Signals & Systems BTML et (Beane) 2 CAST Tier Rea eos lp ye DaF OUST CAViN Case ie Ree TUS AO OMT LUE Solved GTU Question Papers Summer 2015 to Winter 2019 A. P. Godse PUBLICATIONS suck Wi Ay UpThrust lor Knowledge |. A. Dhotre ==> TECHNICAL Wwe {| | (| slrseigat‘SUBJECT CODE : 3150912 As per New Syllabus of GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ‘Semester - V (Electrical Engineering) SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Dr. J. S. Chitode ME. (Electronics), Ph.D. Forme rly Professor & Head, Department of Electronics Engineering Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University College of Engineering, Pune Atul P. Godse M. S, Sofware Syste ms (BITS Pilari) B.E. Industrial Electronics Formerly Lecturerin Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Iresh A. Dhotre MLE. {Information Technology) BcFacully, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune. => TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS ‘An Up Thrust for Knowledge KK g aSIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Subject Code : 3150912 Semester - V (Electrical Engineering) © Copyright with Authors Al publishing righ's (printed and ebook version) reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this book should be reproduced in eny form, Electronic, Mechonicel, Photocopy or ony information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by ; TECHNICAL | “22% 28 821 #12 Sienna a PUBLIGATIONS | °° 417020. 5. INDIA Ph. +91 -020.24495496/97 auptind imeuae _) Email: sales@techricalpublications.crg Website : won: technicalpublications.org Printer = Yost} Pintes & Binders Se No. 10/14, Ghule lndusial Estate, Nanded Vilage Road, Ta. - Havel, Dit, - Pune - 411041 ISBN 978.81.94754 0.5.3 4 oll gg 1947s 40:53 97881947 54053 [1] «iPREFACE The importance of Signals and Systems is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the Rey aspects of the subject Signals and Systems. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject Representative questions have been added at the end of each section to help the students in picking important points from that section. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this booR in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated Authors De. (J.B. Chitede A. P. Godse D. A. Vhoere Dedicated at the Lotus feet of Lor? Dwarkadhish and Mother Rukmini iySYLLABUS Signals and Systems - (3150912) Credits Examination Marks Total Marks c Theory Marks Practical Marks ESE (BE) PAM) ESE(V) PAD 4 70 30 30 20 150) Introduction to Signals and Systems : Signals and systems everyday life, biomedical, instrumentation domestic and industries. Representations of Signals. Classifications of Signals - Continuous time, Discrete time, comparison among Analog. Digital and Discrete Signals. Signal properties : periodicity. absolute integrability, determinism and stochastic character, Some special signals of importance : the unit step, the unit impulse, the sinusoid. and the complex exponential. System properties : linearity additivity and homogent ) shiftinvariance, causality, stability, realizability. Examples. (Chapter 2, Mathematical operations on Signals and Systems : 3. Fourier, Laplace and z-transforms Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of the signals, parallel and series combinations of the systems, cascading of the systems, impulse response characterization and convolution integral for CT- LTT system, signal responses to CT-LTI system, properties of convolution, LTI system response properties from impulse response, Examples. Impulse response characterization and convolution sum, Causal signal response to DT-LTI systems. Properties of convolution summation, Impulse response of DT-LTI system. DT-LTI system properties from Impulse response, System analysis from difference equation model, examples. (Chapter - 2) Representation of periodic functions, Fourier series, Frequency spectrum of aperiodic signals, Fourier Transform, Relation between Laplace Transform and Fourier Transform and its properties. Parseval’s Theorem, Review