gonna be boring, if you give me a check-in
system that gonna to check the guest with just one pattern without too
many things, is nothing to explore, is nothing to know more about the
system”. In a similar vein, Manager-25 claimed that hotel information
systems need to be enjoyable. A possible explanation by the same
manager for this is that people use the hotel system for a long time during
the shift; therefore it needs to be enjoyable, as demonstrated in the
following quote:
It is very important that the people enjoy the system because if they do
not enjoy the system they won’t understand it and they won’t be able to
learn everything or work on it. Most of the day we work on the system
eight hours a day on a shift so if we do not understand something is
very hard to work on it, people get tired, people get fad, so the people
not happy on the job.
[Manager-25]

2.6; Std. Dev. = 0.9). In particular, 50.2% of end-user employees (sum =
211) found using the HIS to be enjoyable, compared to only 43.8% of
end-user employees who had fun using the HIS. This is shown in Figure
6.12. These findings are consistent with the interviewed end-user
employees (User-8; User-9; User-10) who reported that system enjoyment
is not so important for using bespoke hotel information systems.
Page 6-38
Figure 6.12: The perceived system enjoyment emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
60
enjoyable.
50
I have fun using the HIS.
40
30
20
10
0
% Percieved enjoyment scale items
6.3.2.5 System cost

Some of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke
systems reported that system cost is a deciding factor for selecting a new
hotel information system. In particular, Manager- 25 pointed that “if we
applying a new system, the cost would be a major factor”. Similarly,
Manager-20 reported that system cost is a determinant factor for choosing
hotel information systems, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Off course the cost of the new system is gonna be factor which why
obviously when getting any new system you gonna shop around various
companies get codes try to get main board to see what they can do. I
mean I have been looking at a new key card system, obviously it is
important to see how the product works, but online is gonna be a cost
business as long as the product you go for can justify the cost whether
it higher or lower then you can choose from internet. The cost of the
system is something that we comfortable with the business otherwise
you would not pick it up.
[Manager-20]

reported that system popularity within the hotel industry is not a
determinant factor for selecting a new hotel information system. In that
sense, Manager-18 said that “Fidelio is very popular with budget hotels
and staff, but when you come to our system, it is not so popular”. A
Page 6-39
possible explanation by Manager-20 for this is that bespoke systems are

designed only for particular chains; therefore, people might not be
familiar with those systems, as demonstrated in the following quote:
The system we have got is not very common in the UK and I have not
met any people worked on it, so everyone needs a training and it is
distinctive, you have somebody coming to the business you need to
train them on what you have got, even if they said they used the system
before I still go through training with them.
[Manager-20]
6.4 Participation and consultation in the system development

the selection of the new system. In that sense, Manager-22 said that “we
would not have even been involved in the new system design, it was head
office, unfortunately, so we did not have any say, we did not have a
choice”. Further, Manager-16 declared that receptionists have not been
consulted in the selection because the head office is paying for the system
and “if the hotel managers decide they want a new system then that is all
they do”. Manager-11 as well as Manager-21 reported that the system has
been selected by their IT department because they are quite experienced.
This is shown in the following quote:
I suppose the system selection, I mean generally, is done by people who
are a lot higher than the ones who work in the hotel, so it is done by the
head office, so honestly, I do not know how they would decide which
one to be used. I suppose they just choose what they think to be best for
the users and management.
[Manager-23]
Despite most of the interviewed managers reporting that their employees

have not been consulted in the new system selection, but some managers
reported that they consistently get feedback from their employees about
the system. In particular, Manager-10 said that “we do get opinions, so we
do get feedback and look at the ways how we think the system can be
Page 6-40
improved or how it can be made better”. Similarly, Manager-17 reported

that they get system feedback from their employees during the monthly
meeting, as follows:
I have an open office, so if any body has got anything they want to
query, and we have a monthly meeting, department meeting, you know,
if somebody has an opinion about the system or idea they are more
than welcome then we can speak about it.
[Manager-17]
There are several possible barriers facing participating employees in new

system development. In particular, Manager-23 and Manager-21 reported
that the limited system experience of employees could be a possible
barrier. Further, the cost of participating employees could be another
possible barrier. More specifically, Manager-16 reported that the process
of consulting people is very expensive; therefore the head office takes the
decision of selecting the new hotel information system without consulting
people. To that end, Manager-21 declared that the extensive number of
employees to participate could be another possible barrier, as below:
What I mean, if every one of the staff gives his/her opinion about the
new system, we get obviously such bigger opinions. So it tends to go to
the area of IT who obviously know, we have different departments, so
the IT team could select the structure of the equipment that we use and
makes what is best. IT users have opinions, we obviously take some into
account but we usually rely on the IT department at this time, it goes
through the IT department.
[Manager-21]
Therefore, both the needs and preferences of end users should be taken
into account when selecting hotel information systems. In that respect,
Manager-13 recommended that “managers have to ask the reception team
what works best and what does not, so positive and negative sides of
using the system”. Similarly, Manager-17 said that end users have to give
their feedback about the system because “the system here is obviously set
in a particular way so certain staff will be restricted on what they can do
in the system”. To that end, Manager-23 mentioned the benefits of
involving users in the new system design, as demonstrated in the
following quote:
Page 6-41
When users are participated and involved in the new system design, the
system becomes easy to use and makes fewer mistakes, which makes it
easy for the management.
[Manager-23]

that the user participation construct was initially insignificant (Mean =
1.9; Std. Dev. = 0.7). The results showed that only 50.1% of end-user
employees (sum = 338) had main responsibility for the development of
their HIS (overall responsibility). The results also revealed that only
45.6% of end-user employees (sum = 308) had formally reviewed the
work done by their information system staff (user-IS relationship). In the
same way, only 29.3% of end-user employees (sum = 198) had designed
the user training programme for their HIS; only 27.9% of end-user
employees (sum = 188) had created the user procedure manual for their
HIS (hands-on activity). This is shown in Figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13: The participation activities emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100 I had main responsibility for the

60
40
programme for the HIS.
30
20
I created the user procedure manual
10 for the HIS.
0
User participation scale items
%
end-user employees are more likely to have positive attitudes towards
Page 6-42
using HIS. This is shown in Figure 6.14. These results are consistent with
User-5 as well as User-6.
Figure 6.14: The perceived involvement emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70
be important.
50
be relevant to me.
30
20
10
0
User involvement scale items
%

the selection of the new system. In particular, Manager-19 said that the
system has been selected and designed by the head office; “they chose
what they want, not what users want”. Similarly, Manager-24 reported
that the system has not been tested by their employees, as evidenced in
No one really has been asked from the users and things like that, they
did not test On-Q system, the decision has been made by our head
management and we went to the On-Q and that was set, so there was
no consultation to the users.
[Manager-24]
However, most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using

bespoke systems reported that their end-user employees have been
consulted in the selection of the new system. In that sense, Manager-25
reported that “people who will use the system were involved; front-office
staff were involved and trained on the system to check the functionality of
the system from front-office side, whether the system would be a suitable
Page 6-43
system”. In the same way, Manager-20 reported that end-user employees

have tested the system first, as follows:
So obviously we are always looking and speaking to developers and the
company about this is a tool we would like, this is a system we would
like, may be streamlined, so we do work with the company, they have
annual conferences where, you know, everyone goes, throw ideas into
the hat, would be better. I think system opinion comes from everyone,
obviously the main people who use the system at the end out are the
end users not the managers. So they would have input to the developers
which then we invest in and look in, to test and prove before we take
the decision, so users do have a very key input into that system.
[Manager-20]
There are several possible benefits of users’ participation and consultation

in the new system. In particular, Manager-25 reported that increased
users’ willingness to use the new system as well as increased users’
confidence could be possible benefits of consulting users. This is
consistent with previously-published results (e.g. McKeen and Guimaraes
1997; Kujala, 2003), as demonstrated in the following quote:
Because the users were involved, they are a lot more willing to use the
new system because some changes were imported to the hotel system
and because staff at the hotel have been involved from the outset, they
had to test the system prior and everything they needed to be there, was
there, so they had to be confident when using the new system.
[Manager-25]
There are, however, several possible barriers facing participating

employees in the new system development. Manager-25 as well as
Manager-24 reported that the extensive number of employees to
participate could be a possible barrier. More specifically, Manager-24
said that “I think considering two thousand and seven hundred hotels in
the world, there is no way you can do this, so a lot of people to test the
On-Q”. Resistance to change could be another possible barrier. In that
sense, Manager-20 reported that “some people do not like change, they
are always gonna have a negative view on the system before it comes in”.
Manager-19 mentioned the training and financial barriers. Further,
Manager-18 as well as Manager-20 pointed that lack of system
knowledge could be another possible barrier. In particular, Manager-20
Page 6-44
asserted that “people do not always understand what behind the scenes of
the system and the importance of tasks and procedures”. To that end,
Manager-24 stated that it is difficult for end-user employees to test the
system because it would take too much time, as evidenced below:
This is a very big company, so I am sure that the people who make the
selection of the system, they make it for a long term benefits, obviously
staff, any staff member, will think always about their own benefits
rather than company benefits, so that is why we do not involve users.
We take into consideration some comments to save time to do the task
may be to escape some parts of the system or use a new part in the
system but not obviously change the whole system because staff are not
experienced enough to decide what system to use.
[Manager-18]

Std. Dev. = 0.4). The results showed that only 39.8% of end-user
employees (sum = 167) had main responsibility for the development of
their HIS (overall responsibility). The results also revealed that only
31.9% of end-user employees (sum = 134) had formally reviewed the
work done by their information system staff (user-IS relationship). In the
same way, only 20% of end-user employees (sum = 84) had designed the
user training programme for their HIS; only 20% of end-user employees
(sum = 84) had created the user procedure manual for their HIS (hands-on
activity). This is shown in Figure 6.15.
Figure 6.15: The participation activities emerged by users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
I had main responsibility for the
70 I formally reviewed the work done by
information system staff (during
50
30
20
I created the user procedure manual
10 for the HIS.
0
Page 6-45
majority of end-user employees (sum = 336; 80%) considered the new
314) who considered the new system to be relevant to them (see Figure
6.16). There are similarities between these findings and those reported by
the interviewed end-user employees (User-9; User-10).
Figure 6.16: The perceived involvement emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70 I consider the new system
to be important.
60
50
I consider the new system
40 to be relevant to me.
30
20
10
0
Therefore, end-user employees have to be consulted in the new system

development. Manager-24 recommended that “instead of making the
decision by the head management only, people have to test the system
first to get their feedback”. Further, Manager-25 recommended that
managers have to select the more experienced people to be consulted in
the system development. To that end, Manager-20 reported that hotel
managers have to involve their users in the new system as well as present
it in the right way, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Obviously before we change and develop a system here, we set down
staff and give them a presentation on the benefits of the new system, the
key points, what it is gonna to do for us and trying to get them involved.
If you do not take these steps then you could not launch your system,
then the staff gonna be against it because they are comfortable with the
one they are using and going to a new system is always challenging but
as long as you present the new system in a right way then the
employees will take it on with a more positive attitude and enthusiasm.
Page 6-46
When they understand it, they accept it but until they do have this
knowledge of the system and procedures they are always gonna think it
is a problem.
[Manager-20]
6.5 IT training and development
The interviewed managers of upscale hotels identified the types of IT

training conducted in their hotels, such as internal, external, on-the-job
and off-the-job training. Further, they mentioned the possible ways to
identify the training needs of their users as well as the frequency of the
training. In particular, they mentioned the barriers confronting end-user
training and their suggestions to avoid these training barriers. The
following sections demonstrate all these issues in the upscale hotels using
off-the-shelf hotel information systems as well as upscale hotels using
bespoke systems.

systems reported that they mostly conduct internal or in-house training by
the hotel training team. In particular, Manager-16 pointed that “for my
staff, when they start with us they have an internal training schedule, so
they spend time obviously learn the system and go through different
aspects”. This is consistent with Manager-21 who reported they do in-
house training; hence, it is not essential for people to have previous
system experience. In that sense, Manager-13 reported that they conduct
internal training by their IT team because they are knowledgeable in the
system, as demonstrated below:
The Fidelio Company does not provide any training, not as far as I am
aware, but the staff we have here are very knowledgeable in Fidelio
and they are very capable to deliver training to every new member staff
that we have.
[Manager-13]
Page 6-47
Furthermore, Manager-11 declared that when they had the new system in
place, they conducted internal training by the front-office manager. In a
similar vein, Manager-14 reported that their end-user employees are
trained in-the house by the training manager. This is consistent with
Manager-17 who pointed that they train their employees internally; “it is
done by me or by the deputy training manager”.

The interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
identified two possible types of external IT training: external IT training
conducted by the system vendor and external IT training conducted by a
training company. In terms of the system vendor training, Manager-10
reported that “the training is done by Opera support team, we obviously
have a support team and the training is provided through them”. In that
sense, Manager-22 reported that when the system has been installed the
training has been conducted by the system vendor team because they are
experienced in the system more than the hotel training team, as evidenced
When we first started on Opera we had trainers came in to the hotel
and the training was here and we went in the system on live, they
stayed with us for a week. So there was always someone who is a
trainer on the front desk with us, four days of learning how to make a
reservation, how to do a check-in, check-out, etc. is done away not by
myself but by professional trainers.
[Manager-22]
Moreover, some interviewed managers reported that the training could be

conducted by an external training company. In particular, Manager-11
claimed that “if you have new starters I think sometimes it is good to send
them to external training, if they have got experience then external
training is not good to them because they already know the system”. To
that end, Manager-17 reported that all their employees have been trained
how to use the system by an external training company, as below:
We manage to have proper training from an outside company which
comes in and trains my team, they were shown what they need to use at
Page 6-48
the system to do the shift and then, you know, as people go along with
the experience that is, pick up all the rest of system requirements. If
they never used the system before depending on individuals obviously I
would say it can take up to a month to be trained by an external
company really to have a reasonable understanding of it.
[Manager-17]

systems (e.g. Manager-14; Manager-17; Manager-21) reported that they
prefer to train their employees on the job. In particular, Manager-14 said
that “to make people more confident, we buddy people up together, so we
have an experienced shift leader with a new member staff”. Similarly,
Manager-17 reported that “we do on-the-job training for the people if we
have new starters; they are going to be closely supervised with
somebody”. Manager-10 declared that all the new employees are trained
on the job for four weeks, as demonstrated in the following quote:
The new associate is paid by another experienced associate for the first
four weeks and obviously that experienced associate still talking about
the system and how it is used and go for practical exercises, so the new
associate would then go and check someone in and go check someone
out for example on the day-to-day basis, on the practicality. So we
actually work what we call buddy system training.
[Manager-10]
There are several possible advantages of conducting on-the-job training.

In particular, Manager-14 said that on-the-job training is better than off-
the-job training because “you can see what is happening; you learn items
quicker”. This is consistent with Manager-22 who reported that on-the-job
training gives people better idea and experience because “they never
gonna know what is gonna happen with the guest”. Further, Manager-16
as well as Manager-17 reported that it is easy to train new staff members
on the job because they can see the real-life scenario. More specifically,
Manager- 16 pointed that on-the-job training is better because “you have
real-life guests, you get to see how people interact with the guests, how
they work with the system”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
Page 6-49
On-the job training is definitely much better, I suppose if you stay in

front of the guest, on-the-job training, you can actually ask the person
and he/she can show you, so next time you will personally know. So it is
actually working with the scenario on the day-to-day basis rather than
just action based.
[Manager-10]
However, there are several possible disadvantages of conducting on-the-

job training. In that respect, Manager-22 claimed that it might be quite
complicated to train people in front of the customers. End-user computing
anxiety could be another possible disadvantage of training people on the
job. In particular, Manager-23 reported that “the problem of on-the-job
training is sometimes the pressure because if you actually are dealing with
real customer you can get anxious or nervous”. Interruption during on-
the-job training could be another possible disadvantage, as demonstrated
by Manager-17 in the following quote:
I think on-the-job training has both advantages and disadvantages. I
think the problems are, like I said, it can be very busy so you cannot
always show the people what you want to show them because you stuck
with the operation. I think in a perfect word you should first have
training in a room just so you can see and you can learn the system
without any interruptions because obviously with the on-the-job
training you get interruptions.
[Manager-17]

identified two types of off-the-job training: theoretical off-the-job training
and practical off-the-job training. In terms of the theoretical off-the-job
training, Manager-22 reported that all new employees attend four-days
training sessions to know how to do a reservation, check-in, check-out,
etc. This is consistent with Manager-23 who pointed that “they do official
training when people go to class rooms and take their own training; it is a
four-day course away from this hotel”. This is demonstrated in the
following quote:
We have what we call a certified new hire trainer; each department in
the hotel has what we call a certified new hire trainer. Now they are
Page 6-50
actually on two days training course provided by our hotel training

team teaching the associate how to do the job.
[Manager-10]
In addition, some of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-14;

Manager-22; Manager-13) reported that their employees could be trained
on how to use the system practically in a training room. In other words,
people are trained how to use the system on their own using the system
training version (i.e. Fidelio workbox). In particular, Manager-14 said that
“we have workbox training system which supposed for new receptionists,
so literately step-by-step guide how to use Opera”. In the similar vein,
Manager-13 reported that their employees are trained off-the-job on the
Fidelio workbox training version, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Basically, exactly the same as the live Fidelio that people can just go
onto practice, a workbox comes with it, so it shows everybody how to
make a profile when a guest is making a reservation, how then you pick
up that profile if you need to make a reservation for a guest, how to
check-in, how to check-out, it just gives you step-by-step guide on
Workbox and which allows then member staff to go on practice on a
training module of Fidelio, it would be conducted in a separate area,
off-the-job training.
[Manager-13]
There are several possible advantages of conducting off-the-job training.

In that sense, Manager-21 claimed that off-the-job trainers might have a
better experience with the system (i.e. Opera system trainers), as
compared to the hotel trainers. Further, Manager-17 as well as Manager-
13 reported that people are trained off the job in a calm environment. In
particular, Manager-13 said that “I think you do need off-the-job training
privately where you can be slightly nervous if somebody is around”. This
is demonstrated in the following quote:
From my point of view I would love to have some who started new in
the hotel to have a separate room, quiet room with a computer and
discuss everything with them, you know, from work out, I think that
would help because there is no distraction with people during the
training.
[Manager-17]
Page 6-51
However, there are other several disadvantages of conducting off-the-job

training. Limited end-user employees could be a possible barrier facing
training people off the job. In particular, Manager-22 said that “we have
not got enough staff to take everyone off and going into training that is
quite difficult”. Time could be another possible barrier facing training
people off the job. More specifically, Manager-17 stated that “it is time
constraints really; I would not be able to take off people for a whole day
and train them in a room away from the operation”. To that end,
Manager-23 reported that the problem of off-the-job training is that it is
not dealing with real people, as evidenced in the following quote:
On-the-job training is definitely much better I think because when you
look at off training, you are actually away from the system. Sometimes
you are not actually sit in front of the system, you are not looking
practically because I think, for example, if you do off-site training, if
you get asked a question such as I need to change one bed night when I
am checking a day early. I suppose it is much more difficult because
you do not get check-in scenario.
[Manager-10]
Accordingly, the interviewed managers reported that combinations of off-

the-job training and on-the-job training have to be conducted. In
particular, Manager-13 reported that on-the-job training and off-the-job
training are needed, “you do need off-the-job training privately and when
you become more confident you need to do on-the-job training in front of
guests as well”. Similarly, Manager-21 pointed that they conduct off-the-
job training and on-the-job training, as demonstrated below:
We have not any problems with training because we offer off-the-job
training sessions and users question trainers and then we do on-the-job
training for these users which means the guys do on-the-job training
have been trained how to use the system, so we have no problems with
user training.
[Manager-21]

reported that employees’ mistakes could be an indicator that their
Page 6-52
employees need to be trained. In particular, Manager-17 as well as

Manager-23 claimed that employees’ regular mistakes are an indicator to
measure the effectiveness of the training. This is demonstrated in the
following quote:
Sometimes people make mistakes, so it means obviously, you need to
look at what is going wrong and re-train them in new scenarios. If
there are still mistakes happening, it may be a problem from our
training, may be the receptionists do not follow the way they were
trained, so we may have to think again how to make it more effective,
or it may be an error with the system, it could be we did not train
people probably.
[Manager-14]
Furthermore, Manager-21 reported that monitoring people during their

shift could be another possible way of identifying training needs.
Manager-10 reported that their employees are reviewed regularly to
evaluate their system skills as well as to identify their training needs.
Manager-13 reported that guest comment cards as well as mystery
shopper could be possible ways of monitoring employees during their
shift. To that end, Manager-11 pointed that they have got regular
performance management reviews to measure the training effectiveness.
This is shown in the following quote:
I am always at the desk, I am always watching them see how they are
working on the system, if they are struggling let me know, so they tell
me they do not know how to do something. So it is basically about just
watching and keeping an eye on them. My main role is to look at my
staff, deal with queries; deal with complaints and things like that, so it
is about watching.
[Manager-22]

systems reported that they train their employees on a regular basis. In
particular, Manager-22 reported that they conduct bite-sized training
every day to keep users up-to-date. Manager-11 revealed that they train
their employees regularly as part of the company standard. A possible
explanation by Manager-10 for conducting regular training might be that
Page 6-53
most upscale hotels have got a HR department that is responsible for

conducting training on a regular basis. Further, Manager-21 claimed that
their IT department conduct regular training every month, as
We have training for candidates every month and then we have actually
training, obviously off-job-training sessions, goes over the HR training.
So we do have a regular training every month as well as work shops
which help people at the stage, we train them how to do check in, check
out techniques and make them more confident.
[Manager-21]
However, some of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-23; Manager-

17) reported that they do not conduct regular training; however they only
conduct refresher training. More specifically, Manager-23 claimed that
they do not conduct regular training; however, they train their employees
if the system is updated. Further, refresher training might be provided if
new procedures are added. In particular, Manager-16 reported that “they
have refresher training because there are always new procedures; always
new things starting up”. To that end, Manager-17 pointed that they
conduct refresher training occasionally if there is an upgrade on the
system or something new, as evidenced below:
If there is an upgrade on the system, users need to be trained. We
occasionally do some refresher training on something that constantly
new, it would be one-to-one session. The training is pretty much at the
very beginning and then refresher training just little things really
occasionally.
[Manager-17]
In addition, some of the interviewed managers reported that refresher

training is provided if employees request training in a particular function
of the system. In particular, Manager-23 revealed that “always when users
need training they get it; it is not really that regular”. Further, Manager-17
as well as Manager-23 declared that refresher training might be conducted
if employees face any problem with the system, as below:
We do training when a problem arises. Obviously users have monthly
or three monthly reviews. That is when we look at things may be they
are happy with, we see that if they are struggling on certain things, so
Page 6-54
we will start again with the training, we do that anyway, after few
months we re-train them just to keep everyone up-to-date, keep them
fresh.
[Manager-14]

There are several possible barriers confronting employees training.
Manager-16 reported that time could be a possible barrier confronting
employees’ training because hotels are always busy. This is consistent
with Manager-17 who said that “it is a time constraint really; I would not
be able to take employees off for a whole day and train them in a room
away from the operation”. To that end, Manager-13 asserted that it is
difficult to take employees away from their department to train them
because a lot of time is needed. This is shown as follows:
The main training problem, I would say time, receptionists have not got
time because obviously they are busy, they constantly check customers
in, check customers out, all the time they are busy. So literally you
conduct all the training in a short time, so they would be forgetful.
[Manager-14]
Moreover, Manager-11 reported that employees might have different

abilities to learn from the training. This is consistent with Manager-17
who claimed that some people can pick training up in couple of days;
however, other people may take, for example six weeks to pick it up.
Therefore, Manager-11 recommended that managers have to evaluate the
effectiveness of the training regularly, as demonstrated below:
I suppose there are generally many training problems, for example I
think somebody learns quicker than another, some people pick up
quicker than others, some people adjust and are good at IT, some
people are not. I suppose that is the biggest problem, some people pick
up quicker, some people do not, some people struggle with IT.
[Manager-10]
In addition, lack of staff could be another possible barrier facing

employees training. More specifically, Manager-22 reported that “we
have not got enough staff to take everyone off and going into training;
that is quite difficult”. The lack of equipment could be another possible
Page 6-55
barrier confronting employees training. More specifically, Manager-23

reported that people need to have sufficient equipment to use it as well as
to learn on it.