of the Laplace Transform for continuous time signals and systems, system functions, poles and zeros of system functions and signals, Laplace domain analysis, solution to differential equations and system behavior. The 2-Transform for discrete wwe signals and systems, system functions, poles and zeros of systems and sequences, z-domain analysis. (Chapter - 3) 4. Sampling & reconstruction : ‘The Sampling Theorem and its implications. Spectra of sampled signals. Reconstruction : ideal interpolator, zero-order hold, first-order hold. Aliasing and its effects. Relation between continuous and discrete time systems. Introduction to the applications of signal and system theory modulation for communication, filtering, feedback control systems. (Chapter «4 5. Applications based on IoT : Introduction of the Internet of Things, Types of sensors, Types of actuators, Introduction of Arduino Interfacing of the sensors and actuators with Arduino. Programming in Arduino. Signals storage and its analysis using Arduino, Design of a minor project based on Arduino, (Chapter- 5) “TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter-1 _ Introduc! 1.1 Signals and Systems in Everyday Life.. n to Signals and Systems (1-1) to (1 - 64) -2 1.1.1 Definition of Signals and Systems ee 1-2 1.1.2 Signals and Systems Relationship 1.1.3 Analogy of Signals and Systems. . 1.1.4 Signals and Systems in Biomedical Field... 1.1.5 Signals and Systems in Domestic Instrumentation. . . 1.1.6 Signals and Systems in Industries...........2.4 1.2 Representation of Signals. 1.3 Classification of Signals. 1.3.1 CT and DT Signals 1.3.2 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals. .......22.0.+00000+ coreraenmennd aE PSS Bren ane Odd Siena. cescnvesmsessemmnccesamann anes 29) 1.3.4 Energy and Power Signals ..... 1-11 1.3.5 Deterministic and Stochastic Signals. . . 1-12 1.3.6 Absolute Integrability . - 1.3.7 Examples on Periodicity nics ene 1.3.8 Examples on Odd/Even Signals . . 1.3.9 Examples on Energy and Power Signals 1.4 Some Special Signals of Importance... 1.4.1 Unit Step Function ..... a 1.4.2 Unit Impulse or Delta Function . 1.4.3 Unit Ramp Function .......... 1.4.4 Rectangular, Triangular, Signum and Sinc Pulses - . 1.4.5 Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals: . 1.4.6 Relationships between the Signals .......-....-.060005 1.5 System Properties.. 1.5.1 Static and Dynamic Systems (Systems with Memory or without Memory) ..1- 51 wi)1.5.2 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems 1.5.3 Linearity : Additivity and Homogeneity . 1.5.4 Causal and Non-causal Systems. 1 .5 Stable and Unstable Systems... 1.5.6 Invertability and Inverse Systems . .. Chapter-2 Mathematical Operations on Signals and Systems (2-1) to (2 - 112) 2.1 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division Of Signals.....csessesnsenud 2 2.1.1 Transformation in Independent Variable of Signal ........0.0000c00c0e0062-2 2.4.1.1 Time Delay /Advancing, . . - é 2-2 2AL2Time Folding... a oom DEE 24.1.3 Time Scaling oe 2.1.1.4 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling... 2... 2-5 2.1.2 Transformations on Amplitude of the Signal ......... suede 21.2.1 Amplitude Scaling. ee ce 26 2.1.2.2 Addition and Subtraction... sabe ot wees 2.1.2.3 Multiplication and Division... ee Be? 2.1.2.4 Differentiation (Difference) and Integration (Accumulation)... . . 2-8 2.2 Impulse Response Characterization and Convolution for CT-LTI Systems... 2.2.1 Representation of x(t) in terms of Impulses.. 2.2.2 Di tion of Convolution Integral .... 2.3 Properties of Convolution 2.3.1 Commutative Property of Convolution.........-...5++ 2.3.2 Associative Property (Series Combination or Cascading of Systems) .. 2.3.3 Distributive Property (Parallel! Combination of Systems) . 2.4 LTI System Response and Properties from Impulse Response ... 2.4.1 Dynamicity (Memoryless Systems) .. .. 2.4.2 Causality ...... 0.2... maces suveee eed 2.4.3 Stabi 2, 4 Step Response....+... 2.5 Applications to LT! System Analysis. ony2.5.1 Eigen Function and Eigen Values (Response of LT! Systems to Complex Exponentials) . 