employees who reported that the HIS trainers were well qualified; 71.1 %
of end-user employees reported that the HIS training provided was
excellent. In the same way, 70.1% of end-user employees reported that
they were satisfied with their level of learning from the HIS training as
well as 69.2% of end-user employees who reported that the HIS training
met their expectations. Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 477;
70.7%) reported that they enjoyed the HIS training (see Figure 6.17).
Figure 6.17: The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
80 The HIS trainers are well
70 qualified.

always excellent.
50
40 I am satisfied with my level of

30
20 expectations.
10
Overall, I enjoyed the HIS
0 training.

identified some ways to improve user training. In particular, Manager-16
reported that user training has to be scheduled. Furthermore, Manager-11
Page 6-56
suggested that managers have to conduct bite-sized training for a longer

period of time. More specifically, Manager- 21 pointed that it is quite
easy to conduct one-day training. This is consistent with Manager-13 who
claimed that short-take training would be better because when managers
just take one or two persons for short-take training, they will not affect
their departments, as evidenced below:
It is really to spread out the training over may be two or three weeks,
so you can have one person or two a day doing the training rather than
five or six because to take so many people off for a week is too much. A
half day session may be better than a full day session.
[Manager-22]
Furthermore, Manager-23 as well as Manager-11 reported that managers

have to use different ways of learning because people might have
different learning capabilities. In particular, Manager-11 reported that
managers have to use different training methods to make sure that they
teach people on the way they need to be taught. Added to that, Manager-
16 pointed that “you need to have more staff, so it gives you time to make
sure the desk is fully covered, it gives you time to take somebody away
for training”. In a similar vein, Manager-23 recommended that employees
have to do more practice on the system after the training, as below:
To improve user training, practice, practice, practice, so literally, I
always say specially when I come to information technology and
information systems, you need to use it, so after you train people to do
the task, give them a list of tasks to do and to practice.
[Manager-23]
Moreover, Manager-14 recommended that training has to be conducted by

the system vendor team who might be more experienced in the system.
Further, some of the interviewed managers insisted that managers have to
evaluate their training effectiveness regularly. In particular, Manager-13
said that they regularly do job appraisals to find out what people need or
what they want to receive in the next six months or the next year. To that
end, Manager-11 reported that they conduct performance management
reviews in a regular basis to evaluate the training effectiveness and to
identify the training needs, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Page 6-57
We have got performance management reviews in this hotel, so

obviously that is been done quite often and that helps you as well, you
know, to see what you need to catch up on training, so, you know, each
matter is gonna to work in completely different ways, so performance
management reviews help me.
[Manager-11]

reported that they mostly conduct internal or in-house training by the
hotel training team. In that respect, Manager-19 mentioned that all the
new employees are trained internally by somebody who is experienced in
the system. Similarly, Manager-25 reported that “we have an On-Q
Training University which takes you through the functionality of the
system”. A possible explanation reported by Manager-18 for conducting
internal training is that the IT team might have a better understanding of
the system than any other external training company, as follows:
The training is all done internally. I think internal training would be
better because I use the system for a long time and I know every fault
and every positive point on that system within this hotel. So if I do the
training for my staff in this hotel then I know which areas of the system
would be useful and which area I can escape to make it easier for the
staff to use. Yeah internal training by experienced staff members is
better than bringing somebody from outside who does not know how
the hotel works and may just do basic training on the system.
[Manager-18]
Furthermore, most of the interviewed managers (Manager-18; Manager-

19; Manager-20) reported that the internal training is conducted either by
the front-office manager or by the training manager. Further, Manager-24
reported that the internal training might be conducted by the IT team
because they are quite experienced in the system, as evidenced below:
We changed from Fidelio to On-Q in all properties, we had an
installation team who worked for Hilton and they came in and spent
two weeks at the property, changed over the system and also trained all
the staff like classroom training on On-Q, all my front desk team had a
schedule over one week of training and learning.
[Manager-24]
Page 6-58

All interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that they do not conduct any sort of external IT training. A
possible explanation by Manager-18 for this is that their IT team might
have a better understanding of the system than any other training
company. Further, Manager-20 reported that “it is difficult to pull people
out from the operation to train them externally”. Another possible
explanation by Manager-19 for this is that they train their employees
internally because the system is easy to use, as evidenced in the following
quote:
We hardly have external training because we know the system, it is a
very basic system, it is not really difficult, you know. So it is better to
have internal training, I think so. I mean when you learn by yourself in
daily usage, like check-in, check-out then you know how it works
yourself, you know.
[Manager-19]

systems reported that they prefer to conduct on-the-job training. In that
sense, Manager-18 said that they regularly conduct on-the-job training
because their employees can be trained while using the system to perform
their tasks. In a similar vein, Manager-19 reported that new employees are
paired up with a more experienced staff member during the first two
weeks. The process of on-the-job training is shown below:
The first couple of weeks you are out at the front desk, but you will not
be on your own, you will be shadowing or paired up with someone who
is experienced and they will stay with you all the time and let you do
things but they will correct you if you need correction because there
are a lot more things to learn when you are actually out at the desk and
not just learning the system, you know, you need to know what
procedures we have got and all sort of things.
[Manager-24]
There are several possible advantages of conducting on-the-job training.

In particular, Manager-19 reported people might learn quicker when
someone shows them how to use the system practically. Further,
Page 6-59
Manager-20 as well as Manager-24 reported that it is easy to train new

employees on the job because they can see the real-life scenario. In
particular, Manager-24 said that “I think on-the-job training can be more
effective than if someone just sits on his/her own learn at the computer, I
think people remember things quicker if someone teaches them:
It is important to do sort of on-the-job live training, so they can see
how the system is used, they need steps of how to use the system, they
might delay one step, go quick on another, you order the procedures
you do, how you fit them around the guest service, how to make them
feel welcome at resorts is the key, so you obviously do basic training
then you do live training that is a very important part.
[Manager-20]
However, there are several possible disadvantages of conducting on-the-

job training. More specifically, Manager-18 pointed that end-user
computing anxiety could be a possible disadvantage of training people on
the job because the system might be difficult to use when people start.
Further, Manager-19 was of the opinion that on-the-job training could be
quite frustrating for the guests because people might make mistakes in
front of them. Therefore, Manager-20 reported that people have to be
monitored during the training by more experienced staff member, as
We face some problems with the life training, but obviously we would
not put someone on the live training until they are comfortable and we
always have another member staff standing on there, shadowing them,
so if they do have a query, the guest is not affected, there also be some
monitoring until they up to the level where they can fly solo.
[Manager-20]

The interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that their employees are trained off the job in a training room to
learn how to use the system theoretically. In particular, Manager-25
demonstrated that their employees are trained off the job in a training
room. This is consistent with Manager-20 who mentioned that training
sessions are provided in a regular basis, as follows:
Page 6-60
I would say a couple of weeks for a brand new system to be able to

schedule the time for everyone to go on a dedicated training session
because you pull them out from the operation and need them to
specifically be trained and developed and learn the new system.
[Manager-20]
In addition, some of the interviewed managers (Manager-20; Manager-

24) pointed that their employees might be trained practically on their own
by using the system training version. In that sense, Manager-20 said that
“the suppliers came in and used the PCs with the new system on it, so
people can be trained on the new system”. To that end, Manager-24
reported that their employees do forty hours training on the system at the
back office, as evidenced below:
We get a very good training programme on the software. People have
to do around forty hours of training on a computer, various lessons
before they can actually go on and use the system. So they get a lot of
training, they do the training at the back office, but it is all on the
computers. They do structured lessons for the front desk, stuff on
check-in, check-out, reservations, postings, all sort of things; they need
to pass all of these lessons to print a certificate off before they can use
the system.
[Manager-24]
In summary, the interviewed managers reported that people have to be

trained off the job at the beginning of their work and thereafter on-the-job
training has to be conducted. Manager-19 said that they do off-the-job and
on-the- job training, “firstly they do seminar training, then they do on-the-
job training”. In a similar vein, Manager-25 reported that “at the
beginning we can do off-the-job training for the new staff, they can go to
Hilton On-Q Training University online and then when they come into the
hotel we do on-the-job training”.

reported that monitoring employees is a possible way to identify the
training needs. In that sense, Manager-18 said that they first train their
employees, observe them on the job and then evaluate the training.
Page 6-61
Reviewing people in a regular basis could be another possible way to

identify the training needs. More specifically, Manager-24 said that “we
have regular job chat or one-to-one, like personal development review, to
know if there is anything they would like to be trained on”. To that end,
Manager-25 reported that they evaluate the training effectiveness through
using task list, as demonstrated below:
We have got a list with all front-office tasks we do and the staff is
trained on that, once the tasks have been completed, it signed off
whether to repeat the training on that tasks or not. If the standard has
not been achieved, we know the training development needs to be
repeated till the standard is achieved.
[Manager-25]
Furthermore, Manager-18 reported that employees’ mistakes could be

another possible way to identify the training needs. This is consisted with
Manager-24 who said that “if people have a high number of problems
with a certain area, then we would focus on that and try to get it fixed”.
To that end, Manager-19 pointed that employees computing anxiety
could be another possible indicator that employees need to be re-trained
on the system.

systems reported that they train their employees on a regular basis. In
particular, Manager-25 reported that they train their employees regularly
to keep them up-to-date, for example short-take training may be
conducted every shift. Manager-19 declared that they train new
employees regularly to be familiar with the system. This is consistent with
Manager-18 who declared that the training is on-going because “there are
always new things to learn; everyday is not the same in the hotel”.
Similarly, Manager-24 revealed that they conduct bite-sized training for a
short time on a regular basis, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We just do a small training session, something like that, it is called
bite-sized training, it is small in the time but effective training, so it
Page 6-62
could take ten minutes, but it is just on one topic, you know, you do not
spend an hour doing five topics and people probably forget half of it at
the end, so if you do ten minutes short training in one topic you can do
couple of times a week or you could do every day, but we tend to do
couple of topics per week.
[Manager-24]
do not train their employees on a regular basis. In particular, Manager-20
as well as Manager-24 pointed that they only provide refresher training
when system procedures are changed. In a similar vein, Manager-18
revealed limited time, resources and staff could be possible reasons for
not conducting regular training, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We do not have regular training, we have training for the new staff just
when they start to introduce them the system and then if there is any
new procedure coming into the place within the system that is when we
schedule training. Whether get fixed day training it depends on the
number of the staff, the time, what we have and what resources we have
got as well.
[Manager-18]
Furthermore, Manager-20 reported that refresher training is important

because employees might forget little things which are not used regularly.
In that sense, Manager-19 declared that refresher training also might be
conducted if employees face any problem with the system or if they are a
little bit anxious. This is evidenced in the following quote:
We always find some new problems with the system, if it is a major
problem then obviously we will discuss. I have a team meeting, where I
have all the team every month, I mean if there is any major issue I
discuss with them, if they need to be trained we either do that at the
meeting or we will arrange to do it between shifts.
[Manager-24]

systems reported that limited time could be a possible training barrier.
More specifically, Manager-18 pointed that “the only training barrier is to
find the right time, to find a time to do the training that is all”. Further,
Manager-18 as well as Manager-20 claimed that employees might have
Page 6-63
different learning capabilities. To that end, Manager-20 reported that

employees might be resistant to change their ways of learning, as
evidenced below:
There are big training problems I suppose. In general business is
dealing with different management, different procedures, when that
changes people are reluctant; reluctance is probably the biggest
training problem. Training somebody to do it differently when they
were doing something for a year is challenging because they go back
into the old ways, for a while until you break it in. So I suppose the
biggest problem I have ever encountered in my career with training is
changing users to use the system effectively where in the past they were
using it in a way they thought it is the best but it was not very user
effective.
[Manager-20]

employees who reported that the HIS trainers were well qualified; 66.9 %
of end-user employees reported that they were satisfied with their level of
learning from the HIS training. In the same way, 65.5% of end-user
employees reported the HIS training met their expectations; 6.8% of end-
user employees pointed that the HIS training provided was excellent.
Overall, most end-user employees (sum = 288; 68.6%) reported that they
enjoyed the HIS training. This is shown in Figure 6.18.
Figure 6.18: The evaluation of IT training emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
80 The HIS trainers are well
70 qualified.
always excellent.
50
40 I am satisfied with my level of
30
20
expectations.
10
Overall, I enjoyed the HIS
0 training.
Page 6-64

identified some ways to improve user training. Short-take/bite-sized
training for a longer period of time has to be provided. In particular,
Manager-18 said that “user training would be on-job training, on-going
training for a longer period of time with enough resources, it would be a
lot easier”. Further, Manager-20 as well as Manager-25 recommended
that different training methods have to be provided to make sure that
employees have good understanding. Manager-20 also reported that “to
improve user training, if cost and expense is not an issue, I would like to
have extra staff where I can take people out and train them for a day”. To
that end, Manager-24 pointed that training has to be scheduled for a long
time, as evidenced in the following quote:
I think one of the main things is just finding a structured pattern for
training, so we tend to fit training where we can fit it in, you know,
because of the demand of the business, so if we get spare time, lets do
some training there. I think we need to have more structured training,
so it is difficult to try to find time to get the training done. So what I
would like to happen is just say at three o’clock on Thursday next week
there will be a training session on this, more of the training has to be
scheduled where all the team know that the training would be at this
time, at this date next week and they have to attend, not just finding
spare time and do the training. So training has to be regulated and
more scheduled, so people will attend the training with a clear mind.
[Manager-24]
6.6 End-user IT support

The interviewed managers of upscale hotels identified two possible types
of IT support, namely on-site IT support and off-site IT support. They
declared the reasons for using off-site IT support more than the on-site IT
support. In that respect, the managers reported the barriers confronting
end-user IT support and their suggestions to improve the IT support. The
following sections demonstrate all these issues in the upscale hotels using
off-the-shelf hotel information systems as well as the upscale hotels using
bespoke systems.
Page 6-65

systems (Manager-21; Manager-23) reported that on-site IT support is
better than off-site IT support. In particular, Manager-21 reported that on-
site IT department is much better because “it is on-hand call, definitely it
is a lot easier”. This is consistent with Manager-23 who said that on-site
IT department would be great because “if anything goes wrong you will
find person there”. In a similar vein, Manager-23 declared that an on-site
IT department is essential because computer systems need to be
maintained in a regular basis by a professional IT administrator, as
Well, personally I think it is essential you have an IT administrator
onsite where you call, everything run by computer. I think it rather
silly not having an on-site IT manager in my personal opinion but the
decision is not made by me, it is made by higher powers, you know the
head office. I mean computers need to be maintained, they are very
complicated machines, but they are machines and therefore they
breakdown and need maintenance and they need to be looked after and
I think which be more broadened to have someone trained in the hotel
to do it for you.
[Manager-23]
However, most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels reported

that they do not have an on-site IT department; while, they have an off-
site department based in their head office. Cost could be a possible reason
for not having on-site IT department. In particular, Manager-10 reported
that they do not have an on-site department for cost reasons; “it makes
sense to have an IT department off-property cost wise”. Similarly,
Manager-11 declared that they do not have an on-site IT manager because
“it will be a waste of money”. This is shown as follows:
I do not know any hotel that has an on-site IT department, I think cost;
it is too expensive to have one person onsite when you can do that over
the phone, so travelling back and forward. I do not know any hotel that
has an on-site IT department.
[Manager-17]
Page 6-66
Furthermore, some of the managers reported that they do not have an on-
site IT department because hotel information systems do not crash enough
times to justify the recruitment of an on-site IT manager. In that sense,
Manager-16 said that “the system does not crash so far, so it is very
irregular that we would need somebody on site”. This is consistent with
Manager-10 who reported that they do not have many system problems as
well as their support team are able to dial into the network and fix any
problems quite quickly. Similarly, Manager-11 was of the opinion that
they do not need to have IT department on site, as evidenced below:
There is no need to have an internal IT support, there is no need
because you have not got problems with IT all the times, you may have
a problem once a week, so that can always be managed centrally, you
do not need to have them within the hotel all the times.
[Manager-11]
In addition, Manager-22 argued that it would be nice to have an on-site IT

manager; however, it would be a luxury these days. In that respect,
Manager-10 reported that they do not have an on-site IT manager,
however, they have an IT solution manager who works between four
hotels. Added to that, some of the interviewed managers reported that
with the advanced technology nowadays, it is easy to dial in and rectify
any IT problems from off site. In that sense, Manager-14 revealed they do
not need any IT technicians on site because they can dial into the
computer system and solve any problem. This is demonstrated as follows:
Like I said we have got an IT department, not on site but within the
company and if there are any problems, they basically solve them
straight away anyway, dialling into our system and doing it for us, so I
do not think it matters if we do not have the IT department in the hotel.
[Manager-13]

Most of the interviewed managers reported that they have an off-site IT
support either by their IT department or by the system vendor. More
specifically, Manager-10 declared that the type of IT support depends on
the type of problem. In other words, if it is a hardware problem, it is better
Page 6-67
to contact the IT department; however, if it is a system problem, it is

better to contact the system vendor. In that sense, Manager-14 reported
that “if we have a problem with Opera we would phone them and they can
see if there is any error on the system”. This is consistent with Manager-
13 who said that “if we have a problem with Fidelio, we contact Fidelio
support by phone and they always reply quickly”. A possible explanation
by Manager-21 for this is that system vendor team might be more
experienced by the system problems than the hotel IT team, as evidenced
If we have a technical problem, the company that provides the system
solve this problem. We have internal IT department within our
company but it is a lot easier to solve technical problems by the system
vendor because it is very complicated system, it has to be the company
that made the system because you do not want to get somebody within
our IT department to go into that system and may make the problem
even bigger you know, so get people who are really professional, you
know, it is their job.
[Manager-21]
Furthermore, the interviewed managers reported that if they face any

system problem they contact their off-site IT department. In particular,
Manager-17 said that their IT help desk can dial in and look at any system
problem. This is in the same line with Manager-11 who reported that “the
off-site IT support can work remotely, that how most of problems can
actually be fixed nowadays”. To that end, Manager-10 declared that if the
IT help desk is unable to solve the problem on the phone, they send an IT
technician to solve it on site, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We have an IT department where all service is based in Germany and it
looks after the system on a day-to-day basis. Obviously at first protocol
of IT support is to log a call to the off-site IT department then they
would dial into the network and try to fix a solution. If they are unable
to fix a solution, then an IT support person would be sent to the hotel
and that normally would take about twenty-four hours for the problem
to be resolved.
[Manager-10]
Page 6-68

systems reported that sometimes it is difficult to contact the IT help desk
on weekends and bank holidays. More specifically, Manager-22 claimed
that “if it is out of hours, if it is nine or ten p.m. or weekends or something
like that it would be difficult to call then”.
From the standpoint of end-user employees, the survey results revealed

pointed that their information system department is available for
employees who reported that they have knowledgeable IT technical staff;
70.5% of end-user employees reported that they have the technological IT
end-user employees reported that the technological IT resources are of
high quality. However, to a lesser extent, 66.4% of end-user employees
reported that the number of the IT technical staff is adequate; 66% of end-
user employees reported that the IT technical staff resolve HIS problems
quickly (see Figure 6.19). This is consistent with User-5 and User-7.
Figure 6.19: The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90 is available for assistance with HIS
difficulties.
70
60
The number of the IT technical staff
is adequate.
50
30
0 quality.
Page 6-69

The interviewed managers of upscale hotels identified some ways to
improve the IT support in their hotels. In particular, Manager-14
recommended that end-user employees need to have the basic IT
knowledge to solve system problems on their own before contacting the
off-site IT help desk. In a similar vein, Manager-17 reported that the IT
help desk has to keep good communication with the employees as well as
managers to be familiar with common system problems. Manager-23 also
pointed that the IT help desk has to be open twenty-four hours, so people
can contact them at any time. Further, Manager-14 recommended that set
procedures have to be available on place in order to help employees to
solve system problems on their own. To that end, Manager-10 pointed
that upscale hotels have to invest in one manager to be able to solve the
IT problems before contacting the off-site IT help desk. In that sense,
Manager-14 declared that managers need to be trained to solve system
problems on their own before calling the off-site IT help desk. This is
I suppose what we can do, if you look at some properties to implement
something, training wise, a support may be good to each property to
have what we call an IT champion, someone on the property who can
troubleshoot basically. So we have someone on the property that would
be able to troubleshoot problems and look at things obviously because
we still log a call to the IT support then at a later stage if we had that
person on site that can do this troubleshooting. It could save time and
money.
[Manager-10]

reported that they do not have an on-site IT department. In particular,
Manager-18 claimed that it is better to have an on-site IT department;
however, they have an off-site IT department because they do not actually
come across technical faults every day. Further, Manager-20 said that
since they do not have an on-site IT department, “I become the on-site IT
Page 6-70
coordinator for problems”. Manager-24 reported that they do not have an

on-site IT manager; however, they have an IT area manager who looks
after the hotels in the area (i.e. thirty hotels in the area). In a similar vein,
Manager-18 as well as Manager-19 pointed that cost could be another
possible reason for not having an on-site IT department, as evidenced in
We do not need an on-site IT department to be honest. I mean why we
do need somebody if the system is not collapsing every day, we may be
have once every several month as a problem, so why do you need them.
It is also a cost issue. It depends how the big of the business is because
if you have eighty employees and when you get ten people using the
system at the reception why do we need an IT person, it does not really
mean anything, the system does not collapse that much.
[Manager-19]

reported that if they face any problem with their chain systems they
contact their off-site IT departments. In particular, Manager-19 pointed
that if they have technical problems with the system, their IT department
solves these problems. Similarly, Manager-25 reported that if the IT help
desk is unable to solve the problem on the phone, they send and IT
technician to solve it on site, as demonstrated in the following quote:
If we face any problem with On-Q, we have our support office in
Glasgow, if there is any major issue with IT, we phone up and they can
dial in, so they will dial in from Glasgow into our computers and they
can fix pretty much everything, unless it is such a big technical problem
we have to get someone on site, but most things if it is to do on On-Q
system they can just dial in and fix it.
[Manager-24]

systems (e.g. Manager-18; Manager-20) reported that the limited number
of the IT help desk staff could be a possible barrier facing the IT support.
Further, Manager-25 declared that the IT help desk might not be able to
solve the problems quickly. To that end, Manager-20 claimed that
Page 6-71
sometimes it is difficult to contact the IT help desk on weekends and bank

holidays, as demonstrated in the following quote:
Off-site IT support can obviously be challenging sometimes when they
cannot be contacting at evening. Sometimes we face difficulties to
contact them as any company or business. In general, you always
gonna get issues and problems where bank holidays, weekends come
up and somebody out off office for that days.
[Manager-20]

pointed that their information system department is available for
employees who reported that they have knowledgeable IT technical staff;
71% of end-user employees reported that the number of the IT technical
staff is adequate; 69.5% of end-user employees reported that the IT
technical staff resolve HIS problems quickly. In a similar vein, 69% of
end-user employees who reported that they have the technological IT
end-user employees reported that the technological IT resources are of
high quality (see Figure 6.20). This is consistent with User-10.
Figure 6.20: The evaluation of IT support emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
The information system department is
90 available for assistance with HIS
difficulties.
70
The number of the IT technical staff is
60
adequate.
50
30
I have the technological IT resources
(e.g. hardware and software) necessary
20
to use the HIS.
0 quality.
Page 6-72

systems recommended that end-user employees need to have the basic IT
knowledge to solve system problems on their own. In that sense,
Manager-20 said that “on-going training, spreading the knowledge and
sharing everything we learn is a key to improve IT support”. Further,
Manager-24 reported that hotels have to invest in one manager to be able
to solve the IT problems before contacting the off-site IT help desk, as
I mean I have got good knowledge of the IT from being the night
manager. For instance, I am the only On-Q person for this hotel, so if
anyone needs login I would put in the system, if there is any system
updates or changes or certain users can have certain rights, I would
change that on the system, so I have got quite good IT knowledge of the
systems in hotels. I would only go to support, if it is something that I
cannot deal with, you know, there could be things happening where just
out of my hands, so you need to call the IT support centre.
[Manager-24]
6.7 End-user motivation

systems reported that they do not motivate their employees to use the
system. In particular, Manager-14 said that people do not need to be
motivated because using the system is a part of their job; “if they apply
for the reception job they need to take on board the system we use”. This
is consistent with Manager-23 who said that they do not need to motivate
their users to use the system; they do not have money incentives in place
because “as part of your job you do need to learn and to use the system”.
To that end, Manager-10 reported that they do not motivate receptionists
to use their system because every receptionist has to be able to use the
system and to check customers in and out, as follows:
We do not need to motivate users really, you know, when they signed
the contract they know that we have a system and they have to use it. I
do not really have any problem with that. It is a part of their job to use
Page 6-73
the system; they just need to use the system to talk to their job, so
nothing we can do with that.
[Manager-17]
However, Manager-22 argued that employees have to be motivated to use

the system. More specifically, the same manager declared that their
employees are motivated to use the system by rewarding them (i.e. cake)
as well as by making them interested to use the system (i.e. training;
support). The two types of motivation are demonstrated in the following
quote:
I am always bringing cakes and sweets and things to keep users happy.
We go out every month, it is important to make them motivated, it is
important to keep them happy, train them, just generally support them
and make them feel like they important. It is important they enjoy using
the system or they comfortable using it at least. Basically giving them
the confidence to make sure what they doing is right and make them
have some pride in their work.
[Manager-22]

reported that they do not motivate their employees to use the system. In
particular, Manager-18 reported that they do not give people more money
to use the system because using the system is part of their job. This is
consistent with Manager-25 who pointed that “for the front-office team
there is no motivation to use the system, using the system on the job is
requirement”. To that end, Manager-20 claimed that employees do not
need to be motivated to use the system; however, they need to be
motivated to provide a good customer service because the system is a
tool, as evidenced in the following quote:
I do not think we need to motivate our users to use the system; the key
is to show the users how the system can benefit them. So I suppose not
motivating them to use a particular system but to show them the
benefits that they will achieve by using it, the greater customer service
they can provide. The system is a tool, so motivate our staff to give the
best service by using the various tools and to show them the benefits
and what can be gained from using it. So we do not motivate them
directly to use the system, motivating them to give good guest service
and using the tools including the system.
[Manager-20]
Page 6-74

behaviour (TPB)
hotel information systems. The TPB postulates that behavioural intention
to use is jointly determined by three factors, which are: attitude towards
use, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980; Huh, Kim & Law, 2009). The three main components of
the TPB were tested in upscale hotel, as follows:

employee who reported that using the HIS is a wise idea; 81.2% of end-
user employees reported that they like the idea of using the HIS. To a
lesser extent, 76.4% of end-user employees reported that using the HIS is
pleasant (see Figure 6.21). These results are consistent with the
interviewed users (User-5; User-6; User-7) who reported that they have
positive ATTC because their off-the-shelf systems are easy to use.
Figure 6.21: The attitude towards use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
70
60
Using the HIS is a wise idea.
50
40 Using the HIS is pleasant.

30

HIS.
10
%
Attitude towards use scale items
Page 6-75
In addition, the survey results showed that the subjective norms construct
was initially insignificant (Mean = 2.5; Std. Dev. = 0.9). The survey results
revealed that most end-user employees had low normative beliefs
concerning their referents (i.e. superiors; peers; customers) as well as low
motivation to comply with their referents’ opinions. From one hand, a
small number of end-user employees believed that their peers (sum = 412;
61%); their superiors (sum = 381; 56.4%); their customers (sum = 328;
48.6%) would think that they should have the knowledge and ability to
use the HIS. From the other hand, to a lesser extent, only 48.9% of end-
user employees who wanted to comply with their peers’ opinions
wanted to comply with their superiors’ opinions concerning using HIS;
39.6% of end-user employees wanted to comply with their customers’
opinions concerning using HIS, as demonstrated in Figure 6.22. These
findings are inconsistent with those of Burnkrant and Page (1988) who
reported that peers and superiors have a profound effect on employees’
technology acceptance. However, these findings are consistent with User-
5 as ell as User-7 who reported that they use HIS regardless the
perceptions of their superiors, peers or customers because they believe
that using the HIS is obligatory in the hotel work.
Figure 6.22: The subjective norms emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
have the knowledge and ability to
use the HIS.
70
60
do.
30
Customers would think that I should
use the HIS.
0
Page 6-76

= 530; 78.5%) reported that there is no gap between their existing skills
and knowledge and those required by the HIS, followed by 78.1% of end-
user employees who reported that they had the knowledge and ability to
make use of the HIS that; 76.4% of end-user reported that using the HIS
is entirely within their control (see Figure 6.23). These findings are
consistent with User-6 and User-7 who reported that they have the
knowledge, skills and facilities to use the HIS.
Figure 6.23: The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
90
80
I feel that there is no gap between
60
Using the HIS is entirely within my
50 control.
40
30
I have the knowledge and ability to
20 make use of the HIS.
10
0
Perceived behaviour control scale items
%

employee who reported that using the HIS is a wise idea; 84.5% of end-
user employees reported that they like the idea of using the HIS; 81.2% of
end-user employees reported that using the HIS is pleasant (see Figure
6.24). This is consistent with User-8 as well as User-10.
Page 6-77
Figure 6.24: The attitude towards use emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80
70
60 Using the HIS is a wise idea.
50
40 Using the HIS is pleasant.
30

HIS.
10
In addition, the survey results showed that the subjective norms construct
was initially insignificant (Mean = 2.2; Std. Dev. = 0.6). The survey results
revealed that most end-user employees had low normative beliefs
concerning their referents (i.e. superiors; peers; customers) as well as low
motivation to comply with their referents’ opinions. From one hand, a
small number of end-user employees believed that their peers (sum = 261;
62.1%); their superiors (sum = 217; 51.7%); their customers (sum = 175;
41.7%) would think that they should have the knowledge and ability to
use the HIS. From the other hand, to a lesser extent, only 37.4% of end-
user employees wanted to comply with their superiors’ opinions
wanted to comply with their peers’ opinions concerning using HIS; 29%
of end-user employees wanted to comply with their customers’ opinions
concerning using HIS, as demonstrated in Figure 6.25. These findings are
consistent with those of User-9 and User-10 who reported that using the
HIS is a part of their jobs, therefore, they use it regardless of the
perceptions of their superiors, peers or customers.
Page 6-78
Figure 6.25: The subjective norms emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
use the HIS.
70
60 My superiors would think that I

do.
30
Customers would think that I should
use the HIS.
0

= 347; 82.6%) reported that there is no gap between their existing skills
and knowledge and those required by the HIS, followed by 78.8% of end-
user employees who reported that they had the knowledge and ability to
make use of the HIS; 75% of end-user reported that using the HIS is
entirely within their control (see Figure 6.26). This is consistent with
User-8 as well as User-9.
Figure 6.26: The perceived behaviour control emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
90
80 I feel that there is no gap between

60
50 my control.
40
30
I have the knowledge and ability
20 to make use of the HIS.
10
%
Percived behaviour control scale items
Page 6-79
The interviewed managers of upscale hotels identified several possible

impacts of the hotel information systems, namely productivity,
competitive advantage, service quality, decision making and end user
satisfaction impacts, as demonstrated in the following sections:

6.9.1.1 Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
All the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf hotel
information systems reported that hotel information systems make users
more productive. Manager-14 claimed that hotel systems make people
more productive because “there are constantly procedures that users need
to do during the day with Opera system to be more productive”. In a
similar vein, Manager-17 reported that the hotel system is a tool to
facilitate users’ work and therefore makes them more productive. Further,
information systems help users to accomplish their tasks quickly. In that
sense, Manager-23 reported that “the system decreases the check-in and
check-out times, it is all done automatically, so the process is quicker”.
This is consistent with Manager-16 who said that “definitely using the
system is better, faster and makes receptionists more productive”. To that
end, Manager-13 claimed that hotel systems increase the work efficiency,
The competent computer system, the reception system is much better
because receptionists can do things easier, quicker, in a more proper
way because of that I can say receptionists are more proactive and
productive, more efficient and better in the job.
[Manager-13]
6.9.1.2 Upscale hotels using bespoke systems

systems reported that hotel systems increase user productivity. In that
respect, Manager-24 pointed that “On-Q system definitely does increase
people productivity”. Similarly, Manager-18 was of the opinion that the
hotel system makes user more productive because “the system does things
Page 6-80
automatically, the system does things on its own”. Further, hotel systems
help users to perform their tasks quickly. In that sense, Manager-25
claimed that “the manual systems in the front office slow down the
productivity but the computer systems speed up the productivity”.
However, Manager-19 as well as Manager-20 argued there is no relation

between hotel systems and user productivity. In particular, Manager-19
reported that “the system may be complicated to use and to find some
procedures; it takes a bit of time”. Further, Manager-20 pointed that
productivity is a result of the way people use the system and is not from
the system itself, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I do not think a programme makes users more productive at all. I think
users can be more productive by using the system in a better way but
the system itself does not make productive employee, you need the
employee to use the system, not the other way around.
[Manager-20]

systems reported that hotel systems do not create competitive advantage
for their hotels. In that respect, Manager-17 said that “the system does not
make much difference really as long as it does the job, no matter with
what system it is”. Further, Manager-14 declared that hotel systems do
not create any competitive advantage because most of the hotels use the
same systems, as demonstrated below:
I do not know really much on that to be honest, I am not sure. I think
we use Opera because it is just a good standard system, everybody uses
it, I am not sure if it makes any more competitive advantage because I
think the majority of hotels, four star, five star hotels use this system.
So as I know the system does not create competitive advantage.
[Manager-14]

reported that their hotel information systems do not create any
Page 6-81
competitive advantage. In particular, Manager-18 declared that their

bespoke system is different from other hotel systems; therefore, it is not
creating competitive advantage. Another possible reason reported by
Manager-25 for this is that people using bespoke systems could not cross
hotel brands. In a similar vein, Manager-19 reported that “our system is
not really marketing of course; it is more in the operation”. To that end,
Manager-20 claimed that the hotel system itself is not a source for
competitive advantage; however, good customer service could attain
long-term competitive advantage, as evidenced in the following quote:
I do not think systems have massive impact on creating competitive
advantage, what makes people come to the hotel is the service they
receive, the quality of the bedrooms, the quality of food and mainly the
quality of the service and that is what draws people back time again. If
they had good experience, they will come back and pay you. I mean the
system can completely crash or have a massive power cut as long as
customer service is maintained it is not gonna affect the competitive
advantage, so again when it is working we can use it to help but it does
not create competitive advantage unless something seriously wrong in
the business.
[Manager-20]

systems reported that hotel information systems improve the customer
service quality. In particular, Manager-14 asserted that hotel systems help
users to accomplish their tasks quickly, i.e. check-in; therefore, they can
spend most of the time with the customers. Further, Manager-23 reported
that “the system is accurate and consistent, consistency is important so all
the guests get the same treatment and same quality”. To that end,
Manager-15 implied that hotel systems help users to keep customer
records as well as help users to provide personalised services, as
Any system is easy to use and quick so you can spend more time with
the guest, so you can spend time talking about their stay, talking what
they gonna do for dinner and the system should just be a necessity to
Page 6-82
get them doing a lot of things. So if the guest in London has the Times
Newspaper, we know he has Times Newspaper we order it for him/her
ready, so it makes sense more proactive, make them feel personalised.
[Manager-22]
However, some of the interviewed managers argued that hotel systems

might have a negative impact on customer service. More specifically,
Manager-14 pointed that “when the system tells you something,
sometimes the system can be wrong, so that means you need to use your
common sense”. For example, the computer system may show up the
room is clean and it could be dirty and subsequently lead to customer
dissatisfaction. In that sense, Manager-23 reported that some users might
concentrate more on computer screens than the customers, as evidenced
Some users are focusing on the system while they are doing check in or
check out, I can definitely see that, but it depends on person.
Personally what I do I look at the system, then I look at the guest, look
at the system, look at the guest someone could get captivated by the
computer and it is just an error. But that is more personal not an IT
thing really, it is up to the person.
[Manager-23]
Therefore, managers of upscale hotels have to train their employees to

provide good customer service using the hotel information systems.
Manager-16 pointed that “it is training to make sure my guys are focusing
on the guests; they do not need to focus on the computer”. Further,
Manager-13 reported that employees have to be more experienced with
the system to be able to talk to the customers while using the computer
system. This is consistent with Manager-17 who recommended that in
order to provide good customer service, employees have to be
knowledgeable with the system, as follows:
It is very important that users on the reception desk know the system
very well because it is very important they spend much time with the
customers talk to them and look at them, make eye contact then look at
computer screen. So using the system almost without looking at
customers is a big issue that should be changed because they need to
focus all energy into customers because they are the ones who pay our
wages.
[Manager-17]
Page 6-83

systems reported that hotel information systems improve the customer
service quality. In particular, Manager-18 pointed that hotel information
systems improve service quality because “information systems make
customer services easier”. For example, if customers phone up the hotel
and want to make a reservation in the USA, so information systems give
more of a trace to customers. Further, Manager-24 implied that hotel
information systems keep customer records, as demonstrated in the
following quote:
On-Q system definitely does improve customer service because it
increases the amount of information we know about the customers. So
for instance if a regular customer, if we have got someone who stayed
at our hotel many times, we recognise that, we might give him/her VIP
status or gift at the room because the customer is very loyal to us. So I
mean there is a lot of things to improve from the front desk point of
view, you know, we can see all this different information, even it tells
when someone just check-in if it is the first time in the hotel or it is
returning, so it prompts the front desk staff whether to say welcome to
our hotel or welcome back to our hotel.
[Manager-24]
However, Manager-25 claimed that the hotel information system does not
improve service quality because “it is not the system that increases the
service quality, it would be the personality of the person”. Therefore,
Manager-20 recommended that employees have to be trained to provide
good customer service as well as the system has to be designed in a
simple way to facilitate the interaction with the customers, as below:
The system is a tool to meet our guest needs; the enjoyable part of our
job is to interact with the guests. The main thing is not the use of the
system, it is the guest interaction. So obviously give them a little bit of
training on how to interact with the guest, it is not relying on the
system, it is relying on the guest service and using the system to the
best possibility. So yes the system can help but it is not the important
point of the interaction. We do not want them have so much fun with
the computer that might detract from what they doing which is guest
service. We try to tailor our job descriptions to the end result what we
want, so for my reception team the end result is good service.
[Manager-20]
Page 6-84
6.9.4 Decision-making impact

systems reported that there is no relation between the computer systems
and employees decisions. In particular, Manager-14 pointed that
“computer systems do have errors from time to time, so receptionists need
to take their own decisions depending on their common sense and not on
the system only”. This is consistent with Manager-23 who reported that
“the computer does not tell me what to do, I tell it what to do”. Further,
Manager-16 as well as Manager-13 declared that the computer system is a
tool to do the task, but it cannot take decisions. In that sense, Manager-16
pointed that the computer can help people to take decisions, it is an aid for
them to do their jobs, “but it is not necessary to give them all the
answers”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
The system has nothing to do with the decisions people make, obviously
the computer is a tool they have to use, it gives them a lot of
information that they need, for instance when they checking in a guest,
Fidelio will pop up with reminders of things they need to do, so for
instance like, you know, check the guest in a non-smoking room. So it is
a tool to actually assist them, but it cannot make decisions for them.
[Manager-13]

reported that hotel systems do not make decisions. Manager-20 revealed
that the system does not make decisions for users; however, it can help
speeding up and accessing information. This is consistent with Manager-
24 who reported that “On-Q system does not help you make decisions,
you always gonna make the decisions”. To that end, Manager-18 declared
that hotel information systems only provide information people need to
take their own decisions, as evidenced below:
The computer system does not make me think and does not make
decisions. It does help you that way. I mean always with the training
we try to train all the staff to be in a position that they can make
decisions on their own, based on the systems what they use because the
Page 6-85
system only provides information, so it needs human beings to decide

how to use that information.
[Manager-18]
6.9.5 End-user satisfaction impact

identified several possible reasons for employees computing satisfaction.
In particular, Manager-23 as well as Manager-12 claimed that if hotel
systems are easy to use, employees are likely to be more satisfied.
Further, system speed and system compatibility could be other reasons for
computing satisfaction. In that sense, Manager-14 reported that “people
are satisfied with Opera system, I think we all really like the system, it
does what suppose to do; I suppose the system is fast”. To that end,
Manager-22 mentioned system experience, consultation, motivation and
training as other possible reasons for computing satisfaction, as follows:
It is just about practice, about keeping them motivated, making them
well, this new system is better once you get used to it and after say six
weeks they are all much happier and much more pleasant. I think the
staff are satisfied with the system now, they hate it at the beginning, but
they are not so bad now. Again speed does annoy them, it sometimes
crashes as all systems do, that can be quite annoying but no they do
like it now. Train them, just generally support them and make them feel
like they important.
[Manager-22]

that the user satisfaction construct was initially significant (Mean = 4.1;
Std. Dev. = 0.7). In particular, 87.4% of end-user employees were satisfied
with the speed of HIS; 83.9% of end-user employees were satisfied with
the accuracy of the HIS; 83% of end-user employees were satisfied with
the sufficiency of information and reports; 81.6% of end-user employees
were satisfied with the clear of information and reports. Overall, the
results showed that most end-user employees (sum = 574; 85%) were
satisfied with the off-the-shelf HIS at work (see Figure 6.27). This is
consistent with User-5 as well as User-7.
Page 6-86
Figure 6.27: The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
100
80
70 the HIS.
60
The HIS provides clear information
50
and reports.
40
30
me to accomplish tasks more
20 quickly.
10 Overall, I am satisfied with the HIS

at work.
0

Manager-20 reported that ease of system use, user consultation in the
system development, user confidence, motivation and training are
possible reasons for computing satisfaction. Further, Manager-24 asserted
that people are satisfied using the system now; however, “at first it was
very difficult, it was totally new change; people always do not like
change”. Manager-20 also reported that “the satisfaction from using the
system comes from the benefits it has on your job”. To that end,
Manager-18 claimed that people who had not used the system before are
likely to be more satisfied with the system than people who had
experienced many hotel information systems, as evidenced in the
following quote:
Some users are satisfied with the system and some of them are not. The
people who used a different system before may find the previous system
a lot easier than our system, so they are not satisfied. But somebody
who use the system first time here, may be satisfied I think; I am
satisfied with the system.
[Manager-18]
Page 6-87

that user satisfaction construct was initially significant (Mean = 4; Std.
Dev. = 0.7). In particular, 83.1% of end-user employees were satisfied
with the clear of information and reports; 82.1% of end-user employees
were satisfied with the accuracy of the HIS; 79.8% of end-user employees
were satisfied with the sufficiency of information and reports; 78.6% of
end-user employees were satisfied with the speed of HIS. Overall, the
results showed that most end-user employees (sum = 364; 86.7%) were
satisfied with the bespoke HIS at work (see Figure 6.28). There are
similarities between these findings and those reported by the interviewed
managers (User-8; User-10) who reported that they are more likely to be
satisfied with their bespoke systems if those systems are easy to use.
Figure 6.28: The degree of satisfaction emerged by the users of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
100
80
70
the HIS.
60
50 The HIS provides clear information

and reports.
40
30 Using the HIS in my job enables me

to accomplish tasks more quickly.
20
10 Overall, I am satisfied with the HIS

at work.
0
6.9.6 IT barriers confronting upscale hotels

6.9. 6.1 Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
mentioned several barriers facing IT adoption in their hotels. In particular,
Manager-22 as well as Manager-17 mentioned end-user computing
anxiety. In that sense, Manager-14 said that “anxiety from people could
Page 6-88
be a problem, people panic when they press wrong key”. Manager-23

mentioned the lack of training. Further, Manager-16 asserted that “certain
useful reports are not on the system”. System speed could be another
barrier facing end-user employees. Manager-10 said that “I suppose
because all systems in the entire UK use the same server, it can
sometimes be slow or the system goes down”, as follows:
The main problem we still have is speed, the system can be a bit slow,
the main server is in Germany so anytime you send it goes to Germany
and comes back, so if we send anything to print it goes to Germany to
create the pdf comes back and then it prints. So even it is a bill or
registration card can take up to a minute or so to print which is very
slow, it is quite a lot sometimes. It is my main problem it takes about
minute and half sometimes to print a paper.
[Manager-22]
Furthermore, system crashes could be another possible barrier confronting

end-user employees and managers as well. In particular, Manager-13
declared that “the main problems when the computer system breaks
down, when it stops working, sometimes it can crash, sometimes it can
just freeze”. This is demonstrated in the following quote:
I suppose the main problem that sometimes systems can crash which
does not just affect our hotel but affects all the properties and I suppose
sometimes because the problem cannot be controlled on the property
then we have to wait to someone off the property to resolve that issue
before you continue. I suppose that the biggest frustration or may be
the biggest problem we have here in the property.
[Manager-10]
6.9. 6.2 Upscale hotels using bespoke systems

mentioned some barriers facing IT adoption in their hotels. Manager-18
declared that “you would come across may be some people who worry
about using the system”. Further, Manager-20 as well as Manager-24
reported that system crashes could be another possible barrier facing IT
adoption in hotels. In particular, Manager-20 asserted that “if there is
major thing with the system say a crash or an error, people panic”. To that
end, Manager-24 reported that balancing the day at the end of the shift is
another barrier facing end-user employees.
Page 6-89
6.9.7 Improving IT-human interaction in upscale hotels

6.9. 7.1 Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
The interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
information systems mentioned some possible ways to improve the IT
adoption in their hotels. Manager-16 as well as Manager-10 suggested
that end-user employees have to be motivated to learn and to use hotel
information systems. In particular, Manager-22 pointed that to improve
IT-human interaction “basically motivating them to be happy in their
job”. Further, Manager-14 recommended that “if anything goes wrong, I
prefer people to come to us and say I am struggling with this rather than
keep making the same mistakes”. To that end, Manager-22 reported that
mangers have to recruit and select the right people who are eager to
provide good customer service and to use the system, as evidenced below:
You have to make sure you have got the right staff; you have got
someone who is passionate about his/her job. I think people are the key
rather than computers. People are the key if you have got, you know,
staff members who dedicated, who are hard working and who care
about their job, then computer system does not matter, as long as it
does the job and works it should not matter. If you have got the right
people then the computer system should just be a necessity and the
guest should remember the staff members and not, you know, the
computers.
[Manager-22]
In addition, Manager-23 said that “the only thing we can really do to

improve user performance is ensure that all staff are trained correctly”.
This is consistent with Manager-21 who said that to improve user
performance, users need to be trained to know how to use the system.
Further, Manager-12 reported that managers have to test the system in
order to get employees feedback. To that end, Manager-11 declared that
hotel information systems have to be updated regularly, as demonstrated
You update your system because it will be more effective to work, it
becomes better. So, you know, receptionists will work better because it
tackles more problems. For example basically we update the system to
make sure the hotel is working more effectively.
[Manager-11]
Page 6-90
6.9. 7.2 Upscale hotels using bespoke systems

Manager-18 recommended that managers have to select an ease to use
system in order to increase employees productivity. Further, Manager-20
reported that employees’ consultation in the system development is
important factor to improve employees’ productivity. The same manager
also said that to improve users performance and satisfaction, “I suppose it
is by just upgrading the system you have to make it more beneficial”. To
that end, Manager-24 mentioned the importance of users’ training to
increase their satisfaction and productivity. This is consistent with
Manager-19 who reported that managers have to train their users regularly
to understand how to use the system.
6.10 Web-based human resource functions
6.10.1 Web-based recruiting and selecting

All the interviewed managers of the upscale hotels using off-the-shelf

systems reported that they advertise the jobs on-line through their hotel
websites or through specific recruiting websites. In particular, Manager-
17 reported that “we do on-line recruitment, we have a link to
caterer.com, we also have a link to Cardiff jobcentre; it is an on-line
system”. Similarly, Manager-23 said that “we advertise on-line on things
like caterer, gumtree and things like that, so I got a lot of C.Vs that way
and then I go through these C.Vs and decide who to interview”. To that
end, Manager-9 explained the process of applying for a job on-line
through the hotel website (also see Appendix G), as demonstrated in the
following quote:
We have Barcelo-hotels.co.uk; it has a career section so any job is
listed there first. If you want to recruit we send the position details to
the IT and they register the position on-line. The prospective candidate
can go on-line, click on the career section, it pops up which hotel and
what career is available. People can apply on-line and submit C.Vs.
These on-line applications back directly to personnel email address
and they can print details and go from there.
[Manager-9]
Page 6-91
There are several possible advantages for advertising jobs on-line. In

particular, Manager-9 said that “on-line recruitment you get the biggest
exposure, now more people are using the Internet, by going on-line and
then you have got a higher response rate than you would have by the
newspaper for example”. This is consistent with Manager-13 who
reported that “with caterer.com they screen a lot of applications that
come through; it is a quick response we get; to be honest we always do
get very good response”. To that end, Manager-14 mentioned the
advantages of on-line recruitment, as follows:
If you recruit on-line, you reach a wider range of people through the
internet, than say if you just recruit from Cardiff job, the majority who
are gonna apply will be from Cardiff, whereas if you open up the
spectrum you will get more people with more experience from different
places.
[Manager-14]
On the other hand, Manager-17 and Manager-23 reported some

disadvantages of on-line recruitment. More specifically, Manager-17
reported face-to-face applications are better than on-line applications
because “face-to-face applications are more personal; you can get more
idea; you can ask questions to that person about the job”. In a similar
vein, Manager-23 pointed that some people apply for a job on-line and
they might not have the skills for the job, as demonstrated below:
Negative sides of on-line recruitment are that you get a lot of C.Vs from
people who are unnecessarily capable or do not necessarily understand
the job, so people, you know, who are on-line just apply for anything
and then you end phoning them or interviewing them and then they are
not good so sometimes it can be hit and miss.
[Manager-23]
Some of the interviewed managers (Manager-10; Manager-21) reported

that they conduct on-line interviews as well as face-to-face interviews. In
this regard, Manager-21 said that “we ask the new applicants just a list of
questions on-line; if they are successful then obviously we would call
them and do an interview”. In a similar vein, Manager-10 pointed that
they do prefer to conduct on-line interviews first to pick up the more
skilled persons then they conduct face-to-face interviews, as demonstrated
Page 6-92
Marriott hotel has what we called the on-line interview section, so, for
example, if you are succeed obviously you will be asked to be part of an
on-line interview basically and you are asked twenty questions, the
twenty questions are picked up randomly and obviously that comes
back to the hotel where you come back as a referral, not recommended
or recommended and obviously the hotel makes then the second
interview from there. Marriott has so many applications every sort of
month so the system would pick out key people and that sort of
feedback to the hotel rather than the hotel interviews every application
that comes in, obviously it is time factor and cost factor involved in
that.
[Manager-10]
On the other hand, some of the interviewed managers (Manager-11;

Manager-14) reported that they do not prefer to interview people on-line;
however, they prefer to conduct face-to-face interviews. In particular,
Manager-11 said that “we do not do on-line recruitment, the start of the
recruitment process is just on-line, you apply on-line but we do not do
complete on-line recruitment, we do face-to-face interviews”. Further,
Manager-14 reported that “if I am recruiting someone I would like to see
who is front of me, the personality they got and the customer experience”.