2-58 2.5.2 Solution of Differential Equations... 2-59 2.5.3 Laplace Transform for Network Analysis 2-59 2.5.4 Transfer Function of System ... sees 261 2.5.5 Frequency Response of the System ........6.0--0005 wo 2-62 2.5.6 Causality and Stability ......ccc0cceescrecsceetecse eee easeeeeses 2762 2.5.7 Inverse Systems ..... eae ee 2-63 2.5.8 Step Response of the System. . 1 2-63 2.6 Impulse Response Characterization and Convolution for DT -LTI Systems ...2- 72 2.6.1 Discrete Time Signal as Weighted Impulses..... 0.0.22... 00000c00ee00,2°72 2.6.2 Convolution Sum Formula 2.7 Properties of Convolution Summation... 2.7.1 Commutative Property of Convolution. . 2.7.2 Associative Property of Convolution (Series Combination or Cascading of Systems) ......... 12-92 2.7.3 Distributive Property of Convolution (Parallel Combination of Systems)... 2-93 2.8 DT - LTI System Properties from Impulse Response... 2.8.1 Causality of LTI Systems... 2.8.2 Stability of LTI Systems...... masenacenantinainess 2.9 System Analysis from Difference Equation Model .. 2.9.1 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Systems. ............ 2.9.2 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Systems. 2.9.3 Nonrecursive Systems 2.9.4 Recursive Systems . 0.2.6... .eee eee eee Chapter-3 Fourier, Laplace and z-Transforms (3 - 1) to (3 - 170) 3.1 Representation of Periodic Functions... meee eo} 3.1.1 Necessity of Fourier Representations .......... 00000000005 aesne Be 3.1.2 Analogy between Fourier Representations... . 3-2 3.2 Fourier Series - Representation of Periodic FUNCIONS .....siesnssietnnnnetet 3-3 3.2.1 Trigonometric or Quadrature Fourier Series... 3-3 (wii)3.2.2 Compact Trigonometric or Polar Fourier Series ....... 363 3.2.3 Exponential Fourier Series ........... vee 3-3 3.2.3.1 Advantages of Exponential Form of Fourier Series «6 ve eve ee On 3.2.4 Convergence of Fourier Series - Dirichlet Conditions . . 3-4 3.2.5 Properties of Fourier Series ......... vette tts teeee ee ennees 13-4 3.2.5.1 Linearity . SOReRNR ae awa an ea gee ax ee BEE 3.2.5.2 Time Shift or Translation a Ba 2 - 3-5 3.2.5.3 Frequency Shift . vm 3 Z - 3-5 3.2.5.4 Scaling . 36 3.2.5.5Time Differentiation... 0 ee we meee oc ee SEB: 3.25.6Convolutionin Time... ee BF 3.2.5.7 Multiplication or Modulation Theorem... 2. ee BF 3.2.5.8 Parseval's Theorem é ie - 3-8 3.2.5.9 Symmetry Properties 7 . 3-9 32.6, WaveformSymmety sis: outs siesaukaiedanien staane ae aD 3.3 Fourier Transform - Frequency Spectrum of Aperiodic Signals .. 3-24 3.3.1 Definition of Fourier Transform .. . 3.3.2 Existence of Fourier Transform - Dirichlet Conditions . . 3.3.3 Properties of Fourier Transform... SSSHUKGAY 2. ascm ox aa oe wee HA a Be WE oe 8 3-25 3.3.3.2 Time Shift a gs Z 3-26 3.3.3.3 Frequency Shift . z 3-26 3.3.3.4 Time Scaling, Ze a a we ge BEB 3.3.3.5 Frequency-Differentiation, ©... 2. BT 3.3.3.6 Time-Differentiation ©... 6. See 3-27 S537 Convolitions sec ix scx ws seme tow sox wa aoe, aoe wee ns BED, 3.3.3.8 Integration . . a . be ees 328 3.3.3.9 Modulation si i 3-29 3.3.3.10 Duality See Snes wees 3630 B3.3A1Symmetry 2. 2 ee 5 ie ce 3-30 ey3.3.3.12 Parseval's Theorem or Rayleigh’s Theorem . . wie ORY 3-31 3.3.4 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal. 3.3.5 Modulation Theorem .. 3.3.6 Inverse Fourier Transform.......- 3.4 Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTF1) ..... 3.4.1 Definition of DTFT..... ate 3.4.2 Existence of DTFT..... 3.5 Review of Laplace Transform for Continuous Time Signals and Systems. 3.5.1 Definition of Laplace Transform ....2.. 026. .0eee sees 3.5.2 Relationship between Fourier Transform and Laplace Transform 3.5.3 Convergence of Laplace Transform... 3.5.4 Properties of ROC. ... sets 3.6 Properties of Laplace Transform .. WOE ABAT rcrmnsnneaneonroannmnnaianstmainninausneneariamannuurecet sae 3.6.2 Time Shifting (Translation in Time Domain) 3-58 3.6.3 Sh g in s-Domain (Complex Translation) . 3-59 3.6.4 Time Scaling, 3.6.5 Differentiation in Time Domain... 3.6.6 Differentiation in s-Domain...............5 3.6.7 Convolution in Time Domain .......... 