All the interviewed managers of the upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that they advertise the jobs on-line through their hotel websites
or through specific recruiting websites. In particular, Manager-18
declared that “we do have on-line recruitment, we have Accor website
and we put advertising for the jobs we have”. This is consistent with
Manager-24 who reported that “people have to apply on-line with Hilton,
they do not hand applications in; they have to apply on-line through
Hilton jobs website”. To that end, Manager-19 reported that they
advertise jobs on their hotel website (see Appendix G), as demonstrated in
We have on-line recruitment. We have our company website to apply
for a job so any person can apply on-line then obviously for example
the general manager will screen the C.Vs and select the potential
candidates then we invite that person to come in to a normal on-site
interview, may be two interviews.
[Manager-19]
Page 6-93
On the other hand, all the interviewed managers reported that they do not
prefer to interview people on-line; however, they prefer to conduct face-
to-face interviews. More specifically, Manager-24 reported that face-to-
face interviews are better than on-line interviews because “I can see
people, I can see how they react; I can see their manners, their body
language, so it needs to be personally”. Similarly, Manager-20 reported
that they do not use on-line interviews for recruiting and selecting people
because computer systems only do quantitative selection and not
qualitative selection, as demonstrated in the following quote:
We obviously have the on-line job advertising and on-line application
forms but the actual selection process is done in person. The person is
invited by our HR team and passed to the various managers. I do not
think the computer system is good for recruitment and selection
because obviously with the system your information is passed by the
computing system, really quantitative selection process is on-line, it
shows listing, it could miss a good candidate because it is only looking
at specific quantitative selection, if you can design a programme that
can do qualitative selection for C.Vs and things like that, you would
make a lot of money.
[Manager-20]
6.10.2 Web-based IT training and development

Some of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-10; Manager-13;
Manager-16) reported that they do provide on-line training for the new
recruits. In particular, Manager-10 said that “we have a Marriott on-line
training website called Marriott Global Source, only Marriott associates
have the facility to sign on the website”. In a similar vein, Manager-23
reported that they provide on-line training for computer skills; “users are
given tasks and they go into the training website produce those tasks and
then it gives them score at the end”. To that end, Manager-13 mentioned
some advantages for the on-line training, as demonstrated below:
For the on-line training, they can do it at their own speed, they can do
it, you know, in the hotel, it does not take them away from the business;
they have not got to travel as well. Plus you have got cost implications,
so it saves money. I think it may be easy for the individuals to take it as
well because all are there in front of them. They can re-read it if they
need to, so it could make easier for them to understand.
[Manager-13]
Page 6-94
There are, however, several possible disadvantages for on-line training.

More specifically, Manager-17 reported that training costs might be a
possible barrier confronting training people on-line. Further, Manager-13
mentioned other possible disadvantages for the on-line training, such as
interruption during the training, as demonstrated in the following quote:
I think the only barrier with the on-line training is if you are in your
department and you are trained on-line and you have got the phone
ringing you can get interrupted and people are still coming speak to
you even if you could do this on the computer. They do not know what
you are doing really, so they can interrupt training and you could get
sidetracked.
[Manager-13]
In addition, most of the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-9; Manager-

1; Manager-12) reported that they do not prefer to conduct on-line
training for system skills; however, they prefer to conduct face-to-face
training. In particular, Manager-9 said that “there is no on-line training; it
is not like a course you can play; we do not provide on-line training for
Protel system”. In this regard, Manager-11 reported that one
disadvantage for the on-line training is that sometimes it might be less
detailed as compared to face-to-face training. Further, Manager-12
pointed that sometime on-line training is a little bit boring. To that end,
Manager-22 mentioned some disadvantages for the on-line training, as
I do not like on-line training personally, I suppose I am still little old
fashioned I prefer to see the person who teaches me not for any other
reason than I just like eye contact when I speaking to you, yeah I do not
like training to be done over the internet.
[Manager-22]

Manager-25) reported that they do provide on-line training for the new
recruits. In particular, Manager-25 said that “Hilton has got a whole
programme for the on-line training, the new staff have a company login
and then we give them access to On-Q University”. In a similar vein,
Manager-24 reported that on-line training has a lot of advantages, as
follows: people can get extensive training information in different training
aspects as well as people can get access at any time from any place
Page 6-95
(training from home). Further, Manager-25 pointed that on-line training

has a lot of advantages as “the staff become familiar with the system
before they actually come to the hotel; it is just to learn how to use it with
the customer”. To that end, Manager-24 explained the process of on-line
training (see Appendix G), as demonstrated in the following quote:
We conduct both on-the-job and off-the-job training, with Hilton they
have Hilton University, it is a web-based training, so you just go on-
line, they have a website with numerous topics and over a hundred
training sessions which could be anything related to hospitality but
with On-Q they have a specialised training sessions, I know myself and
hotel managers have to do forty hours of on-line training as well as the
virtual classrooms and every receptionist or night auditor they all had
certain courses they have to complete before we went live, they have to
do about twenty hours of on-line training.
[Manager-24]
do not prefer to conduct on-line training for system skills; however, they
prefer to conduct face-to-face training. In that sense, Manager-18 said that
“there is no on-line training here; it is all a role play, one-to-one training
or on-the-job training”. Further, Manager-20 claimed that on-line training
is not an effective tool because you need to interact with the customers
during the training. To that end, Manager-24 said that “I think on-the-job
training can be more effective than if someone just sits on his/her own
learn at the computer because people remember things more if someone
teaches them”.
6.10.3 Web-based IT support

Manager-23) reported that they either contact the IT help desk by phone
or on-line. In particular, Manager-17 said that “we have on-line IT
support we can email them if something perhaps not quite so urgent”.
Similarly, Manager-22 reported that “we normally email the IT help desk
first and if they do not get back we phone them”. To that end, Manager-23
reported that if the system problem is not so urgent then they email the IT
Page 6-96
help desk; however, if the system problem is urgent they have to phone
the IT help desk, as demonstrated below:
If problems stop you working then you can ring the off-site IT
department and they can usually fix it over the phone and over the
Internet because the system is connected; IT help desk can access the
computers from anywhere on the planet, so they actually can fix the
problem from another desks. If it is not immediate problem, say one
user’s password does not work for example then we just email them.
[Manager-23]
On the other hand, most the interviewed managers (e.g. Manager-9;

Manager-10; Manager-15) reported that they do not use the on-line IT
support; however, they log a call to their off-site IT department. In
particular, Manager-9 said that “if there is a technical problem we contact
the IT help desk by phone, we do not use support via website”. In a
similar vein, Manager-15 pointed that the problems are solved quicker by
the phone as compared to the on-line support. To that end, Manager-10
reported that they do not use on-line support because their IT help desk
solve problems quickly, as follows:
We do have an on-line support, you can go to troubleshooting and
solve the problems, but to be honest with you there is normally no need
to use that because the IT support department would normally fix by
that point. Sometimes as the system goes down it is not a problem that
could be fixed at the property, it has to be done by the support line.
[Manager-10]

Most the interviewed managers reported that they do not use the on-line
IT support regularly; however, they contact the IT help desk by the phone.
In particular, Manager-25 pointed that if the problem is urgent they
contact the IT help desk by phone; however, if it is a regular problem they
can email the IT help desk or they can go on-line to solve the problem on
their own. This is consistent with Manager-20 who reported that they do
first prefer to contact the IT help desk by the phone, as demonstrated in
Obviously the main initial contact for the IT help desk is telephone but
obviously email addresses are used once you identify the problem, you
got issue going on, you can then send screen shoots, you can send off
details of the problem for them to look at, most of the times they can
dial in directly through the network and look themselves but if we do
Page 6-97
need to send them an email to update them and keep them in the loop,
so yes there is an email support for networks but the initial contact is
done through the phone.
[Manager-20]
6.11 Inferring the factors in IT-human interaction model
6.11.1 End-user recruitment and selection

The findings showed the criteria of recruiting and selecting people for the
reception job in the investigated upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
systems. More specifically, the recruitment criteria that were mostly
reported by the interviewed managers included: end-user customer service
experience (n = 15; 27%) followed by end-user computing self-efficacy
(n = 14; 25.3%). However, number of other factors, notable by their low
percentage, included: end-user hospitality education (n = 4; 3.8%), basic
IT skills (n = 2; 1.9%), end-user system experience (n = 2; 1.4%), end-user
age (n = 1; 1.6%) and end-user gender (n = 1; .8%).
In addition, most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using

bespoke systems identified the criteria of recruiting people for the
reception job, as follows: end-user computing self-efficacy (n = 12;
22.8%), customer service experience (n = 11; 18.2%). While, a number of
other criteria, notable by their low percentage, included: end-user age (n =
2; 2.4%), end-user hospitality education (n = 2; 2.2%) and basic IT skills
(n = 1; .9%). Further, number of other factors, notable by their absence,
included: end-user gender and end-user system experience (Figure 6.29).
Page 6-98
Figure 6.29: The criteria of recruiting employees emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems Upscale hotels using bespoke systems
30
25
20
15
10
0
% End-user age End-user End-user End-user Basic IT skills End-user End-user
gender hospitality system computing self- customer
education experience efficacy service
experience
6.11.2 Hotel information system development

With regards to the types of hotel information systems used in the
investigated upscale hotels, the interviewed managers of upscale hotels
reported that using off-the-shelf hotel information systems (n = 12; 28.5%)
is better than using bespoke hotel information systems (n = 6; 16.7%).
Figure 6.30: The types of hotel systems emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
Upscale hotels
using bespoke
systems
Upscale hotels 37%
using off-the-shelf
systems
63%
Concerning the criteria of selecting off-the-shelf systems, Figure 6.31

shows that the system criteria that were mostly cited included: ease of
system use (n = 28; 50%), system usefulness (n = 22; 46.5%), system
Page 6-99
compatibility (n = 12; 19.7%), system cost (n = 5; 8.4%) and system

popularity (n = 4; 4%). However, other criteria, notable by their low
percentage, included: system enjoyment (n = 1; 3.9).
Furthermore, the criteria of selecting bespoke systems, as reported by the

interviewed managers of upscale hotels, included: ease of system use (n =
26; 45.7%), system usefulness (n = 16; 33.9%), system compatibility (n =
14; 33%). While, other criteria, notable by their low percentage, included:
system cost (n = 2; 2.3%) and system enjoyment (n = 1; 1%).
Figure 6.31: The criteria of selecting hotel systems emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
% Ease of system System usefulness System System System cost System
use compatibility Enjoyment popularity
6.11.3 Participation and consultation

systems reported that their employees have not participated in the system
development process (n = 12; 23.5%), compared to a small number of
managers who reported that their employees have been consulted in the
system development process (n = 3; 4.5%). However, most of the
interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems reported
that their employees have been consulted in the system development
process (n = 9; 18.7%), compared to a small number of managers who
reported that their employees have not been consulted in the system
development process (n = 3; 4.5%). This is demonstrated in Figure 6.32.
Page 6-100
Figure 6.32: The types of end-user participation emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
25
20
15
10
% Consultative Representative Consensus participation No participation

participation participation
6.11.4 IT training and development

In terms of the types of IT training conducted in the investigated upscale
hotels, Table 6.5 shows that internal training is predominantly conducted
in upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems (n = 47; 86%), as compared
to external training (n = 6; 14.9%). Further, on-the-job training is mostly
used (n = 33; 58.2%), as compared to off-the-job training (n = 19; 43.4%).
However, all the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke
systems reported that they conduct only internal training (n = 36; 52.2%).
They also reported that on-the-job training (n = 21; 32.3%) might be better
than off-the-job training (n = 7; 16.3%), as demonstrated in Figure 6.33.
Figure 6.33: The types of IT training emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
% Internal IT training External IT training On-the-job training Off-the-job training
Page 6-101
With regards to the frequency of the IT training, the interviewed

managers of upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems reported that they
train their employees regularly (n = 10; 21.9%), followed by refresher
training on problems (n = 4; 4.6%), refresher training on system upgrade
(n = 3; 3.5%) and refresher training on request (n = 1; .9%). On the other
hand, the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that they train their employees regularly (n = 5; 10.4%), followed
by refresher training on system upgrade (n = 4; 6%), refresher training on
problems (n = 2; 4.2%) and refresher training on request (n = 1; 1.2%).
Figure 6.34: The frequency of IT training emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
25
20
15
10
0
% Regular training Refresher training on Refresher training on Refresher training on
system upgrade request problems
6.11.5 End-user IT support

systems reported that they have IT support from their system IT
departments (n = 14; 18.2%), followed by those managers who reported
that they have IT support from their system vendors (n = 8; 11.3%),
compared to a small number of managers who reported that they have an
on-site IT support service (n = 2; 3.4%). However, all the interviewed
managers of upscale hotels using bespoke systems reported that they have
IT support from their IT department (n = 10; 12.8%) and they do not have
an on-site IT department. This is shown in Figure 6.35.
Page 6-102
Figure 6.35: The types of IT support emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6.11.6 End-user motivation

systems reported that their employees do not need to be motivated (n = 5;
12.9%). A few number of managers reported that they motivate their
employees by encouraging them (n = 2; 3.8%); by rewarding them (n = 1;
2.3%). However, all the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using
bespoke systems reported that their employees do not need to be
motivated (n = 4; 8.4%). This is demonstrated in Figure 6.36.
Figure 6.36: The types of end-user motivation emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
%
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation No motivation
Page 6-103

The hotel information systems have several possible impacts. In
particular, most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using off-
the-shelf systems strongly emphasized on the service quality impact (n =
8; 12.2%), followed closely by productivity impact (n = 6; 8.9%).
Similarly, the interviewed managers of upscale hotels using bespoke
systems reported that hotel information systems have positive impact on
service quality (n = 6; 14.6%) as well as on productivity (n = 6; 6.8%).
However, the other technology impacts, notable by their absence,
included: competitive advantage impact and decision making impact. This
Figure 6.37: The types of performance impacts emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
% Productivity impact Competitive advantage Service quality impact Decision-making
impact impact

mentioned some motivators for their users computing satisfaction, as
follows: ease of system use (n = 2; 4.3%), IT training (n = 2; 3%), system
speed (n = 2; 2.8%), system compatibility (n = 2; 2.1%), CSE (n = 1; 1.6%),
computing experience (n = 1; 1.5%), motivation (n = 1; 1.5%) and
participation (n = 1; 1.2%). The interviewed managers of upscale hotels
using bespoke systems mentioned IT training (n = 2; 4.8%), ease of system
use (n = 2; 3.5%), CSE (n = 3; 3.5%), participation (n = 2; 2.2%), system
speed (n = 1; 1.6%), system compatibility (n = 1; 1.5%) and motivation (n =
1; 1.4%). This is shown in Figure 6.37.
Page 6-104
Figure 6.38: The motivators for user satisfaction emerged by the managers of upscale hotels
% Computing Computing IT training Participation Motivation Ease of System speed System

experience self-efficacy and system use compatibility
consultation

This chapter aims to answer the first, the second and the third research
questions (the third objective). The results of the upscale hotels using off-
the-shelf systems and bespoke systems showed that CSE and end-user
customer service experience are the most important criteria for recruiting
and selecting people for the reception job in upscale hotels. Further, ease
of system use, system usefulness and system compatibility are the most
important criteria for selecting and designing hotel information systems.
The results also revealed that user consultation and participation in the
system development, IT training and IT support are important factors to
improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels and subsequently increase
user satisfaction, productivity and improve service quality.
6.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale

hotels
A model has been developed to improve IT-human interaction in upscale
hotels using off-the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke systems.
This model was primarily based upon the existing theories (i.e. the TPB),
the initial model as well as the perspectives of hotel managers and end-
user employees of the upscale hotels. The developed model comprises
three main parts, namely IT human-critical success factors, the theory of
planned behaviour and the technology-related outcomes (see Figure 6.39).
Page 6-105
The developed model identified the end-user employees’ critical factors

(i.e. CSE; customer service skills), the organisational critical factors (i.e.
consultation; IT training; IT support) and the system critical factors (i.e.
ease of system use; system usefulness; system compatibility). The theory
of planned behaviour is the second part of the developed model (i.e.
attitude towards use and perceived behaviour control). The last part of the
developed model explores the technology-related outcomes incorporating
end-user computing satisfaction and IT performance (i.e. productivity and
service quality).
Page 6-106
6.14 Summary
This chapter explored technology adoption in upscale hotels using off-
the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke systems. More
specifically, this chapter presented technology adoption in the different
stages of employee life cycle, namely: recruitment and selection; system
development; participation and consultation; IT training; IT support;
motivation; IT performance and satisfaction impacts. The chapter also
highlighted the web-based human resource functions (web-based
recruiting and selecting; web-based IT training; web-based IT support).
The chapter ends with developing an IT-human interaction model to
improve IT performance in upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems as
well as upscale hotels using bespoke systems. Therefore, the following
chapter aims to evaluate and discuss technology adoption in the four hotel
case studies.
Page 6-107
AN EVALUATION AND DISCUSION OF TECHNOLOGY
ADOPTION ACROSS ALL CASES STUDIED
7.2 Cross-case analysis and discussion 7-2

7.2.1 End-user related factors 7-2
7.2.1.1 End-user computing experience 7-2
7.2.1.2 End-user basic IT skills 7-4
7.2.1.3 End-user computing self-efficacy 7-4
7.2.1.4 End-user customer service experience 7-5
7.2.2 Organisational related factors 7-6

7.2.2.1 Participation and consultation 7-6
7.2.2.2 IT training 7-8
7.2.2.3 IT support 7-14
7.2.2.4 Intrinsic motivation 7-16
7.2.3 System related factors 7-17

7.2.3.1 Ease of system use 7-17
7.2.3.2 System usefulness 7-18
7.2.3.3 System compatibility 7-18
7.2.3.4 System popularity 7-19
7.2.3.5 System flexibility 7-20
7.2.3.6 System reliability 7-20

7.2.4.1 Productivity impact 7-20
7.2.4.2 Service quality impact 7-21
7.2.4.3 Satisfaction impact 7-22

behaviour (TPB)
7.4 A best practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels 7-27
7.5 A strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) to improve IT-human 7-30

7.6 Conclusion 7-41
Page 7-1
Chapter Seven: An Evaluation and Discussion of Technology Adoption Across All Cases Studied
7.1 Introduction
This chapter aims to present an evaluation and discussion of technology
adoption in the four case studies of budget and upscale hotels in Wales. In
particular, a cross-case analysis was developed to evaluate and discuss the
findings from budget hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke hotel
information systems, along with upscale hotels using off-the-shelf and
bespoke hotel information systems. This chapter further evaluate the
findings in respect of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). The analysis
process was approached and designed with the aim of developing a best
practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels. This chapter
ends up with developing a strategic action plan to improve IT-human
interaction in hotels.
7.2 Cross-case analysis and discussion

This section analyses and discusses technology adoption issues obtained
from the four Welsh case studies undertaken in this research involving
budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems, budget hotels using bespoke
systems, upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems and upscale hotels
using bespoke systems. This has led to the development of a best practice
model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels (see section 7.4). This
study has revealed significant variations between budget and upscale
hotels in respect of technology adoption, as explained in detail in the
following sections:
7.2.1 End-user related factors

The interviewed managers of the budget and upscale hotels mentioned
some criteria they take into consideration when recruiting and selecting
people for the reception job, as follows:

The study had identified a disparity between the budget and upscale
hotels in respect of computing experience. From the standpoint of the
budget and upscale hotels using bespoke systems, it was apparent that
Page 7-2
most of the managers asserted that computing experience is not essential

for recruiting people for the reception job. In essence, they declared that
computing experience is not needed because they are using their bespoke
chain systems that might be completely different from other off-the-shelf
hotel information systems. Further, they pointed that their bespoke chain
systems are easy to use; therefore, it is easy to train new recruits on their
systems. In addition, most of the interviewed managers of upscale hotels
using off-the-shelf systems reported that computing experience is not
essential. Evidently, they pointed that upscale hotels might have the
resources to train new recruits on their systems. It was also noted that it is
better to recruit people with no previous system experience because each
hotel might have its own procedures and standards to use hotel systems.
Therefore, it is better to train new recruits by each hotel team because
some people might pick up bad habits from other hotels.
However, most of the interviewed managers of budget hotels using off-

the-shelf systems pointed that computing experience is essential for
recruiting people. A possible explanation is that budget hotels might not
have the facilities, time and staff to run training for new recruits. It also
was apparent that people who are more experienced with hotel systems
are more likely to be confident when using hotel systems. This finding is
consistent with previously-published results (e.g. Al-Gahtani and King,
1999; Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005) who found that computing
experience has a positive impact on ICT usage. This is consistent with the
initial findings of the focus groups which showed that users with high
computing experience are more likely to be satisfied. These findings
suggest that if managers of budget hotels do not have the facilities and
time resources to train new recruits, they have to select people with
previous system experience. Another important practical implication is
that managers of budget hotels have to conduct practical system trails for
new recruits to know the degree of their computing experience.
Page 7-3
7.2.1.2 End-user basic IT skills

In terms the basic IT skills, a clear dissonance had been noted between the
budget and upscale hotels. From one side, most of the manager of upscale
hotels pointed that basic IT skills are not essential for recruiting people
for the reception job. In essence, they declared that it is easy for new
recruits to learn the basic IT knowledge, since most of upscale hotels have
structured training programmes. Further, most of the managers of budget
hotels using bespoke systems claimed that there is no relation between
basic IT skills (i.e. Word skills) and their bespoke system skills (i.e.
check-in skills). On the other side, most of the managers of budget hotels
using off-the-shelf systems pointed that basic IT skills are essential for
recruiting people. A possible important practical implication is that IT
skills have to be included in the application form and job specifications.

The study has identified a general congruence between the budget and
upscale hotels regarding CSE. In essence, all managers reported that it is
quite important to recruit and select people who are quite confident and
calm. This is consistent with previously-published results which showed
that CSE influences the acquisition of new computer skills (Ertmer et al.,
1994); the willingness to use computers (Henry and Stone, 1995); other
job outcomes, such as satisfaction, absenteeism, productivity and service
quality (McDonald and Siegall, 1992). Further, several researches (e.g.
Compeau and Higgins 1995; Gallivan, Spitler and Koufaris, 2005; Hung
and Chang, 2005; Huang and Chuang, 2007) found that CSE has a
positive impact on ICT usage. These findings also seem to be consistent
with the initial focus group findings which showed that if users have high
confidence of their technical ability to perform a computing task, they are
more likely to use computers effectively. To that end, Thatcher and
Perrew (2002) mentioned a negative relationship between CSE and
computer anxiety. They maintained that people with higher CSE
experienced lower levels of physical disabilities, pain and anxiety.
Page 7-4
In addition, the interviewed managers identified several possible reasons

and solutions for end-user computing anxiety (see Figure 7.1). From one
side, they declared that people’s personality, lack of IT knowledge, lack
of experience, lack of CSE, system complexity and system crashes are
possible explanations for end-user computing anxiety. These findings are
consistent with the literature that supports these relationships (e.g.
Thatcher and Perrew, 2002; Lee, Chung and Kim, 2004). On the other
side, the interviewed managers suggested that selecting confident people,
IT training, IT support, consultation, motivation and providing set system
procedures could be possible solutions for reducing computing anxiety.
Figure 7.1: The reasons and solutions for end-user computing anxiety
Lack of Lack of
Reasons
Lack of IT System System

Personality system computing
knowledge complexity crashes
experience self-efficacy
End-user Computing Anxiety

Solutions
Selecting Set of
right IT training IT support Consultation Motivation system
employees procedures
The findings of this study have a number of important implications for

future practice. An implication of this finding is that hotel managers have
to use self-confidence tests as well as system trials for the people who
apply for the reception job to know the degree of their CSE. Another
important practical implication is that hotel managers have to train and
motivate their employees properly with a clear focus on people’s
confidence and CSE.

The study has showed a general consensus between the budget and
upscale hotels in respect of end-user customer service experience. More
specifically, all the interviewed managers reported that customer service
Page 7-5
experience is a deciding factor for recruiting people for the reception job.
In essence, they declared that system experience could be taught;
however, customer service experience could not be taught because it is a
part of people’s personality. Another possible explanation for this might
be that hospitality industry in general relies more on customer service.
Therefore, employees have to get good communication skills because the
reception is the first and last interaction point with every customer
7.2.2 Organisational related factors

The interviewed managers of the budget and upscale hotels mentioned
some sorts of organisational supports to improve their employees’
computing satisfaction and IT performance, namely participation and
consultation, IT training, IT support and motivation, as follows:
7.2.2.1 Participation and consultation

The study has showed a clear disparity between the budget and upscale
hotels regarding employees’ participation and consultation in the system
development. From the perspective of hotels using bespoke systems, most
of the managers of budget and upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that their end-user employees have been consulted in the
selection of the new system. In essence, they declared that bespoke
systems are primarily designed to be easy to use as well as to do what
users need to do; therefore, there is an opportunity for end-user employees
to give their feedback and opinions. They also pointed that it is important
to take employees feedback first before managers because end-user
employees are using the system more than managers. This finding is in
agreement with Power’s (2004) findings which showed that the
development of a participative culture coupled with the involvement of
employees, will be more effective than solely focusing on the capabilities
of the technologies.
However, from the standpoint of hotels using off-the-shelf systems, most

of the managers of budget and upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems
Page 7-6
asserted that their end-user employees have not been consulted in the
selection of the new hotel information systems. Indeed, the decision has
been made by the hotel head management. They also declared that their
employees had no choice to select the hotel information systems;
however, they were reinforced to change from an old system to a new
system. Evidently, they pointed that the system has been selected by their
IT department because who are quite experienced than employees.
In addition, the interviewed managers identified several possible barriers

and benefits for participation and consultation in the system development
(see Figure 7.2). From one side, they pointed that lack of IT knowledge,
lack of system experience, lack of confidence, resistance to change,
limited time, extensive number of employees to participate, increased
costs and bad relationship between system developers and employees
could be possible barriers confronting employees’ participation and
consultation. These findings are consistent with previously-published
results (e.g. Clegg et al., 1997; Wilson et al., 1997). On the other side, the
interviewed managers mentioned the benefits of employees’ participation
and consultations, as follows: increased employees’ acceptance, ease of
system use, reduced employees’ mistakes, increased employees’
confidence, increased employees CSE, decreased training costs and
increased employees’ satisfaction and productivity. This is consistent with
previously-published results (e.g. McKeen and Guimaraes 1997; Kujala,
2003; Torkzadeh and Lee, 2003; Hess, Fuller and Mathew, 2006).
Figure 7.2: The barriers and benefits for end-user participation and consultation
Lack of Extensive Bad

Barriers
Lack of IT Lack of Resistance Limited Increased relationship

system number of
knowledge confidence to change time costs with
experience employees
employees
End-user Participation/Consultation
Increased Increased
Increased Reduced Increased Decreased Increased
Benefits
Ease of computing
employees’ employees’ employees’ training employees’ employees’
system self-
acceptance mistakes confidence costs satisfaction productivity
efficacy
Page 7-7
These findings suggest several courses of action for consulting and

participating hotel end-users employees in the new system development.
An implication of these findings is that both the needs and preferences of
end users should be taken into account when selecting hotel information
systems (consultative participation). This implication is consistent with
the literature (e.g. Power, 2004). Another important practical implication
for hotel managers is that a sample of experienced and non-experienced
end-user employees has to participate in the hotel information system
development (representative participation) in order to get feedback from a
different range of users. In that sense, more hands-on activity should be
made available for end-user employees in various stages of the hotel
information system development. For example, key end-user employees
may design a user training programme for the new system as
recommended by Hartwick and Barki (1994).
7.2.2.2 IT training
In terms the type of training conducted in the investigated four case
studies, the study had identified a clear distinction between the hotels
using off-the-shelf systems and those using bespoke systems. In
particular, all the managers of budget and upscale hotels using off-the-
shelf systems pointed that they conduct two types of training: internal
training (by the hotel training team) and external training (by the system
vendor, training company or other hotel). More specifically, the managers
of budget hotels prefer to train their employees internally because external
IT training is more expensive as compared to internal training. Another
possible explanation for this is that budget hotels do not have enough staff
to release some of them for external training. However, the managers of
upscale hotels prefer to train their employees by the system vendor
because they are experienced in the system more than the hotel training
team. An implication of these findings is that both internal and external
training have to be conducted. In other words, when the new system is
installed the system vendor has to conduct training for managers and end-
Page 7-8
user employees as well to be able to use the system. Thereafter, the

managers of hotels could conduct internal training for all employees.
On the other side, all the managers of budget and upscale hotels using
bespoke systems reported that it is better to train their end-user employees
internally by the hotel training team. A possible explanation for this is
that the system is designed by the hotel IT team; therefore they might
have a better understanding of the system than any other training
company. Another possible explanation for this is that they train their
employees internally because the system is easy to use. These findings
have a number of important practical implications for future practice. An
implication of these findings is that the hotel IT team have to train
managers and end-user employees as well to enable them to use the
system. Another important practical implication is that managers of hotels
have to conduct refresher training for their end-user employees on a
regular basis to keep them up-to-date with changes.
In addition, the study had identified a general congruence between budget

and upscale hotels in respect of the types of the training (on-the-job vs.
off-the-job training). Indeed, all the managers reported that they prefer to
conduct on-the-job training rather than off-the-job training. It was noted
that all new recruits are paired up with more experienced staff member.
From one side, they pointed that there are several possible benefits of
conducting on-the-job training, namely: quick to learn; easy to learn;
practical training; training in the real-life scenario; increased system
experience; increased customer experience. From the other side, they
mentioned some barriers confronting training employees on the job, such
as limited time; limited trainers; long time to perform tasks; end-user
computing anxiety; interruption; dissatisfied customers. This is shown in
Figure 7.3.
Page 7-9
Figure 7.3: The barriers and benefits for conducting on-the-job training
Barriers
Limited Long time End-user
Limited Interruption Dissatisfied
trainers to perform computing
time customers
tasks anxiety
On-the-Job Training
Increased Increased
Benefits
Quick to Ease to Practical Real-life system customer

learn learn training scenario experience experience
From the standpoint of off-the-job training, the interviewed managers

identified two types of off-the-job training: theoretical off-the-job training
and practical off-the-job training. In the theoretical training, employees
attend training sessions to know how to do a reservation, check-in, check-
out, etc. theoretically. It was also noted that employees could be trained
on how to use the system practically in a training room. In other words,
people are trained how to use the system on their own using a system
training version (i.e. Fidelio workbox). From one side, the managers
mentioned some possible benefits of conducting off-the-job training, such
as increased IT knowledge; increased system experience; increased
confidence; increased computing self-efficacy; training in calmer
environment; employees might be less forgetful because they learn on
their own. From the other side, they mentioned some barriers confronting
training employees off the job, such as limited time; limited money;
limited resources; limited staff; not real-life scenario training; theoretical
training (see Figure 7.4).
These findings have a number of important practical implications for

future practice. An implication of these findings is that combinations of
off-the-job training and on-the-job training have to be conducted. In
particular, employees have to be trained off the job at the beginning of
their work and thereafter on-the-job training has to be conducted.
Page 7-10
Figure 7.4: The barriers and benefits for conducting off-the-job training
Limited Limited Limited Not real-life Theoretical

Barriers
Limited
time money resources staff scenario training
Off-the-Job Training
Increased
Benefits
Increased Increased Less

Increased Calm
IT system computing forgetful
confidence environment
knowledge experience self-efficacy
In addition, the interviewed managers identified some ways to measure

the training effectiveness (see Figure 7.5). In particular, they declared that
repeated employees’ mistakes; monitoring employees on the job;
reviewing employees regularly (i.e. personal development review); testing
employees; mystery shopper could be possible ways to measure training
effectiveness. An implication of these findings is that managers of hotels
have to identify the training needs of the new employees during the
interview and to establish a training book for each new staff member.
Another important practical implication is that managers of hotels have to
be more proactive and train their current employees before they make
mistakes to avoid the time it takes to rectify those mistakes.
Figure 7.5: The used methods to measure training effectiveness
Employees'
mistakes
Mystery Monitoring
shopper employees
Measuring
Training
Effectiveness
Testing Revieweing
employees employees
Page 7-11
From the standpoint of training frequency, the finding had identified

disparity between the budget and upscale hotels. It was apparent that most
of the managers of upscale hotels train their end-user employees on a
regular basis. They conduct bite-sized training regularly to keep their end-
user employees up-to-date with any system changes as well as to remind
them with the hotel policies and procedures. Further, they train their
employees regularly as part of the company standard. Another possible
explanation for conducting regular training might be that most upscale
hotels have got HR department that responsible for conducting training on
a regular basis. Similarly, the managers of budget hotels using bespoke
systems reported that training employees on a regular basis has positive
impacts on user performance, satisfaction as well as loyalty.
However, most of the managers of budget hotels using off-the-shelf

system argued that they do not train their end-user employees regularly. A
possible explanation for this is that their employees might be quite
experienced with the system because the system is easy to use; therefore,
they do not need to be trained regularly. Another possible explanation for
this is that managers of budget hotels do not have enough time, resources
and money to train their employees regularly. Therefore, all the
interviewed managers declared that they might conduct refresher training
in particular situations, such as when new procedures are added; system
upgrades; system problems; employees’ requests (see Figure 7.6).
Figure 7.6: The frequency of IT training
Regular
training
Refresher Refresher
training on training on
employees' new
requests
Training procedures
Frequency
Refresher Refresher
training on training on
system system
problems upgrades
Page 7-12
An implication of these findings is that managers of hotels have to be

proactive and conduct short-take training on a regular basis, for example
every week to keep employees up-to-date with the system. Another
important practical implication is that managers of hotels have to conduct
refresher training if the system is upgraded or if their employees face any
problem with the system.
In summary, the hotel managers mentioned several possible barriers

confronting IT training (see Figure 7.7), such as limited time; limited
training budget; limited staff; limited trainers; lack of training tools an
equipment; resistance to change and to learn; different employees’
abilities to learn; lack of employees understanding; bad training habits.
These findings support the literature review (e.g. Gallivan, Spitler and
Koufaris, 2005; Law and Jogaratnam, 2005). In a similar vein, the hotel
managers suggested some points to improve the IT training, as follows:
recruiting more staff; allocating more training budget; developing a
training manual; conducting practical training regularly; providing
scheduled training; conducting short-take training for a longer period of
time; applying different training methods; using visual procedures and
posters; evaluating and reviewing the training regularly.
Figure 7.7: The barriers and solutions for IT training

Barriers
Limited Lack of Different Lack of Bad

Limited Limited Limited Resistance
training training to change abilities to understan- training
time staff trainers
budget tools learn ding habits
End-user Training
Solutions
More More Training Regular Scheduled Short- Different Visual Training

staff training manual practical training take training Training evaluation
budget training training methods
Page 7-13
7.2.2.3 IT support
In terms the type of IT support, a clear concurrence had been reported
between the budget and upscale hotels. In particular, it was apparent that
almost all the investigated hotels (24 hotels out of 25 hotels) do not have
on-site IT departments; however, they have off-site IT departments based
on their head offices. In essence, hotels might not have enough budgets to
hire an on-site IT manager. Indeed, the managers declared that hotel
information systems do not crash enough times to justify the recruitment
of an on-site IT manager. It was also noted that with the advanced
technology nowadays it is easy to dial in and rectify IT problems from off
site.
However, some managers argued that they face particular problems

because they do not have an on-site IT manager, as follows: (1) it may
take a lot of time to solve the system problems and subsequently it may
have negative impact on customer service, (2) it may add a lot of stress on
managers as well as it may take them away from their main job, (3) the
limited IT knowledge of managers that help them to solve the IT
problems on their own and (4) the possibility of increasing the IT
problems because managers are not specialised in solving IT problems.
In addition, the study had identified a disparity between hotels using off-
the-shelf systems and those using bespoke systems in respect of the type
of off-site IT support. More specifically, the managers of budget and
upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems identified two types of off-site
IT support, namely off-site IT support by the hotel central IT department
and off-site IT support by the system vendor. In other words, if it is a
hardware problem, it is better to contact the off-site IT department and if
it is a system problem, it is better to contact the system vendor. A possible
explanation for this is that system vendor team might be more
experienced by the system problems than the hotel IT team. On the other
side, all the managers of budget and upscale hotels using bespoke systems
reported that if they face any problem with their bespoke chain systems,
Page 7-14
they contact only their off-site IT help desks. A possible explanation for
this is that their IT help desk might be more experienced with their
bespoke chain systems than any other external company.
The study had identified several possible barriers facing IT support (see
Figure 7.8). It was noted that lack of IT knowledge; difficulty to contact
off-site IT help desk at night and on weekends as well; limited number of
IT support team; long time to solve system problems; limited speed of the
systems; employees frustration could be possible barriers confronting IT
support. These findings are consistent with previously-published results
(e.g. Hitt, Wu and Zhou, 2002; Santhanam and Hartono, 2003).
Therefore, the previous findings have a number of important implications
for future practice. In particular, hotels have to invest on some managers
(super managers) as well as employees (super users) to be able to solve
the IT problems on their own. It was also apparent that conducting IT
training regularly; keeping more IT support team all the times; using
system help icons before contacting the IT help desk; developing set
system procedures to be used on system problems; keeping a direct
communication between IT help desk staff and end-user employees could
be possible ways to improve the off-site IT support.
Figure 7.8: The barriers and solutions for off-site IT support
Long time
Barriers
Lack of IT Difficulty to Difficulty to Limited IT Limited

knowledge contact at contact on support to solve speed of the Frustration
night weekends team staff problems system
Off-site IT Support
Solutions
Super user More IT Using Direct

Accessibility Set system
and manager IT training support system help contact with
all times procedures
team icon employees
Page 7-15
7.2.2.4 Motivation
The study had identified a disparity between budget and upscale hotels in
respect of motivating end-user employees. Indeed, most of the
interviewed managers of upscale hotels reported that their end-user
employees do not need to be motivated to use the system. In essence, they
declared that the system is a basic tool to do the job; therefore, employees
do not need to be motivated to use this tool which is part of their job.
Further, most of the managers of budget hotels using bespoke systems
implied that bespoke systems are usually designed to be easy to use;
therefore, employees do not need to be motivated to use easy systems.
Evidently, some mangers argued that employees do not need to be
motivated to use the system; however, they need to be motivated to
provide a good customer service.
On the other side, most of the managers of budget hotels using off-the-
shelf systems mentioned some possible ways of motivating people to use
the system. It was noted that they motivate their end-user employees to
use the system by making them more interested and helping them to enjoy
using the system (intrinsic motivation). This is consistent with previously-
published results (e.g. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1992; Ryan and
Deci, 2000; Chiang and Jang, 2008). Another possible way of motivating
end-user employees to use the system is by rewarding them (extrinsic
motivation). This supports Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge’s (2008) findings
which showed that users who enjoy the process of using technology may
tend to underestimate its difficulty and find it easier to use.
These findings suggest several courses of action for encouraging people

to use the system (intrinsic motivation). In essence, the use of an intrinsic
motivator during training could help users to create positive perceptions
of IS applications (Venkatesh, Speier and Morris, 2002). Similarly,
Fagan, Neill and Wooldridge (2008) pointed that intrinsic motivation can
increase time spent on tasks, make employees more productive and result
in enhanced extrinsic motivation perceptions.
Page 7-16
7.2.3 System related factors

systems. Indeed, the study had identified a clear dissonance between off-
the-shelf systems and bespoke systems. From the standpoint of off-the-
shelf systems, most of the managers of budget and upscale hotels reported
that using off-the-shelf hotel information systems is better than using
bespoke hotel information systems. It was noted that hotels using the
same off-the-shelf systems can have standardised and consistent reports.
Further, it was apparent that off-the-shelf system packages are quite
similar; therefore, it is easy for people to adapt with any new system.
Another possible benefit of using off-the-shelf hotel information systems
is the possibility of staff transfer across the hotel chains which use the
same system package.
However, on the other side, hotels using their bespoke chain systems
might face some problems. In particular, it is difficult for employees to
cross brands if they have experienced only bespoke systems. More
specifically, it was claimed that any hotel using its bespoke system has to
be large enough as well as it needs to have an expert IT team to be able to
upgrade and maintain its system properly. An implication of this finding
is that hotels have to design their bespoke systems to comply with their
budget, facilities and staff skills.
The interviewed managers of budget and upscale hotels mentioned some

criteria they take into consideration when selecting and designing hotel
information systems, as follows:

The study had identified a consensus between budget and upscale hotels
regarding ease of system use. Indeed, all the managers agreed that hotel
information systems have to be easy to use and to learn to backup data for
the night audit procedures. Using shortcuts, logos and bright colours
Page 7-17
could be possible ways to make hotel information systems easy to use. It

was also noted that systems need to have minimal categories as well as
minimal options to be easy to use. In a similar vein, it was claimed that
Windows-based systems (you can use keyboard and mouse, i.e. Opera
system) are easier than Dos-based systems (you can use only keyboard,
i.e. Fidelio). To that end, the managers pointed that if the hotel
information system is user friendly, employees are likely to be more
satisfied. This finding is in agreement with Al-Gahtani and King’s (1999)
findings which showed that ease of system use has positive impact on
user attitude, ICT usage and user satisfaction.

From the perspective of system usefulness, the study had identified a
concurrence between budget and upscale hotels. In that sense, all the
managers implied that hotel information systems have to help users to
perform their tasks quickly; therefore, they can spend most of the time
interacting with the customers. Further, hotel information systems have to
backup data quickly at the night. It was claimed that Dos-based systems,
i.e. Fidelio are faster than Windows-based systems, i.e. Opera. An
implication of this finding is that managers of hotels have to upgrade their
systems regularly to increase their speed. Indeed, most managers declared
that hotel information systems should provide users with the information
and reports they need in order to help them take the right decision. This
finding supports the literature review (e.g. Rai, Lang and Welker, 2002;
DeLone and McLean, 2003). To that end, most managers pointed that
hotel information systems have to be efficient and accurate.

In terms of the system compatibility, a clear congruence has been reported
between the budget and upscale hotels. In particular, the managers
identified two types of system compatibility, namely task compatibility
and size compatibility. From the standpoint of task compatibility, it was
Page 7-18
apparent that hotel information systems have to be designed to do what

users need to do. In essence, hotel information systems have to be
designed to guide users on the way they navigate the system (i.e. using
help screen) as well as to correct their mistakes. Further, it was pointed
that hotel information systems need to keep and to retrieve guest records
easily. This is consistent with the literature (e.g. Klopping and Mckinney,
2004; Lam, Cho and Qu, 2007; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009) which claimed
that the technology will have a positive impact on individual performance
and satisfaction if it is well utilised and fitted well with the task it
supports. From the perspective of the size compatibility, it was reported
that hotel information systems need to be compatible with the size of the
hotel. For example, budget hotels do not require more advanced system
with a lot of functions as compared to upscale hotels. An implication of
this finding is that hotel managers have to select/design hotel information
systems that are compatible with their hotel size, facilities, functions as
well as their employees’ needs and skills.

The study had identified a clear distinction between the hotels using off-
the-shelf systems and those using bespoke systems regarding the system
popularity. More specifically, most of the managers of the hotels using
off-the-shelf systems, particularly budget hotels, reported that system
popularity within the hotel industry could be a determinant factor for
selecting a new hotel information system. On the other side, all the
managers of the hotels using bespoke systems implied that system
popularity within the hotel industry is not a determinant factor for
selecting a new hotel information system. A possible explanation for this
is that bespoke systems are designed only for particular hotel chains;
therefore, people might not be familiar with those systems.
Page 7-19
7.2.3.5 System flexibility

With regards to the system flexibility, an obvious divergence had
occurred between the hotels using off-the-shelf systems and those using
bespoke systems. In particular, the managers of budget hotels reported
that off-the-shelf hotel information systems have to be more flexible. It
was apparent that hotel information systems have to be designed to help
users to modify what they have done. A possible explanation for this
might be that off-the-shelf systems are designed for a wide array of hotels
as well as employees; therefore these systems have to be flexible to be
easily used by different employees.
7.2.3.6 System reliability

The study had identified obvious divergence between the hotels using off-
the-shelf systems and those using bespoke system in respect of the system
reliability. In that sense, the managers reported that bespoke hotel
information systems have to be reliable. In other words, bespoke systems
have to be designed in a way to comply with employees expectations. A
possible explanation for this might be that employees rely more on
bespoke systems because they are designed to do what users need to do.
Another possible explanation for this might be that bespoke systems are
not changed so regular, as compared to off-the-shelf hotel information
systems and subsequently employees rely more on bespoke systems
because they take to use them for a long time.
7.2.4 IT performance and satisfaction impact

The interviewed managers of budget and upscale hotels mentioned
possible impacts of their hotel information systems, as follows:
7.2.4.1 Productivity impact

The finding had identified a general congruence between the budget and
upscale hotels regarding productivity impact. In essence, it was apparent
that off-the-shelf as well as bespoke systems increase the productivity and
Page 7-20
work efficiency of end-user employees. This finding is consistent with the

literature that supports this relationship (e.g. Devaraj and Kohli, 2000;
Anandrajan, Igbaria and Anakwe, 2000; Menon, Lee and Eldenburg,
2000; Kudyba and Diwan, 2002; Kohli and Devaraj, 2003). It was also
noted that employees are more productive because hotel information
systems help them to accomplish their tasks more quickly as compared to
manual systems. Further, hotel information systems guide employees step
by step to accomplish their tasks, such as check-in and check-out and
subsequently employees might be less forgetful and more productive. In
fact, hotel information systems help users to follow set procedures;
therefore, employees are more likely to provide standardised work.
7.2.4.2 Service quality impact

In terms the service quality, the study had showed a clear comparability
between the budget and upscale hotels. It was apparent that hotel
information systems improve the service quality provided to the
customers. This is consistent with the literature that supports this
relationship (Hartman et al., 2002; Lin and Lee, 2006; Lin, 2007; Kim
and Kim, 2008). In particular, hotel systems help users to accomplish
their tasks quickly, i.e. check-in; therefore, they can spend most of the
time with the customers. Indeed, hotel information systems help users to
provide accurate and consistent work and consequently all the customers
get the same treatment and same service quality. It was also noted that
hotel systems help users to keep customer records; therefore, users can
provide personalised services. An implication of these findings is that
hotel managers have to recruit people with good customer service skills.
Another important practical implication is that hotel managers have to
train their employees to provide good customer service using the hotel
information systems. Further, hotel systems have to be designed in a
simple way to facilitate the interaction with the customers.
Page 7-21
7.2.4.2 Satisfaction impact