3.6.8 Integration in Time Domain 3.6.9 Integration in s-Domain 3.6.10 Laplace Transform of a Periodic Function 3.7 Unilateral Laplace Transform 3.7.1 Differentiation in Time Domain... 3.7.2 Initial Value Theorem . ce 3.7.3 Final Value Theorem. . . 3.8 Inverse Laplace Transform sss ssssssssessiessseeemaneti sneer mnssennemsesssensened = 7D 3.8.1 Inverse Laplace Transform using Partial Fraction Expansion ... 553-80 wee 3-81 3.8.2 Inverse Laplace Transform using Convolution Integral... 3.9 Laplace Domain Analysis. ©3.9.1 System Functions ......... 66... 00064 3.9.2 Solution to Differential Equations. ..... 3.9.3 Poles and Zeros of System Functions and Signals fivaceanes S290 3.9.4 Frequency Response of the System . 3.9.5 System Behaviour ; Causality and Stability. . 3.9.6 Inverse Systems ..- 00... 2060 cceee cee 3.9.7 Step Response of the System. ... 3.10 The z-Transform for Discrete Time Signals and Systems... 3.10.1 Definition of z-Transform........... 3.10.2 Types of z-Transform : Unilateral and Bilateral... . 3.10.3 Region of Convergence (ROC) .....c.0scecssessvseeeeveseseuresses 3-100 3.10.4 2-Transform of Standard Signals 3.11 Properties of ROC (Convergence of z-Transform)...... 3.12 Properties of z-Transform... 3.12.1 Linearity 2.0... 0.0... ce. secon 3.12.2 Time Shifting or Translation...........-+. 3.12.3 Scaling in 2-Domain or Multiplication by Exponential 3.12.4 Time Reversal nuanueecaiee --3-108 3.12.5 Differentiation in z-Domain or Multiplication by aRamp...........-.-. 3-109 3.12.6 Convolution in Time Domain... ..0.06006cseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee sees 3-109 3.12.7 Correlation of Two Sequences. 2 pairensanstane 3-110 3.12.8 Multiplication of Two Sequences or Convolution in z-Domain.........-. 3-111 3.12.9 Conjugation of a Complex Sequence .........-.. 6.5 --3+11L 3.12.10 2-Transform of Real Part of aSequence........0.eeeeceeeserseeeee 3-112 3.12.11 2-Transform of Imaginary Part of Sequence. ..... 0.2.0.2... 00000004-3-112 3.12.12 Parseval's Relation....... 3.12.13 Initial Value Theorem. 3.13 Inverse z-Transform.... 3.13.1 Inverse 2-Transform using Power Series Expansion. ...........0+00204.3+129 3.13.2 Inverse z-Transform using Partial Fraction Expansion................-.3-131. 3.13.3 Inverse z-Transform using Contour Integration ... i)3.14 Unilateral 2-Transform... 3.14.1 Properties of Unilateral z-Transform . . 23-145 3.14.1.1 Time Shift 4 2 3-145 3.14.1.2Final Value Theorem... . . . 3-146 3.15 z-Domain Analysis... 3.15.1 Pole-Zero Plots ........... senescent 3.15.2 System Functions . ca 3.5.3 Caus: and Stability interms of z- Transform 3.15.4 Inverse Systems 3.15.5 Solution of Difference Equations using z-Transform .. (4-1) to (4-24) svc 2 Chapter- 4 Sampling and Reconstruc 4.1 Representation of Digital Signals. 4.2 Sampling Theorem and its Implications... 4.2.1 Statement of Sampling Theorem. ........-.- ++ 4.2.2 Proof of Sampling Theorem : Spectra and Reconstruction 4.2.3 Reconstruction of Signal using Interpolation .. . 4.2.4 Zero-Order Hold for Practical Reconstruction . . ‘4,3 Allasing amd its Effects cssacacsaisssstissssiestssncasStukosslGictissasete hSiiestevetsSbaestbte™ LL 4.3.1 Nyquist Rate and Nyquist Interval. .......... 00000028. 4.4 Relation between Continuous and Discrete Time Systems....... 4.5 Introduction to Applications of Signals and Systems .... 4.5.1 Modulation for Communication ....essssereresssssseseeesvrseseeen 42h 4.5.2 Applications of Filters. » . * . 4-21 4.5.3 Feedback Control Systems.........-.. eee eens beeen 4222 Chapter-5 Applications based on IloT (5 - 1) to (5 - 80) 5.1 Introduction of Internet of Things 2 5.1.1 Definition of loT rbd 5.1.2 loT Characteristics . nee 5.1.3 Component of 1OT......-.. see cc cece teeesteteteeteteteetereeeee Sof S114 Working of lOTivisscsssveiwexscesemeennen x ‘ 5-5. i)5.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages........ 00... 660.. 0005 tae S*8 5.1.6 Application of loT ....... cece teeteeeeeeeee 5-6 5.2 Types of Sensors 5-7 5.2.1 Sensor Component . 