The study had identified a clear concurrence between the budget and
upscale hotels regarding the end-user computing satisfaction impact. In
essence, they mentioned some possible motivators for end-user
computing satisfaction, namely end-user computing self-efficacy;
consultation in the system development; IT training; IT support;
motivation; ease of system use; system usefulness; system compatibility
(see Figure 5.11). This is consistent with previously-published results
(e.g. Al-Gahtani and King, 1999; Somers, Nelson and Karimi, 2003; Doll
et al., 2004; Stone, Good and Baker-Eveleth, 2006).
Figure7.9: The motivators for end-user computing satisfaction
Computing
self-
efficacy
System
Consultation
compatibility
System
usefulness
Satisfaction IT training
Ease of
system IT support
use
Motivation
The study had identified several possible barriers facing IT performance

and satisfaction (see Figure 7.10). It was noted that resistance to change;
end-user computing anxiety; lack of system knowledge; lack of IT
training; lack of IT support; limited system speed; system crashes could
be possible barriers confronting IT performance and satisfaction.
Therefore, the previous findings have a number of important implications
for future practice. On the other side, the managers recommended some
points to improve IT-human interaction, as follows: selecting the right
Page 7-22
employees who have good customer service skills; encouraging

employees’ self-learning; consulting employees on the system
development; conducting regular IT training; motivating employees;
providing regular system updates; establishing system manual.
Figure 7.10: The barriers and solutions for IT performance and satisfaction
Barriers
Resistance End-user Lack of Lack of Limited

Lack of IT System
to change computing system training system
support crashes
anxiety knowledge speed
IT performance and Satisfaction

Solutions
Right Self- Regular IT Regular

Consultation Motivation System
employees’ learning training system
manual
selection updating

behaviour (TPB)
hotel information systems. The theory of planned behaviour postulates
that behavioural intention to use is jointly determined by three factors,
which are: attitude towards use, subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Huh, Kim & Law, 2009). In
the context of hotels, end-user employees are more willing to accept hotel
information systems (HIS) if they have a positive attitude towards the use
of HIS (attitude), want to comply with other important people’s opinions
on the use of HIS (subjective norms) and have the requisite skill,
knowledge, resource and experience (perceived behavioural control) as
demonstrated by Huh, Kim and Law (2009). This is shown in Figure 7.11.
Page 7-23
In this research, the components of TPB (attitude, subjective norms and

perceived behavioural control) had been operationalised by asking
hoteliers (managers and end-user employees) open-ended questions to
elicit and understand their attitudinal, normative and control-based beliefs
towards the use of hotel information systems. Indeed, the TPB had
contributed significantly in understanding hoteliers’ attitudes and
behaviours in relation to technology adoption. It helped in identifying the
most appropriate tools which hotel managers could use to improve IT-
human interaction in their hotels.
The analysis using TPB revealed that the attitude component had a
significant effect on end-user employees and managers’ behavioural
intentions to use hotel information systems. It was noted that, if hotel end-
user employees and managers have positive attitudes towards information
systems adoption (i.e. perceived ease of use; perceived usefulness;
perceived compatibilty), they are more likely to use those systems. From
the standpoint of the perceived behavioural control component, the study
had proved that perceived behavioural control had a significant effect on
end-user employees and managers’ behavioural intentions to use hotel
information systems. In other words, it was also revealed that if end-user
employees and managers have the requisite end-user computing self-
efficacy (internal constraints), consultation, IT training and IT support
(external constraints), they are more likely to use hotel information
systems effectively.
Page 7-24
On the other hand, the subjective norms component had a small effect on
end-user employees’ behavioural intentions to use hotel information
systems. In other words, the managers revealed that a few number of end-
user employee perceives that others (managers; peers; cutomers)
significantly think he/she should use the hotel information system.
However, most of the managers declared that end-user employees do not
need to be motivated by others to use hotel information systems because
using hotel systems is a part of their job (see section 7.2.2.4). This is
consistent with previous research (Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw, 1989;
Ajzen, 1991) which provided little support to the role of subjective norms
as a predictor of intentions to perform the behaviour in TRA and TPB.
Theses results also are consistent with the survey results as well as the
interviewed end-user employees.
This research proved that the TPB with its main components (attitude,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control) was still not
adequate to predict and/or explain the behaviour of end-user employees in
relation to technology adoption and additional factors needed to be
incorporated. In that sense, several previous studies (Cheung, Chan and
Wong, 1999; Terry, Hogg and White, 1999; Davies, Foxall and Pallister
2002; Davis and Morgan, 2008; Radwan, 2009) used TPB in predicting
the behaviour and similarly indicated that TPB was not sufficient in
explaining the behaviour and so additional factors should be incorporated.
Therefore, four modifications were applied to the TPB to provide
additional insights into employees’ behavioural intention to use hotel
information systems (see Figure 7.12).
Indeed, it has been found that the subjective norms component had a
small effect on end-user employees’ behavioural intentions to use hotel
information systems; therefore, the first modification to the TPB was to
remove the subjective norms component. This is consistent with several
researchers (Hartwick and Barki, 1994; Agarwal and Prasad, 1997;
Venkatesh and Davis, 2000) who argued that the direct effect of
Page 7-25
subjective norms on intentions for mandatory usage contexts will be

strong prior to implementation and during early usage, but will weaken
over time as increasing direct experience with a system provides a
growing basis for intentions towards ongoing use. It was also apparent
that in hotel mandatory context, end-user employees might not have any
intention to use hotel information systems, they have to use systems as a
part of their job role; therefore the second modification to the TPB was to
remove the behavioural intention component.
The third modification to the TPB was to decompose the attitude and
perceived behavioural control components into various belief factors that
influence end-user employees’ attitude towards use hotel information
systems. In particular, the attitude component was decomposed into
attitudinal beliefs (e.g. perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and
perceived compatibility). Further, the perceived behavioural control
component was decomposed into internal control beliefs (i.e. end-user
computing self-efficacy; end-user customer service skills) and external
control beliefs (i.e. consultation; IT training; IT support). This is
consistent with previously-published studies (e.g. Taylor and Todd, 1995;
Hung and Chang, 2005; Huang and Chuang, 2007; Lin, 2007; Huh, Kim
and Law, 2009) which showed that the decomposition of beliefs can
provide additional insights into employees’ behavioural intention to use
hotel information systems. The last modification to the TPB was to add a
behaviour outcomes component in order to measure the impact of using
hotel information systems (i.e. end-user computing satisfaction; IT
performance).
Page 7-26
7.4 A best practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels

The process of developing a best practice model to improve IT-human
interaction in hotels included four stages (see Figure 7.13). In the first
stage, a critical review of literature was undertaken on IT performance
and satisfaction at the different stages of employee life cycle with a
particular emphasis on issues relating to user traits, organisational traits
and system traits aiming to develop a unified conceptual framework to
improve IT-human interaction. In the second stage, a series of focus
groups with different groups of IT users, managers and IT support team
were conducted to identify the discrete measures underpinning user traits,
organisational traits and system traits impacting on IT usage and user
perceptions of performance and satisfaction aiming to develop an initial
model to improve IT-human interaction. In the third stage, the initial
model was tested in four hotel case studies in Wales aiming to develop an
IT-human interaction model for each investigated hotel case study. In the
last stage, a cross-case analysis was conducted aiming to develop a best
practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
Page 7-27
Figure 7.13: The process of developing a best practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels
Literature Review Initial Study In-depth Study Cross-case

(focus groups) (four case studies) Analysis
•A conceptual • An initial IT- • IT-human • A best practice

framework to human interactions model.
improve IT- interaction model for • A strategic
human model. budget and action plan.
interction. upscale hotels.
The best practice model comprises three main parts, namely the IT-human
critical success factors, the theory of planned behaviour and the
technology-related outcomes. Concerning the IT-human critical success
factors, it was apparent that most the critical factors are either related to
people (i.e. end-user employees), organisations (i.e. hotels) and
technology (i.e. hotel information systems) as demonstrated in Figure
7.14. The study had identified the end-user employees’ critical factors
(i.e. computing self-efficacy; customer service skills), the organisational
critical factors (i.e. consultation; IT training; IT support) and the system
critical factors (i.e. ease of system use; system usefulness; system
compatibility).
Figure 7.14: The process of people, organisation and system interaction
System
Organisation
People
Page 7-28
The theory of planned behaviour is the second part of the developed best
practice model. As discussed earlier in section 7.3, the TPB main
components are attitude towards use, subjective norms and perceived
behaviour control. The last part of the developed best practice model
explores the technology-related outcomes incorporating end-user
computing satisfaction and IT performance (i.e. productivity and service
quality). The developed best practice mode with its main three parts is
Page 7-29
7.5 A strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) to improve IT-human

Besides the development of a best practice model to identify the IT-
human critical variables influencing IT performance and satisfaction in
budget and upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems and bespoke
systems (see Figure 7.15), a strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) was
developed in order to identify the decisions and activities that have to be
undertaken in each stage of the employee life cycle. The SAPF consists of
seven stages, namely: recruitment and selection; system selection;
participation and consultation; IT training; IT support; motivation; IT
performance and satisfaction management.
The first stage of the SAPF focused on the criteria relating to recruiting
and selecting people for the reception job, namely customer service skills,
computing self-efficacy, system experience and basic IT knowledge. The
second stage of the SAPF concerned with the criteria of selecting hotel
information systems. More specifically, some managers mentioned ease
of use, usefulness and compatibility criteria (see Figure 7.16a). The third
stage of the SAPF dealt with the process of participating and consulting
end-user employees in the system development. The fourth stage of the
SAPF concerned with training end-user employees either internally,
externally, off the job or on the job as well as the frequency and the
evaluation of training effectiveness (see Figure 7.16b).
The fifth stage of the SAPF focused on the procedures that have to be
undertaken if end-user employees face any system problem, such as try to
solve the problem on their own, call the IT help desk or call the system
vendor. The sixth stage of the SAPF concerned with motivating end-user
employees to provide good customer service using hotel information
systems (see Figure 7.16c). In the final stage of the SAPF, a clear focus
has been given to improve end-user employees’ satisfaction and IT
performance (see Figure 7.16d).
Page 7-30
Page 7-31
Page 7-32
Page 7-33
As demonstrated in the previous figures, the SAPF is designed to be

applicable for the different hotel case studies. However, the study had
identified significant variations between budget and upscale hotels in
respect of technology adoption ; therefore, Table 7.1 shows a strategic
action plan for each hotel case study, namely budget hotels using off-the-
shelf systems (case 1); budget hotels using bespoke systems (case 2);
upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems (case 3); upscale hotels using
bespoke systems (case 4).
Page 7-34
Table 7.1: A strategic action plan to improve IT-human interaction in hotels

Stage Indicators/ Activities Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Recruit and select people who are willing to work in the hospitality career. √ √ √ √
Recruit and select younger people for the reception job. √ √ √ √
Recruit and select older people for the reception job. √ √ √ √
Recruit and select males for the reception job. √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √
Recruitment and Selection
Recruit and select females for the reception job.

Recruit and select people who have previous system experience. √ X X X
Recruit and select people with good customer experience. √ √ √ √
Recruit and select people who are quite confident and calm. √ √ √ √
Recruit and select people who have basic IT skills, such as Word and Excel. √ X X X
Recruit and select people who are hospitality educated. X X X X
Recruit and select people who are willing to learn and to use the hotel information systems. √ √ √ √
Recruitment application form has to include a section for IT skills. √ √ √ √
Conduct an interview for the new recruits. √ √ √ √
Conduct a self-confidence test for the new recruits √ √ √ √
Conduct a system trial for the new recruits. √ X √ X
Select/design the hotel information system that complies with your hotel budget. . √ √ √ √
System Development
√ √
Hotel Information
Select/design the hotel information system that complies with your hotel facilities and number of rooms. √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that complies with your end-user employees’ needs, capabilities and skills. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that is easy to use, simple and straightforward (using shortcuts). √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that backs data up easily at the night. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that backs data up quickly at the night. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that is easy to learn. √ √ √ √
(continued)
Page 7-35
Table 7.1: A strategic action plan to improve IT-human interaction in hotels (continued)
Select/design the hotel information system that performs tasks quickly. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that provides employees and managers with sufficient information and reports. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that is accurate. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that keeps and retrieves guests’ records easily. √ √ √ √
Hotel Information System Development
Select/design the hotel information system that is compatible with employees’ tasks. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that asks end-user employees questions and gives guidance on procedures. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that corrects end-user employees’ mistakes. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that has step-by-step instructions (system help guide). √ √ √ √
Select/design hotel information system that has minimal options and categories. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that has advanced functions in order to help users doing their job easily. X X √ X
Select/design the hotel information system that does what end-user employees need to do. √ √ √ √
Select/design the hotel information system that is enjoyable. X X X X
Select/design the hotel information system that includes IT support, maintenance and IT training as a part of its initial cost. √ X √ X
Select/design the hotel information system that is widely used within the hotel industry. √ X X X
Select/design the hotel information system that is flexible to be used. √ X X X
Select/design the hotel information system that is reliable and meets end-user employees’ expectations. X √ X X
Select/design the hotel information system that is windows-based to allow people to use both mouse and keyboard as well. √ √ √ √
Increase end-user employees’ awareness of the importance of participating in the system development process. √ √ √ √
Participation and
√ √ √ √
Consultation
Increase the willing of end-user employees to change.

Increase end-user employees IT knowledge. √ √ √ √
Ask end-user employees about their opinions, needs and preferences of the new hotel information system. √ √ √ √
Keep end-user employees involved from the first stage of the system development. √ √ √ √
Select the key experienced end-user employees to participate in the system development stages. √ √ √ √
(continued)
Page 7-36
Ask end-user employees to participate in the selection of the new hotel information system. √ √ √ √
Participation and
Ask end-user employees to participate in the selection of the new hardware. √ √ √ √

Consultation
Keep direct contact with the end-user employees during the various stages of the system development. √ √ √ √
Ask key end-user employees to create a manual for user procedures. √ √ √ √
Ask key end-user employees to design a user training programme. √ √ √ √
Test the hotel information system to check the system functionality. √ √ √ √
Get employees’ feedback about the system in a regular basis. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees as well as managers by the system vendor. √ X √ X
Train end-user employees as well as managers by the hotel IT team (internal training). √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees as well as managers by an external training company (if needed). √ X √ X
Train end-user employees as well as managers in another hotel (if needed). √ X X X
Train end-user employees internally or in-house by the hotel training team. √ √ √ √
Training and Development
Train new end-user employees practically on the system training version (off-the-job training). √ √ √ √
Train new end-user employees theoretically in a training room (off-the-job training) √ √ √ √
Train new end-user employees on the system basics on line (give new employees user name and password). √ √ √ √
Train new end-user employees ‘on the job’ by senior staff (pairing the new employee with a more experienced staff member) √ √ √ √
Train managers as well as senior staff members on how to solve system problems on their own. √ √ √ √
Train all end-user employees to increase their self-confidence. √ √ √ √
Train older end-user employees to improve their basic IT skills. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees on a regular basis to keep them up-to-date with the system. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees when they regularly make mistakes. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees when the system is updated. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees when a new procedure is added. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees when they request training in a particular function. √ √ √ √
(continued)
Page 7-37
Schedule the training programme for a longer time. √ √ √ √
Conduct short-take training for a longer period of time. √ √ √ √
Use different ways of learning because people might have different learning capabilities. √ √ √ √
Training and Development
Provide different levels of training to suit employee skills. √ √ √ √

Establish a training skills book for each new end-user employee to follow up their training progress. √ √ √ √
Monitor employees during the shift to measure the training effectiveness. √ √ √ √
Use guest comment cards as well as mystery shopper to measure the training effectiveness. √ √ √ √
Ask end-user employees about their feedback after training them. √ √ √ √
Conduct an on-going training evaluation (training evaluation sheet, exams). √ √ √ √
Review the training content on a regular basis to meet end-user employees’ expectations (performance management review). √ √ √ √
Establish and IT department on site. X X X X
Recruit an on-site IT solution manager for each of the five hotels in the chain (if the hotel is a part of a bigger chain). √ √ √ √
Establish a central IT department in the head office to rectify system problems (head office). √ √ √ √
Manage the system crashes and upgrades (IT department). √ √ √ √
End-User IT Support
Manage the physical equipment and networks (IT department). √ √ √ √

Manage end-user employees’ accesses and rights (IT department). √ √ √ √
Try to solve the IT problem by yourself before contacting the IT help desk (managers and employees). √ √ √ √
Follow the system help procedures if you face a problem with the system (managers and employees). √ √ √ √
Call the hotline of the IT help desk (if you could not solve the IT problem on your own). √ √ √ √
Call the hotline of the system vendor (if the off-site IT department could not solve the IT problem). √ X √ X
Make sure that the IT help desk solves the system problems quickly (managers) √ √ √ √
Send somebody from the IT department to solve the system problem on site (if they could not solve it on phone) √ √ √ √
Make sure that the off-site IT help desk is open twenty-four hours/ seven days per week (including bank holidays). √ √ √ √
(continued)
Page 7-38
Make sure that the number of people in the IT help desk is suitable for the number of calls (head office). √ √ √ √
End-User IT Support
Make sure that any physical equipment is replaced within twenty-four hours (head office). √ √ √ √
Empower one manager to be able to solve the IT problems on his/her own, such as front-office manger (super manager). √ √ √ √
Provide the appropriate resources and training to end-user employees to be able to solve the system problems on their own (super user). √ √ √ √
Keep direct contact with end-user employees to know their common IT problems (IT department). √ √ √ √
Upgrade the system on a regular basis to keep the system fast (IT department). √ √ √ √
Establish a manual for the common IT problems and how to rectify them (IT department). √ √ √ √
Encourage end-user employees to work better and to provide a good customer service (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √
End-User Motivation
Encourage end-user employees to learn on their own (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √

Make end-user employees interested and eager to use the system (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √
Support end-user employees regularly (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √
Encourage older end-user employees to use the system (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √
Encourage anxious end-user employees to use the system (intrinsic motivation). √ √ √ √
Motivate end-user employees to use the system by rewarding them (extrinsic motivation) X X X X
Develop a checklist for all the daily tasks performed by the computer system. √ √ √ √
Design a system manual to standardise the system functions (may be on-line system manual). √ √ √ √
Design a training manual to standardise the provided training for all employees (may be on-line training manual). √ √ √ √
Allocate more budgets for end-user employees training. √ √ √ √
Allocate more time for end-user employees training. √ √ √ √
Add more visual posters on the walls to remind end-user employees of the system procedures. √ √ √ √
Update the hotel information system regularly to increase its speed. √ √ √ √
Train end-user employees to provide good customer service using the hotel information systems. √ √ √ √
Identify the knowledge gaps of the new end-user employees to train them. √ √ √ √
Encourage end-user employees to learn on their own. √ √ √ √
(continued)
Page 7-39
Learn by yourself how to solve the hotel information system problems (employees and managers). √ √ √ √
Add the required IT skills to the job specifications. √ √ √ √
Improve the IT skills of your end-user employees to create competitive advantage. √ √ √ √

Learn by yourself how to make the best use of the hotel information system (employees and managers). √ √ √ √
Use the hotel information system to perform tasks quickly (employees and managers). √ √ √ √
Do not rely more on the computer system and know how to perform the tasks manually (employees and managers). √ √ √ √
Spend most of the time with the customers (speak to customers and use the computer at the same). √ √ √ √
Do not concentrate more on the computer screen instead of interacting with the customers (employees). √ √ √ √
Use the system reports to help you to take the correct decisions (employees and managers). √ √ √ √
Get feedback from your employees about the system regularly (managers). √ √ √ √
Recruit more staff to make sure the desk is fully covered. √ √ √ √
Page 7-40
7.6 Conclusion
This chapter discussed technology adoption in the four hotel case studies in
Wales. In particular, a cross-case analysis was developed to evaluate and
discuss the findings from the budget hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke
hotel information systems, along with the upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
and bespoke hotel information systems. This study had identified significant
variations between the budget and upscale hotels in respect of technology
adoption (see Table 7.2). The chapter also revealed that the TPB with its main
components (attitude, subjective norms and perceived behaviour control) is
not adequate in explaining and/or predicting technology acceptance in hotels
and additional factors needed to be incorporated; therefore, a modified theory
of planned behaviour (MTPB) has been recommended to make a better
understanding of IT-human critical factors (see Figure 7.12). The analysis
process had led to the development of a best practice model to improve IT-
human interaction in hotels. The model comprises three main parts, namely
the IT-human critical success factors, the theory of planned behaviour and the
technology-related outcomes. The chapter ends with developing a strategic
action plan to improve IT performance in budget and upscale hotels using off-
the-shelf and bespoke systems. The next chapter gives an overall conclusion
and recommendations.
Page 7-41
Table 7.2: The summary of the cross-case analysis, involving: budget and upscale hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke systems
Budget hotels using off-the-shelf Upscale hotels using off-the-shelf
Construct Budget hotels using bespoke systems Upscale hotels using bespoke systems
systems systems
End-user age
Age is not essential factor for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job.
End-user gender
Gender is not essential for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job.
End-user hospitality
education End-user hospitality education is not essential for recruiting people for the End-user hospitality education is desirable for recruiting people, but it is not
reception job. essential.
End-user computing
experience End-user computing experience is End-user computing experience is not End-user computing experience is End-user computing experience is not
essential for recruiting people for the essential for recruiting people for the desirable for recruiting people, but essential for recruiting people for the
reception job. reception job. it is not essential. reception job.
Basic IT skills
Basic IT skills, i.e. Word and Excel are Basic IT skills, i.e. Word and Excel are Basic IT skills, i.e. Word and Excel Basic IT skills, i.e. Word and Excel are
essential for recruiting people for the not essential for recruiting people for are desirable for recruiting people, not essential for recruiting people for
reception job. the reception job. but they are not essential. the reception job.
End-user computing
self-efficacy End-user computing self-efficacy is essential for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job.
End-user customer
service experience End-user customer service experience is essential factor for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job.
Ease of system use
The hotel information system has to be easy to use and user friendly.
System usefulness
The hotel information system has to be fast, efficient, accurate and it needs to have sufficient information and reports.
System compatibility
The hotel information system has to be compatible with user tasks and it has to be compatible with the hotel size.
System enjoyment
The hotel information system does not need to be enjoyable; however, it has to be easy to use, useful and compatible.
(continued)
Page 7-42
Table 7.2: The summary of the cross-case analysis, involving: budget and upscale hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke systems (continued)
systems systems
System cost
System cost is a managerial deciding System cost is not a deciding factor for System cost is a managerial deciding factor for selecting/designing hotel
factor for selecting hotel information designing hotel information systems. information systems.
systems.
System popularity
System popularity is essential for System popularity is not essential for System popularity is desirable for System popularity is not essential for
selecting hotel information systems. designing hotel information systems. selecting hotel information systems. designing hotel information systems.
System flexibility
System flexibility is essential for System flexibility is not essential for System flexibility is desirable for System flexibility is not essential for
selecting hotel information systems. designing hotel information systems. selecting hotel information systems. designing hotel information systems.
System reliability
System reliability is not essential for System reliability is essential for
selecting hotel information systems. designing hotel information systems. System reliability is not essential for selecting hotel information systems.
End-user participation
End-user employees have not been End-user employees have been End-user employees have not been End-user employees have been
consulted in the hotel information consulted in the hotel information consulted in the hotel information consulted in the hotel information
system development. system development. system development. system development.
End-user training  Internal training is conducted by
 Internal training is conducted by the  Internal training is only conducted by  Internal training is only conducted by
the hotel team as well as external
hotel team as well as external the hotel team. the hotel team.
training by the system vendor or
training by the system vendor or by  On-the-job training and off-the-job  On-the-job training and off-the-job
by an external training company.
an external training company or by training are provided. training are provided.
 On-the-job training and off-the-
another hotel.  Monitoring employees on the job,  Monitoring employees on the job,
job training are provided.
 On-the-job training and off-the-job testing employees and using skills conducting personal development
 Monitoring employees on the job,
training are provided. work book are used to measure the reviews and using a task list are used
conducting performance reviews
 Monitoring employees on the job, training effectiveness. to measure the training effectiveness.
are used to measure the training
conducting performance reviews and  Regular as well as refresher training  Regular as well as refresher training
effectiveness.
testing employees are used to are provided. are provided.
 Regular as well as refresher
measure the training effectiveness.
training are provided.
 Refresher training is provided.
(continued)
Page 7-43
Table 7.2: The summary of the cross-case analysis, involving: budget and upscale hotels using off-the-shelf and bespoke systems (continued)
systems systems
IT support
Off-site IT support is provided either Off-site IT support is provided only by Off-site IT support is provided Off-site IT support is provided only by
by the IT department or by the system the IT department. either by the IT department or by the IT department.
vendor. the system vendor.
End-user motivation
End-user employees need to be
motivated to use the system because End-user employees do not need to be motivated to use the system because using the system is part of their job.
the system might be difficult to use.
End-user satisfaction
Ease of system use, system speed, Ease of system use, system speed, Ease of system use, system speed, Ease of system use, system speed,
system compatibility, computing system compatibility, training and system compatibility, computing system compatibility, confidence,
experience, training and motivation consultation positively impact end-user experience, training, motivation and training and consultation positively
positively impact end-user computing computing satisfaction. consultation positively impact end- impact end-user computing
satisfaction. user computing satisfaction. satisfaction.
Productivity impact
Hotel information systems positively impact productivity; help users to accomplish their tasks quickly in an efficient way.
Competitive advantage
impact The hotel information systems do not The hotel information systems do not The hotel information systems do The hotel information systems do not
create competitive advantage for hotels create competitive advantage for hotels not create competitive advantage create competitive advantage for hotels
or end-user employees because off-the- or end-user employees because for hotels or end-user employees or end-user employees because
shelf systems are the same. bespoke system are designed for because off-the-shelf systems are bespoke system are designed for
specific chains. the same. specific chains.
Service quality impact
Hotel information systems positively impact service quality; help users to keep customer records and to provide standardised service.
Decision-making
impact Hotel information systems do not impact employees’ decisions because the computer system is a tool to do the task, but it cannot take decisions
Page 7-44
CONCLUSIONS
8.2 Review of objectives and major findings 8-2

8.2.1 Objective one 8-3
8.2.2 Objective two 8-3
8.2.3 Objective three 8-5
8.2.4 Objective four 8-7
8.2.5 Objective five 8-8
8.3 Contributions of the thesis 8-13

8.3.1 Contributions to theory 8-13
8.3.2 Contributions to practice 8-15
8.4 Limitations of the research and opportunities for further research 8-16
8.5 Personal reflections 8-17
Page 8-1
Chapter Eight: Conclusions
8.1 Introduction
This chapter concludes this study on measuring the impact of hotel
information systems on end-user employees in the different stages of the
employee life cycle. It opens up with a review of the research objectives
and provides an overview of the research major findings. The chapter then
moves onto outline the significant contributions of the study to theory and
practice. It highlights the limitations of the study and identifies
opportunities for further research. The chapter ends up with the
researcher’s final thoughts and reflections on the research process.
8.2 Review of objectives and major findings

In this study, five research objectives were set to achieve the research aim
(see section 1.4). More specifically, these objectives were categorised into
one theoretical objective and other four practical objectives. The four
practical objectives of this study were achieved using different methods,
i.e. focus groups, interviews, document analysis, survey. The summary of
the theoretical and practical objectives are demonstrated in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: The summary of the theoretical and practical objectives
• Objective One: Undertake a critical review of literature on IT performance and computing

satisfaction with a particular emphasis on issues relating to user traits, organisational traits and
Chapter
system traits aiming to develop a conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction.
Two
• Objective Two: Identify the discrete measures underpinning user traits, organisational traits and
system traits impacting on IT usage and user perceptions of performance and satisfaction aiming to
Chapter
develop an initial model to improve IT-human interaction.
Four
• Objective Three: Investigate technology adoption in the different stages of the employee life cycle
Chapter in four multiple Welsh case studies of budge and upscale hotels aiming to develop a model to
Five; Six improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
• Objective Four: Develop a diagnostic tool that can be used to help managerial decision-making at
Chapter the different stages of the employee life cycle in hotels.
Seven
• Objective Five: Make recommendations to improve IT-human interaction in hotels with particular
Chapter emphasis on end-user computing satisfaction and IT performance.
Eight
Page 8-2
8.2.1 Objective one

Undertake a critical review of literature on IT performance and computing
satisfaction with a particular emphasis on issues relating to user traits,
organisational traits and system traits aiming to develop a conceptual
framework to improve IT-human interaction.
The first theoretical objective was achieved through undertaking a critical

analysis of relevant literature on technology adoption in hotels.
Reviewing the literature has given a better understanding of technology
acceptance in hotels as well as the barriers and the drivers to improve IT-
human interaction in hotels. In particular, the literature addresses the
impact of technology adoption on end-user employees’ performance, such
as productivity, competitive advantage, service quality and decision
making. End-user computing satisfaction is one of the key issues that
have been largely emphasized in the literature to be used as a base for
measuring the technology impacts in hotels. Further, the literature
explores the competing theoretical models (CTMs) and theories for
understanding technology acceptance in hotels with a clear focus on the
theory of planned behaviour (TPB). The literature also focuses on the
factors influencing end-user performance and satisfaction, including end-
user traits, organisation traits, system traits and ICT usage. The critical
review of the issues, concepts, opinions and theories revealed in the
literature provided the basis for the development of a conceptual
framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels (see Figure 2.61).
8.2.2 Objective two

Identify the discrete measures underpinning user traits, organisational
traits and system traits impacting on IT usage and user perceptions of
performance and satisfaction aiming to develop an initial model to
improve IT-human interaction.
Page 8-3
The second objective was achieved through conducting a series of focus

groups with different ranges of IT experts, end-user employees, IT
managers and IT technical staff to identify the factors influencing end-
user performance and satisfaction, including user-related factors,
organisational-related factors and system-related factors. Based on the
conceptual framework as well as the perceptions of the focus group
participants an initial model was developed to improve IT-human
interaction (see Figure 4.6).
This initial model shows that end-user age, technology acceptance,

computing experience, computing self-efficacy and involvement in the
system design are the most important user traits identified by the focus
group participants. Meanwhile, a small number of participants mentioned
the effects of user gender, marital status, education and computer anxiety
on IT performance and satisfaction. In essence, the evidence from the
focus groups indicates that organisational support may have important
impacts on IT performance and satisfaction. In particular, most
participants highlighted the importance of IT training, IT support, user
participation in the system design and organisational culture (social
factors). However, a small number of participants mentioned the
importance of user empowerment in IT performance and satisfaction.
Equally important, the initial findings of the focus groups also indicated
that system characteristics may have important impacts on IT
performance and satisfaction. Apparently, most participants mentioned
the importance of the system compatibility, system usefulness and ease of
system use. Conversely, a small number of participants noted the
importance of system enjoyment in IT performance and satisfaction.
In addition, from the focus group initial findings, it was noted that user
perceptions of ease of system, quality of information content and system
timeliness are the most critical motivators for end-user computing
satisfactions. On the contrary, a small number of participants mentioned
Page 8-4
the quality of information format and system accuracy as motivators for

end-user computing satisfaction. To that end, the initial findings of the
focus groups revealed that technology may have different impacts on
performance. In particular, most participants mentioned the service
quality, productivity and competitive advantage impacts. On the other
hand, a small number of participants mentioned decision-making and
financial performance impacts of technology.
8.2.3 Objective three

Investigate technology adoption in the different stages of the employee
life cycle in four Welsh case studies of budget and upscale hotels aiming
to develop a model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
In order to achieve the third research objective, technology adoption was

investigated in four Welsh hotel case studies (see Table 3.7), namely
budget hotels using off-the-shelf systems, budget hotels using bespoke
systems, upscale hotels using off-the-shelf systems and upscale hotels
using bespoke systems. In particular, technology adoption was
investigated in the different stages of the employee life cycle, namely:
recruitment and selection; information system development; participation
and consultation; IT training and development; IT support; motivation; IT
performance and satisfaction impacts. A summary of the major findings
of this objective are given under two main headings, as follow:
 Technology adoption in budget hotels

Based on the initial findings of the focus groups as well as the perceptions
of the interviewed managers and users of the budget hotels, a model has
been developed to improve IT-human interaction in budget hotels using
off-the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke systems (see Figure
5.40). From the standpoint of the budget hotels using off-the-shelf
systems, this model shows that end-user CSE, system experience, basic IT
skills and customer service experience are the most important criteria for
Page 8-5
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. It was also noted that
ease of system use, system usefulness, system compatibility, system
popularity and system flexibility are the most important criteria for
selecting off-the-shelf hotel information systems. This model also
indicates that user consultation and participation in the system
development, IT training, user motivation and IT support are important
factors to improve the IT-human interaction in budget hotels and
subsequently increase user satisfaction, productivity and improve service
quality.
In terms of the budget hotels using bespoke systems, this model shows
that end-user CSE and customer service experience are the most
important criteria for recruiting and selecting people for the reception job.
Further, ease of system use, system usefulness, system compatibility and
system reliability are the most important criteria for designing bespoke
hotel information systems. This model also indicates that user
consultation and participation in the system development, IT training and
IT support are important factors to improve the IT-human interaction in
budget hotels and subsequently increase user satisfaction, productivity
and improve service quality.
 Technology adoption in upscale hotels

Based on the initial findings of the focus groups as well as the perceptions
of the interviewed managers and users of the upscale hotels, a model has
been developed to improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels using
off-the-shelf systems as well as those using bespoke systems (see Figure
6.39). More specifically, this model shows that end-user CSE and end-
user customer service experience are the most important criteria for
recruiting and selecting people for the reception job. Further, ease of
system use, system usefulness and system compatibility are the most
important criteria for selecting and designing hotel information systems.
This model also shows that user consultation and participation in the
Page 8-6
system development, IT training and IT support are important factors to

improve the IT-human interaction in upscale hotels and subsequently
increase user satisfaction, productivity and improve service quality.
8.2.4 Objective four

Develop a diagnostic tool that can be used to help managerial decision-
making at the different stages of the employee life cycle in hotels.
In order to achieve the fourth research objective, a cross-case analysis was

conducted aiming to develop a diagnostic tool to support human resource
management at the various stages of the employee life cycle in hotels. In
particular, a best practice model and a strategic action plan were
developed to improve IT-human interaction in hotels.
The best practice model comprises three main parts, namely IT-human
critical success factors, the TPB and the technology-related outcomes (see
Figure 7.15). The best practice model reveals the end-user employees’
critical factors (i.e. CSE; customer service skills), the organisational
critical factors (i.e. consultation; IT training; IT support) and the system
critical factors (i.e. ease of system use; system usefulness; system
compatibility). The TPB is the second part of the developed best practice
model. The TPB main components are attitude towards use, subjective
norms and perceived behaviour control. The last part of the developed
best practice model explores the technology-related outcomes
incorporating end-user computing satisfaction and IT performance (i.e.
productivity and service quality).
Besides the development of a best practice model to identify the IT-

human critical variables influencing IT performance and satisfaction,
a strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) was developed in order to
identify the decisions and activities that have to be undertaken in each
stage of the employee life cycle. The SAPF consists of seven stages,
namely: recruitment and selection; system selection; participation and
Page 8-7
consultation; IT training; IT support; motivation; IT performance and

satisfaction management.
The first stage of the SAPF focused on the criteria relating to recruiting
and selecting people for the reception job, namely customer service skills,
CSE, system experience and basic IT knowledge. The second stage of the
SAPF concerned with the criteria of selecting hotel information systems.
More specifically, some managers mentioned ease of use, system
usefulness and compatibility criteria (see Figure 7.16a). The third stage of
the SAPF dealt with the process of participating and consulting end-user
employees in the system development. The fourth stage of the SAPF
concerned with training end-user employees either internally, externally,
off the job or on the job as well as the frequency and the evaluation of
training effectiveness (see Figure 7.16b).
The fifth stage of the SAPF focused on the procedures that have to be
undertaken if end-user employees face any system problem, such as try to
solve the problem on their own, call the IT help desk or call the system
vendor. The sixth stage of the SAPF concerned with motivating end-user
employees to provide good customer service using hotel information
systems (see Figure 7.16c). In the final stage of the SAPF, a clear focus
has been given to improve end-user employees’ satisfaction and IT
performance (see Figure 7.16d).
8.2.5 Objective five

Make recommendations to improve IT-human interaction in hotels with
particular emphasis on end-user computing satisfaction and IT
performance.
To order to achieve the last research objective, a best practice model (see
Figure 7.15) and a strategic action plan (see Figure 7.16) were evolved to
improve IT-human interaction in hotels. Both tools implied a number of
recommendations to different associated stakeholders, including: hotel
Page 8-8
managers, IT team and end-user employees. These recommendations

might help managers to adopt technology effectively in their hotels, as
demonstrated in turns:
(1) Recommendations for hotel managers

 Recruit and select people who are willing to pursue a career in the
hospitality industry.
 Recruit and select people who are willing to learn and to use the hotel
information systems.
 Recruit and select people who are quite confident and calm. Use a
self-confidence test for the new recruits to know the degree of their
computing self-efficacy.
 Recruit and select people with good customer experience regardless of

their computing experience and basic IT knowledge. If hotel managers
do not have the facilities and time resources to train new recruits, they
have to select people with previous system experience.
 Ask end-user employees about their opinions, needs and preferences of
the new hotel information system (consultative participation).
 Select a sample of experienced and non-experienced end-user
employees to participate in the hotel information system development
in order to get feedback from a different range of users (representative
participation). For example, key end-user employees may design a
user training programme or a manual for system procedures.
 Establish a training skills book for new recruits during the interview to
identify their training needs and to follow up their skills progress.
 Schedule a long term training programme. For example, identify the
training dates, places and the people to attend for the next six months.
Page 8-9
 Conduct combinations of off-the-job and on-the-job training. Train

end-user employees off the job at the beginning of their work
(theoretical training on a training room or practical training on the
system demo). Thereafter, train end-user employees on the job by
pairing them up with more experienced staff members.
 Conduct bite-sized training on a regular basis to keep end-user

employees up-to-date with the system. For example, conduct ten
minutes training every week. Conduct refresher training if the system
is upgraded or if end-user employees face any problem with the
system.
 Use different ways of learning because end-user employees might
have different learning capabilities. For example, provide different
levels of training to suit employee skills.
 Add more visual posters on the walls to remind end-user employees of
the system procedures.
 Evaluate and review the training effectiveness regularly to meet end-
user employees’ expectations. For example, monitor end-user
employees on the job and conduct personal development reviews
regularly.
 Encourage end-user employees to provide a good customer service as

well as to use the hotel information system effectively.
 Develop a checklist for all the daily tasks performed by end-user
employees using the hotel information system.
 Design a system manual to standardise the system functions (may be

an on-line system manual).
 Design a training manual to standardise the provided training for all
employees (may be an on-line training manual).
Page 8-10
(2) Recommendations for IT team (IT department/ system vendor)

 Select/design the hotel information system that complies with the hotel
budget, facilities and number of rooms as well as the system that
complies with end-user employees’ needs, capabilities and skills.
 Select/design the hotel information system that is simple,

straightforward and easy to use and to learn. The hotel information
system that asks end-user employees questions and gives them
guidance on procedures.
 Select/design the hotel information system that performs tasks quickly.

The hotel information system that packs data up quickly at night.
 Select/design the hotel information system that provides employees

and managers with sufficient information and reports. The hotel
information system should be compatible with employees’ tasks.
 Recruit an on-site IT solution manager or an area manager to look
after particular hotels. For example, an on-site IT manager for each
five hotels in the area (if the hotel is a part of a bigger chain).
 Empower one manager to be able to solve IT problems on his/her own
before contacting the IT help desk. For example, train the front-office
manger to be able to solve IT problems (super manager).
 Make sure that the off-site IT help desk is open twenty-four hours/
seven days per week (including bank holidays).
 Make sure that the number of people in the IT help desk is suitable
with the number of calls.
 Make sure that the IT help desk solves the system problems quickly. If
they cannot solve it on phone they should send somebody from the IT
department to solve the system problem on site and to replace any
physical equipment within twenty-four hours.
Page 8-11
 Provide the appropriate resources and training to end-user employees

to be able to solve the system problems on their own (super user).
 Keep a direct contact with end-user employees to know their common

IT problems.
 Upgrade the system on a regular basis to keep the system operating

efficiently.
 Establish a manual for the common IT problems and how to rectify

them. Therefore, this manual could be used by managers as well as
end-user employees to solve IT problems on their own.
(3) Recommendations for end-user employees

 Learn by yourself how to make the best use of the hotel information
system as well as how to solve hotel information system problems on
your own.
 Do not rely more on the hotel information system and learn on your
own how to perform the tasks manually, i.e. check-in and check-out.
 Spend most of the time interacting with the customers. Speak to
customers and use the computer at the same time and do not
concentrate more on the computer screen.
 Use the system reports to help you to take the correct decisions.
 Try to solve the IT problem on your own before contacting the IT help
desk. Follow the system help procedures if you face a problem with
the system.
 Call the IT help desk (if you could not solve the IT problem on your
own). Call the system vendor (if the off-site IT department could not
solve the IT problem).
Page 8-12
8.3 Contributions of the thesis

This thesis has identified two types of contributions, namely contributions
to theory and contributions to practice. These contributions will be
discussed in turns:
8.3.1 Contributions to theory

A major contribution of this study to theory was made by developing
a conceptual framework to improve IT-human interaction in hotels (see
Figure 2.61). The model was developed based on the key issues arisen
from critically reviewing a wide range of related literature taking into
consideration a number of previous models and competing theoretical
theories, particularly of the main concern of this research. The developed
conceptual framework comprises three main parts, namely the IT-human
critical factors (i.e. user factors; organisational factors; system factors),
the TPB (attitude; subjective norms; perceived behaviour control) and the
technology-related outcomes (i.e. computing satisfaction; IT
performance).
Another significant contribution of this study to theory is the usage of the

TPB as a theoretical base to predict and understand the behaviour of users
towards hotel information systems. This research proved that the TPB
with its main components (attitude, subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control) was still not adequate to predict and/or explain the
behaviour of end-user employees in relation to technology adoption and
additional factors needed to be incorporated. In that sense, several
previous studies (Terry, Hogg and White, 1999; Davies, Foxall and
Pallister, 2002; Davis and Morgan, 2008; Radwan, 2009) used TPB in
predicting the behaviour and similarly indicated that TPB was not
sufficient in explaining the behaviour and so additional factors should be
incorporated. Therefore, four modifications had been applied to the TPB
to provide additional insights into employees’ behavioural intention to use
hotel information systems (see Figure 7.12).
Page 8-13
Indeed, it has been found that the subjective norms component had a
small effect on end-user employees’ behavioural intentions to use hotel
information systems; therefore, the first modification to the TPB was to
remove the subjective norms component. This is consistent with several
researchers (Hartwick and Barki, 1994; Agarwal and Prasad, 1997;
Venkatesh and Davis, 2000) who argued that the direct effect of
subjective norms on intentions for mandatory usage contexts will be
strong prior to implementation and during early usage, but will weaken
over time as increasing direct experience with a system provides a
growing basis for intentions towards ongoing use. It was also apparent
that in hotel mandatory context, end-user employees might not have any
intention to use hotel information systems, they have to use systems as a
part of their job role; therefore the second modification to the TPB was to
remove the behavioural intention component.
The third modification to the TPB was to decompose the attitude and
perceived behavioural control components into various belief factors that
influence end-user employees’ attitude towards using hotel information
systems. In particular, the attitude component was decomposed into
attitudinal beliefs (e.g. perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and
perceived compatibility). Further, the perceived behavioural control
component was decomposed into internal control beliefs (i.e. end-user
CSE; end-user customer service skills) and external control beliefs (i.e.
consultation; IT training; IT support). This is consistent with previously-
published studies (e.g. Taylor and Todd, 1995; Hung and Chang, 2005;
Huang and Chuang, 2007; Lin, 2007; Huh, Kim and Law, 2009) which
showed that the decomposition of beliefs can provide additional insights
into employees’ behavioural intention to use hotel information systems.
The last modification to the TPB was to add a behaviour outcomes
component in order to measure the impact of using hotel information
systems (i.e. end-user computing satisfaction; IT performance).
Page 8-14
8.3.2 Contributions to practice

This thesis contributed significantly to practice by introducing a best
practice model to improve IT-human interaction in hotels. The proposed
model was formed as a result of exploring the beliefs, attitudes and
opinions of hotel managers and end-user employees in the four case
studies regarding their technology acceptance. The model was also
sustained by the evidence revealed in the literature. The proposed model
will serve as an effective tool to assist hotel managers to adopt technology
effectively in their hotels. The best practice model comprises three main
parts, namely the IT-human critical success factors; the theory of planned
behaviour; the technology-related outcomes (see Figure 7.15).
Another significant contribution of the thesis to practice was the

development of a strategic action plan flowchart (SAPF) in order to
identify the decisions and activities that have to be undertaken in each
stage of the employee life cycle. The SAPF consists of seven stages,
namely: recruitment and selection; system selection; participation and
consultation; IT training; IT support; motivation; IT performance and
satisfaction management (see Figure 7.16).
Indeed, both diagnostic tools developed in this study might be used to

assist hotel managers partially in making a full exploitation of the
adopted technology in their hotels as well as increasing technology
acceptance of end-user employess if these tools are properly
implemented. These tools can also be applied specifically in other
hospitality organisations using technology, such as restaurants. These
two tools can be updated and new elements can be added to suit different
work contexts.
Page 8-15
8.4 Limitations of the research and opportunities for further research

Although the findings discussed above provided meaningful managerial
implications for hotel managers, the study has some limitations. Indeed,
this study explored the impact of technology on end-user employees
working in the front-office departments of budget and upscale hotels.
Therefore, it is worthwhile to focus in further studies on measuring the
impact of technology on end-user employees in other hotel departments,
i.e. accounting and finance, food and beverage, human resource and IT
departments because further researchers (Lo and Darma, 2000) reported
that the job functions of accounting and finance department is probably
the most computerised one in the hotel, followed by the job functions of
front office, human resource and IT departments.
In addition, this study investigated technology adoption in four hotel case

studies in wales. Therefore, it worthwhile to focus in further studies on
investigating technology adoption in other countries contexts. Indeed, one
exciting area for further research is to build on this thesis and subject the
results for critical comparisons via investigating the issue of technology
adoption in different situations. For instance, focusing on the hotel sector
in developing countries such as Egypt, determining how far technology
adoption practices differ than those identified in the present study and
how far end-user employees react to technology changes.
This study also investigated technology adoption from the prespectives of

two stakeholders, namely hotel managers and end-user employees.
However, it did not explore the opinions and attitudes of the customers
towards technology adoption in hotels. This could provide an opportunity
for further research to investigate in-depth customers views and attitudes
towards technology adoption in hotels and possibly focusing on
identifying whether customers would prioritize those hotels adopting
more advanced technologies than those using off-date technologies.
Page 8-16
Another possible limitaion of this study is that the developed best practice
model as well as the stategic action plan flowchart have not been tested in
hotels. Thus an initial opportunity for further research would be to trial
the best practice model as well as the strategic action plan flowchart with
hoteliers in Wales and wider across the UK.
8.5 Personal reflections

This thesis is the outcome of a four-year Ph.D. research study attempting
to identify the challenges of adopting technology in the context of budget
and upscale Welsh hotels. It is my aspiration that the developed best
practice model, in addition to the proposed strategic action plan to
improve IT-human interaction in hotels, will inform solutions for
adopting technology appropriately in hotels specifically in the Welsh
hotel sector. I hope also that this study through its developed tools will
provide a valuable source for those who will carry on undertaking further
research in the field of technology adoption and its impact on end-user
employees in the hotel sector.
My main reason for choosing this topic is personal interest. Indeed, I was
interested to conduct multi-disciplinary research across the areas of
information technology and human resource management/development.
This research has really added to my knowledge and contributes
effectively in developing my research’s ability and skills. During the
research journey, I have acquired and explored issues which I find
interesting, especially those that came up while developing the model,
conducting the interviews with the different associated stakeholders and
the search for appropriate methodology and theoretical perspective.
Page 8-17
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lxx
PERSONAL PROFILE QUESTIONNAIRE
I am a PhD student at Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales Institute

Cardiff. The aim of this research is to measure the impact of hotel information
systems on employees’ performance and satisfaction. Thank you for taking the time to
complete this questionnaire. Please complete each question by either putting your
answer in the space provided or circling the appropriate response. All your responses
are confidential and will only be used for the purpose of this research.
 Gender:
 Age: up to 25 years up to 35 years up to 45 years

up to 55 years years or more
 Education: Higher education (university)

Further education (A-levels/ GNVQ)
Secondary education (GCSE/ O-level)
 Computer experience: None

Very limited
Some experience
Quite a lot
Extensive
 Number of information systems used throughout my career:…………………
 On average, how much time do you spend using system every day:………….
 Position:…………………………………………………………….…………..
 Department.:…………………………………………………………………….
 Experience in the current organisation:……………….…………years/ months
Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire
lxxi
FOCUS GROUPS SCHEDULE
Moderator: First of all, my deepest thanks that you are here and that despite all the
traffic you have actually succeeded in getting here.
Moderator: I want us to talk today about the impacts of information and

communication technology (ICT) on humans, in particular on their
performance and satisfaction.
Moderator: There is no wrong answer; there is also no right answer. It is just to find
out what your reactions are, or what you feel or what you think or what
you know. Everybody thinks about the things in life in a different way.
Moderator: Before we begin, would you please complete the personal profile
questionnaire form.
Moderator: Is your image of these two photos different.

You look at the [photo A], you look at the [photo B]
Do you feel that ICT has the same impacts on the two users?
Do you see the performance and satisfaction impacts of ICT are the same
in the two photos?
Or, do you feel is there a slight difference?
Moderator: In your opinions, what are the user-related factors that influence
performance and satisfaction?
Moderator: In your opinions, what are the organisation-related factors that influence
Moderator: In your opinions, what are the system-related factors that influence
Moderator: How does ICT affect the following performance measures?

 Productivity.
 Competitive advantage.
 Service quality.
 Decision making.
lxxii
Appendix B: Focus Groups Schedule
Moderator: What problems, if any, do you face when using ICT?
Moderator: In your judgement, what are the causes of the problems you have
identified?
Moderator: How would you suggest that the problems be solved?
Moderator: If you have any recommendations, or suggestions, or comments to

improve using ICT in the organisational work, please mention them.
Thank you for taking part in this focus group
lxxiii
Appendix B: Focus Groups Schedule
lxxiv
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS SCHEDULE
The following semi-structured interview schedule was used in stage two of the
research in interviews with hotel managers and employees. It should be noted that
flexibility within the interview was maintained and questions may not have been
asked in the same order.
1. Do you consider specific IT-related criteria when recruiting to jobs in the hotel?
2. Which criteria do you use to select employees for a job involving use of IT
systems in your hotel?
 End-user age.
 End-user gender.
 End-user education.
 End-user computing experience.
 End-user computing skills.
 End-user computing confidence.
3. Are these IT-related criteria listed in job description or personal specification?
4. How do you assess these IT-related criteria?

 Are there questions on the application form related to IT?
 Do you interview new applicants?
 Do you ask questions related to IT in interview?
 Do you get interviewees to use IT to solve a problem?
5. Which type of hotel information systems does your organisation use? and why?
 Off-the-shelf hotel information system.
 Bespoke hotel information system.
6. What considerations do you take into account when selecting a new hotel
information system?
 Ease of system use.
 System usefulness.
 System compatibility.
 System enjoyment.
lxxv
Appendix C: Semi-structured Interviews Schedule
7. Can you provide details of how users are participated and involved in the new
system development and implementation?
 Do users have the responsibility to select the new system?
 Do users approve the work of IT department?
 Do users create a manual for user procedure or design a user training
programme?
8. In your opinion, what are the barriers, if any, confronting user participation and
involvement in the new system development and implementation?
 To this organisation.
 To end-user employees of this organisation.
9. Which type of IT training does your organisation provide? and why?

 Internal IT training.
 External IT training.
 On-the job training.
 Off-the job training.
10. Do you identify the training requirements of a particular job involving the use of
IT and the training needs of your employees? and how?
11. How regularly does IT training occur? and why?

 Regular IT training.
 Refresher IT training as requested.
 Refresher IT training when a problem happens.
 Refresher IT training when the system is upgraded.
12. In your opinion, what are the barriers, if any, confronting IT training?
13. How could you increase the effectiveness of IT training?
14. Which type of IT supports does your organisation provide? and why?
 Internal IT support.
 External IT support.
lxxvi
15. In your opinion, what are the barriers, if any, confronting IT support?
16. How could you increase the effectiveness of IT support?
17. How could you motivate and encourage end-user employees of the IT systems in
your organisation?
 Intrinsic motivation (self-fulfilment).
 Extrinsic motivation (rewards).
18. Does your organisation use a particular human resource information system
(HRIS), or Internet, to perform the following human resource management
(HRM) functions:
 On-line employee recruitment and selection.
 On-line employee training.
 On-line employee IT support.
 On-line payrolls.
 Intranet (training, managers and employees communications).
 Internet (managers and employees communication)
19. In your opinion, what are the barriers, if any, confronting on-line HRM
functions?
20. How does hotel information system affect employees’ performance?

 Productivity.
 Competitive advantage.
 Service quality.
 Decision making.
21. How does hotel information system affect employees’ satisfaction?
22. Overall, how does your organisation could improve IT performance and
satisfaction?
lxxvii
23. What problems, if any, can you identify concerning the use of IT in your
organisation?
24. In your judgement, what are the causes of the problems you have identified?
25. How would you suggest that the problems be solved?
26. Is there anything that you would like to add?
Thank you for taking part in this interview
lxxviii
HOTEL END-USER EMPLOYEES SURVEY
I am a PhD researcher at Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales

Institute Cardiff (UWIC). The aim of my research is to measure the impact of hotel
information systems on employees’ performance and satisfaction. Please complete
each question by either putting your answer in the space provided or circling the
appropriate response. All your responses are confidential and will only be used for the
purpose of this research. Thank you in advance for taking the time to complete this
questionnaire.
The Researcher
Tamer Gad
Cardiff school of Management

University of Wales Institute Cardiff
UWIC
Colchester Avenue
Cardiff
CF23 9XR
UK
lxxix
Appendix D: Hotel End-user Employees Survey
Section (A): End-user Questionnaire
Which is your current Hotel Information System (HIS):……………………….
Agree Neither Agree Nor

Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Disagree
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
1. I could complete a task using the HIS if there was no-
one around to help me.
2. I could complete a task using the HIS if I had not seen

someone else using it before trying it myself.
3. I could complete a task using the HIS if I could not

call someone for help if I got stuck.
4. I could complete a task using the HIS if I had limited

time to complete the job for which the software was
provided.
5. I could complete a task using the HIS if I did not have

the built-in help facility for assistance.
6. I could complete a task using the HIS if I had not used

similar packages before this one to do the same job.
7. I feel apprehensive about using the HIS.
8. It worries me to think that I could lose a lot of

information by hitting the wrong key.
9. I hesitate to use the HIS for fear of making mistakes I

cannot correct.
10. I am frightened of using the HIS.
11. I had main responsibility for the development of the

HIS (during system definition/ during physical design/
during implementation).
12. I formally reviewed the work done by the information

system staff (during system definition/ during physical
lxxx
5 4 3 2 1
13. I designed the user training programme for the HIS.
14. I created the user procedure manual for the HIS.
15. I consider the new system to be important.
16. I consider the new system to be relevant to me.
17. In my organisation, the HIS training is readily

available.
18. The HIS trainers are well qualified.
19. The HIS training provided is always excellent.
20. I am satisfied with my level of learning from the HIS

training.
21. The HIS training sessions met my expectations.
22. Overall, I enjoyed the HIS training.
23. The information system department is available for

assistance with HIS difficulties.
24. To interact with the HIS, I have knowledgeable IT

technical staff.
25. The number of the IT technical staff is adequate.
26. The IT technical staff resolve HIS problems quickly.
27. I have the technological IT resources (e.g. hardware

and software) necessary to use the HIS.
28. The technological IT resources (e.g. hardware and

software) are of high quality.
29. My peers would think that I should have the

knowledge and ability to use the HIS.
30. Generally speaking, I want to do what my peers think I

should do.
31. My superiors would think that I should have the

32. Generally speaking, I want to do what my superiors

think I should do.
lxxxi
5 4 3 2 1
33. Customers would think that I should have the
34. Generally speaking, I want to do what customers think

I should do.
35. Learning to operate the HIS is easy for me in my job.
36. I would find it easy to get the HIS to do what I want it

to do.
37. Interacting with the HIS does not require a lot of my

mental effort.
38. It is easy to become proficient in using the HIS.
39. Overall, I believe the HIS is easy to use in my job.
40. Using the HIS in my job enables me to improve my

productivity.
41. Using the HIS in my job enables me to enhance my

effectiveness.
42. Using the HIS improves the quality of my work.
43. Using HIS improves my decision making.
44. Using the HIS improves my performance in my job.
45. Overall, I believe using the HIS is useful in my job.
46. Using the HIS is compatible with all aspects of my

work.
47. Using the HIS fits well with the way I work.
48. I find using the HIS to be enjoyable.
49. I have fun using the HIS.
50. I feel that there is no gap between my existing skills

and knowledge and those required by the HIS.
51. Using the HIS is entirely within my control.
52. I have the knowledge and ability to make use of the

HIS.
lxxxii
5 4 3 2 1
53. Using the HIS is a good idea.
54. Using the HIS is a wise idea.
55. Using the HIS is pleasant.
56. I like the idea of using the HIS.
57. The HIS provides sufficient information and reports.
58. I am satisfied with the accuracy of the HIS.
59. The HIS provides clear information and reports.
60. Using the HIS in my job enables me to accomplish

tasks more quickly.
61. Overall, I am satisfied with the HIS at work.
If you have any recommendations, suggestions or comments to improve the use of IT

in your workplace, please mention them below.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
lxxxiii
Section (B): End-User Demographics
 Gender:
 Age: up to 25 years up to 35 years up to 45 years

up to 55 years years or more
 Education: Higher education (university)

Further education (A-levels/ GNVQ)
Secondary education (GCSE/ O-level)
 Computer experience: None

Very limited
Some experience
Quite a lot
Extensive
 Number of information systems used throughout my career:…………………
 On average, how much time do you spend on the HIS every day:……………
 Position:…………………………………………………………….………….
 Department/ Hotel:…………………………………………………………….
 Experience in the current organisation:……………….…………years/ months
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey
lxxxiv
LIST OF THE INVESTIGATED HOTELS IN WALES
Position of the interviewed

Hotel Name Type of hotel Type of information System
manager
Future Inn Cardiff Bay Budget Hotel Off-the-shelf system General Manager
Mercure Lodge Hotel, Cardiff Budget Hotel Off-the-shelf system General Manager
The Royal Hotel Cardiff Budget Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
Travelodge Cardiff Atlantic Wharf Budget Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
Etap Hotel Cardiff Budget Hotel Bespoke system General Manager
Premier Inn Cardiff Roath Budget Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
Premier Inn Cardiff North Budget Hotel Bespoke system General Manager
Premier Inn Cardiff South Budget Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
Barceló Cardiff Angel Hotel Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Operations Manager
Cardiff Marriott Hotel Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Asst. Front-office Manager
Holiday Inn Cardiff City Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
Mercure Holland House Hotel Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Asst. Front-office Manager
Park Inn Cardiff City Centre Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Human Resource Manager
Park Plaza Cardiff Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Asst. Front-office Manager
Park Plaza Cardiff Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Human Resource Manager
The Copthorne Hotel Cardiff Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
The Parc Hotel, by Thistle Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
Novotel Cardiff Centre Luxury Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
Novotel Cardiff Centre Luxury Hotel Bespoke system Night Manager
Vale Hotel, Golf & Spa Luxury Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
The Celtic Manor Resort Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Human Resource Manager
The St David's Hotel & Spa Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Front-office Manager
The St David's Hotel & Spa Luxury Hotel Off-the-shelf system Night Manager
Hilton Cardiff Hotel Luxury Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
Hilton New Port Luxury Hotel Bespoke system Front-office Manager
lxxxv
DISCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR THE SURVEY SCALES
Cronbach’s Alpha (scale reliability)

SPSS variable
Variable Case study Case study Case study Case study
name
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Computing self-efficacy
CSE1 to CSE6 .923 .943 .873 .962
scale items 1 to 6
Computing anxiety scale

CA1 to CA4 .844 .879 .746 .786
items 1 to 4
User participation scale

UP1 to UP4 .849 .912 .820 .876
items 1 to 4
User involvement scale

UI1 to UI2 .879 .910 .883 .930
items 1 to 2
IT training scale items

UT1 to UT6 .963 .917 .943 .977
1to 6
IT support scale items

ITS1 to ITS6 .945 .901 .928 .949
1to 6
Subjective norms scale items

SNs1 to SNs6 .860 .860 .917 .827
1 to 6
Perceived ease of use scale

PEOU1 to PEOU5 .929 .901 .878 .956
items 1 to 5
Perceived usefulness scale

PU1 to PU6 .829 .794 .747 .736
items 1 to 6
Perceived compatibility
PC1 to PC2 .915 .883 .863 .922
scale items 1to 2
Perceived enjoyment scale

PE1 to PE2 .922 .991 .964 .843
items 1to 2
Perceived behaviour control

PBC1 to PBC3 .933 .877 .811 .901
scale items 1 to 3
Attitude towards use scale

ATU1 to ATU4 .914 .847 .821 .922
items 1 to 4
User satisfaction scale items

US1 to US5 .909 .985 .846 .862
1 to 5
lxxxvi
Appendix F: Descriptive Statistics for the Survey Scales
Case study (1) Case study (2) Case study (3) Case study (4)
Scale
items Std. Std. Std. Std.
N Range Mean N Range Mean N Range Mean N Range Mean
Deviation Deviation Deviation Deviation
CSE1 46 2 4.17 .570 38 4 4.53 .762 135 4 4.22 .895 84 4 4.14 .730
CSE2 46 2 3.93 .680 38 4 4.08 .969 135 4 4.08 .763 84 4 4.05 .710
CSE3 46 3 3.93 .712 38 4 4.16 .916 135 4 3.91 .981 84 4 3.81 .814
CSE4 46 3 3.83 .709 38 4 3.84 .718 135 4 3.87 .910 84 4 3.79 .906
CSE5 46 3 3.74 .828 38 4 3.66 .994 135 4 3.81 .885 84 4 3.81 .898
CSE6 46 3 3.80 .654 38 4 3.53 .797 135 4 3.81 .910 84 4 3.83 .862
CA1 46 3 3.11 .737 38 4 1.82 .982 135 4 2.51 1.227 84 4 2.43 1.245
CA2 46 2 2.28 .544 38 3 2.92 .784 135 4 3.13 1.348 84 4 2.98 1.151
CA3 46 2 1.93 .574 38 3 2.47 .647 135 4 2.54 1.226 84 4 2.37 1.230
CA4 46 1 1.50 .506 38 4 1.66 .966 135 4 2.38 1.221 84 4 2.83 1.325
UP1 46 3 1.85 .759 38 2 1.66 .781 135 4 2.50 1.376 84 4 1.99 1.177
UP2 46 3 1.57 .620 38 2 1.58 .793 135 4 2.28 1.268 84 3 1.60 .762
UP3 46 0 1.00 .000 38 1 1.18 .393 135 4 1.47 1.057 84 0 1.00 .000
UP4 46 0 1.00 .000 38 1 1.18 .393 135 4 1.39 .890 84 0 1.00 .000
UI1 46 3 4.24 .794 38 2 3.61 .679 135 4 4.06 .920 84 4 4.00 .850
UI2 46 3 3.59 .805 38 3 3.32 .904 135 4 3.70 .987 84 4 3.74 .880
UT1 46 3 3.37 .853 38 4 3.92 .673 135 4 3.70 1.053 84 4 3.68 .894
UT2 46 2 3.00 .699 38 4 3.97 .677 135 4 3.59 1.141 84 4 3.61 .878
UT3 46 2 2.93 .680 38 4 3.66 .815 135 4 3.63 .968 84 4 3.19 1.000
UT4 46 2 3.02 .745 38 4 3.97 .677 135 4 3.50 .992 84 4 3.19 1.000
UT5 46 2 2.80 .749 38 3 3.45 .686 135 4 3.46 1.013 84 4 3.27 1.022
UT6 46 2 3.09 .694 38 2 3.63 .541 135 4 3.53 1.028 84 4 3.31 1.041
ITS1 46 4 3.57 1.003 38 3 3.61 .638 135 4 3.78 .920 84 2 4.04 .735
ITS2 46 2 3.30 .756 38 3 3.76 .634 135 4 3.66 .932 84 2 3.93 .773
ITS3 46 3 3.04 .759 38 4 4.05 .733 135 4 3.39 1.127 84 4 3.55 .987
ITS4 46 3 3.13 1.024 38 4 4.11 .649 135 4 3.35 .987 84 4 3.48 .988
ITS5 46 2 3.41 .748 38 4 3.79 .843 135 4 3.53 .976 84 4 3.43 .985
ITS6 46 2 3.30 .866 38 4 3.53 .797 135 4 3.56 .907 84 4 3.43 1.009
SNs1 46 3 2.46 .808 38 4 2.71 1.250 135 4 3.46 1.131 84 4 3.11 1.064
SNs2 46 2 1.50 .587 38 4 2.68 1.093 135 4 2.44 1.268 84 3 1.87 .708
SNs3 46 3 2.65 .737 38 4 2.76 1.195 135 4 2.82 1.326 84 4 2.58 1.100
lxxxvii
Appendix F: Descriptive Statistics for the Survey Scales
Case study (1) Case study (2) Case study (3) Case study (4)
Scale
items Std. Std. Std. Std.
N Range Mean N Range Mean N Range Mean N Range Mean
Deviation Deviation Deviation Deviation
SNs4 46 2 1.57 .620 38 4 1.87 1.070 135 4 2.42 1.330 84 3 1.63 .724
SNs5 46 3 2.04 .965 38 4 2.34 .878 135 4 2.58 1.181 84 3 2.08 .908
SNs6 46 2 1.50 .624 38 4 2.21 .875 135 4 2.44 1.219 84 3 2.04 .828
PEOU1 46 2 3.93 .611 38 3 3.82 .563 135 4 4.16 .857 84 3 4.01 .843
PEOU2 46 2 3.91 .590 38 3 3.82 .563 135 4 4.09 .748 84 3 3.87 .741
PEOU3 46 3 3.74 .801 38 3 3.00 .771 135 4 3.80 .960 84 3 3.75 .726
PEOU4 46 3 3.50 .782 38 4 3.39 .946 135 4 3.93 .779 84 3 3.68 .779
PEOU5 46 2 3.85 .470 38 3 3.82 .563 135 4 3.98 .815 84 3 3.73 .827
PU1 46 4 4.26 .773 38 4 3.74 .828 135 4 4.00 .970 84 4 3.98 .944
PU2 46 4 2.37 .974 38 4 3.26 1.131 135 4 2.24 1.272 84 4 2.30 1.278
PU3 46 4 4.07 .772 38 4 3.71 .802 135 4 4.11 .903 84 4 3.95 .930
PU4 46 3 2.15 .842 38 4 3.26 1.155 135 4 2.20 1.233 84 4 2.27 1.264
PU 46 4 4.07 .800 38 4 3.82 .834 135 4 3.95 1.017 84 4 3.92 .972
PU6 46 4 4.09 .812 38 4 4.16 .855 135 4 4.31 .728 84 4 4.26 .778
PC1 46 4 3.98 .774 38 4 4.18 .834 135 4 4.00 .867 84 3 4.19 .702
PC2 46 4 3.72 .807 38 4 3.84 .638 135 4 3.85 .842 84 3 3.99 .799
PE1 46 4 2.85 .894 38 4 3.05 .868 135 4 3.07 .866 84 5 2.99 1.146
PE2 46 3 2.09 .694 38 3 3.03 .822 135 3 3.06 .799 84 4 2.19 .988
PBC1 46 4 4.04 .698 38 4 3.71 .768 135 4 3.93 .852 84 2 4.13 .533
PBC2 46 4 3.78 .786 38 3 3.89 .509 135 4 3.90 .775 84 2 3.94 .628
PBC3 46 4 3.87 .778 38 4 4.03 .592 135 4 3.92 .847 84 3 3.75 .726
ATU1 46 4 4.04 .868 38 4 4.45 .891 135 4 4.37 .800 84 3 4.62 .710
ATU2 46 4 3.39 .906 38 4 3.82 .766 135 4 4.26 .819 84 3 4.38 .743
ATU3 46 4 3.43 .834 38 3 3.47 .725 135 4 3.82 1.078 84 3 4.06 .750
ATU4 46 4 3.89 .737 38 3 3.53 .687 135 4 4.06 .780 84 3 3.99 .768
US1 46 4 3.74 .999 38 4 4.00 .615 135 3 4.15 .842 84 3 3.99 .857
US2 46 4 3.67 .920 38 4 3.92 .539 135 3 4.17 .728 84 3 4.11 .807
US3 46 4 3.67 .920 38 4 3.92 .539 135 4 4.08 .829 84 3 4.15 .736
US4 46 4 3.83 .973 38 4 3.92 .539 135 3 4.22 .740 84 4 3.93 1.015
US5 46 4 3.78 .867 38 4 3.97 .592 135 3 4.25 .789 84 3 4.33 .700
lxxxviii
WEB-BASED HUMAN RESOURCE FUNCTIONS
Travelodge Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
lxxxix
Appendix G: Web-Based Human Resource Functions
Barceló Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xc
Thistle Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xci
Copthorne Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xcii
Marriott Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xciii
Park Plaza Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xciv
Accor Hotels On-line Recruiting Webshot
xcv
Gumtree Careers Webshot
xcvi
Jobcentre Careers Webshot
xcvii
Novotel Hotels On-line Training Webshot
xcviii
Holiday Inn Hotels On-line Training Webshot
xcix
Marriott Hotels On-line Training Webshot
c
Accor Hotels On-line Training Webshot
ci
OnQ Hilton University Webshot
cii
Marriott Hotel Bluecube On-line IT Support Webshot
ciii
Marriott Hotel Bluecube On-line IT Support Webshot
civ
Vale Hotels Agilysys On-line IT Support Webshot
cv
2002
2005
2010
‫تأثير تكنولوجيا المعلومات علي العنصر البشرى في صناعة الفنادق‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪-1-‬‬
Theory of Planned Behaviour
-2-

-3-

-4-
1
-5-

-6-

-7-
2
-8-

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Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management

Hotel Management Department

THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON

Under the supervision of

Title: The Impact of Information Technology on Human Element in Hotel

Name: Tamer Mohamed Abbas Ali Gad

Prof. Ahmed Nour El-Din Elias

Prof. Eleri Jones

Prof. Mohamed Hijazi

Dr. Mahmoud Roushdy El Maghraby

Degree conferred / / 2010

In particular, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and sincere thanks to

Indeed, I would like to thank Louise Macphail, the International Student

Special thanks go to the Egyptian Culture Centre and Educational Bureau in

Last and by no means least, I am very indebted to my family for their

An exploratory single case study was developed to identify the factors

A phenomenological perspective was adopted to investigate technology

A major contribution of this study is related to the development of a best

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.3.9 The social cognitive theory (SCT) 2-30

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH APPROACH

3.4.2.2 Methods for the single case study 3-19

CHAPTER FOUR: INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN IT-HUMAN

4.6 An initial model to improve IT-human interaction 4-59

CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN BUDGET HOTELS:

5.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in budget hotels 5-130

CHAPTER SIX: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN UPSCALE HOTELS:

6.13 A developed model to improve IT-human interaction in upscale hotels 6-105

CHAPTER SEVEN: AN EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF

CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSIONS

Table 2.1 The impacts of ICT on employees and organisations 2-13

Table 3.1 The major research methods 3-5

Table 3.5 The profiles of the focus group participants 3-22

Table 3.7 The categories of the investigated Welsh hotels 3-28

Table 3.9 The profiles of the selected hotel interviewees 3-34

Table 3.11 The profiles of the questionnaire respondents 3-36

Figure 1.1 The research boundaries 1-6

Figure 2.1 The concept of ICT in the hotel industry 2-5

Figure 2.2 The ICT benefits dependency 2-8

Figure 2.3 The ICT competitive strategy – an integrated model 2-10

Figure 2.4 The competitive strategies overview model 2-11

Figure 2.5 The theory of reasoned action (TRA) 2-16

Figure 2.6 The technology acceptance model (TAM) 2-17

Figure 2.7 The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 2-18

Figure 2.9 The theory of interpersonal behaviour (TIB) 2-22

Figure 2.11 The integrated model of technology acceptance 2-25

Figure 2.13 The decomposed theory of planned behaviour (DTPB) 2-28

Figure 2.14 The task-technology fit (TTF) theory 2-29

Figure 2.15 The combined TAM and TTF theory 2-30

Figure 2.16 The Social cognitive theory (SCT) 2-31

Figure 2.18 The selective technology acceptance model (STAM) 2-33

Figure 2.21 The influence of user age on system use 2-40

Figure 2.23 The influence of user gender on technology acceptance 2-42

Figure 2.24 The influence of experience on personal computer utilisation 2-43

Figure 2.28 The influence of user participation on system features 2-49

Figure 2.30 The effects of user involvement and participation 2-52

Figure 2.32 The training technology model 2-55

Figure 2.33 The ICT impacts on marketing performance model 2-58

Figure 2.34 The factors influencing ICT usage 2-60

Figure 2.37 The DeLone and McLean IS success model 2-64

Figure 2.39 The knowledge management system success model 2-66

Figure 2.40 The impact of IS service quality on user satisfaction 2-66