5-8 5.2.2 Sensor Types . < voter ete ee eee 5-8 5.3 Types of Actuators... 5.3.1 Light Emitting Diode........... conte eee eens 5.3.2 Difference between Actuators and Sensor. .... 5.4 Introduction to Arduino. 5.5 Introduction to Arduino IDE.. 5.5.1 Writing Program (Sketches)...... 022. .6460002se00085 25-17 SSadToolbersss ih SW VANE 14 Bh A LOS ES HS EES PR SONAR 55.12Menubar. ... . ine ew xen -. 5-17 5.5.2 Sketchbook . . te 5-22 5.5.3 Tabs, Multiple Files and Compilation . . 5-23 5.5.4 Uploading . a “ 5223 5.5.5 Libraries 5.5.6 Serial Monitor 5.5.7 Boards ...... 5.6 Programming in Arduino .. 5.6.1 Variables ........2.... 5.6.2 Operators .......- 5.6.3 Functions. ... 5.6.3.1 Advantages of using Functions . i - + 5-30 5.6.3.2 Function Syntax with Example . Soe 5-30 5.6.3.3 Built-in Functions. 6 6 ee SBE 5.6.4 Concept and Loop Statements. ....... 5-38 5.6.4.1 If Statement (Conditional statement) 5 5-38 5.6.4.2 Switch / Case Statements * i -. 5938 56.4.3ForStatements. 2 ee cee 8239 5.6.4.4While Loops... . . se ae -. 5-40 al5.6.4.5 Do-While . 48 gee 5.7 Concept of GPIO in Atmega 328P based Arduino Board .. 5.8 Interfacing of Atmega 328P based Arduino Board with LED... 5.9 Interfacing of Atmega 328P based Arduino Board with LCD... 5.10 Serial Communication using Arduino IDE .... 5.10.1 Serial Hardware vesvrvaseetir meee 5.10.2 Serial Software .......... 0.022.020 5.10.2.1 Serial.begin() 5.10.2.2Serialprinti) .-. 2 2... 2 =. 5-50 S.10.2.3Sertelprintln(), wee oe noe me pee toe te ce ee oe 2 BOSE 5,10.2.4 Serial.read() 5.10.25 Serialavailable().. . . . . . 2 nee 8 ce 582 5.10.2.6 Serial.write() . - 2 =. 5-52 5.11 Concept of ADC in Atmega 328P based Arduino Board. 5.11.1 Features of in-built ADC. . . 5.11.2 analogRead() Function 5.11.3 analogWrite() Function .....6..sseeeeeees 5.11.4 analogReference() Function.......... 5.11.5 Format of ADCSRB and DJORO Registers. .... 5.11.6 ADMUX Register... 5.11.7 ADC Control and Status Register A 5.11.8 Characteristics of ADC ......... 25 5.12 Interfacing with Temperature Sensor (LM35).... 5.13 LWT... 5.14 Strain Gauge .. 5.15 Interfacing Accelerometers . 5.15.1 Types of Accelerometers ........... 5.15.2 Interfacing. 21... eeeeee es 5.16 Concept of PWM 5.17 DC Motor Interfacing... tied5.17.1 DC Motor Control with Optoisolator........... 5.18 Signals Storage and its Analysis using Arduino. 5-74 5-78 Solved GTU Question Papers Summer - 2015... Winter - 2015... Summer - 2016... Winter - 2016... Summer + 2017... Winter - 2018..... Summer - 2019... Winter - 2019... (S - 1) to (S - 64) S - 1) to (S- 18) ..(S+ 19) to (S = 26) ...(S- 27) to (S- 39) (S- 40) to (S - 46) ..(S= 47) to (S= 54) (S- 55) to (S- 57) ..(S - 58) to (S- 60) ..(S- 61) to (S - 64) eoNotes bai)Introduction to Signals and Systems Syllabus Signals and systems everyday life, biomedical, instrumentation domestic and industries Representations of Signals, Classifications of Signals - Continuous time, Discrete time, comparison among Analog, Digital and Diserete Signals, Signal properties : periodicity, absolute integrability determinism and stochastic character. Some special signals of importance : the unit step, the unit impulse, the sinusoid, and the complex exponensial, System properties : linearity : addtvity and homogeneity, shifteinvariance, causality, stability, realizabitity. Examples. Contents 1.1 Signals and Systems in Everyday Lite 1.2 Representation of Signals 1.3 Classification of Signals Winter-18,19, Summer-19, 1.4 Some Special Signals of Importance 1.5 System Properties Summer-19, i)Signals and Systems 1:2 Introduction to Signals and Systems 11.1 | Defi © Signals Everyday Life nals and Systems ion of Signals and Systems A function of one or more independent variables which contain some information is called signal. Examples : i) Electric voltage or current, such as radio signal, TV signal, telephone signal computer signals etc. Pressure signal, sound signal etc. are non-electric signals. * Systems A system is a set of elements or functional block that are connected together and produces an output in response to an input signal. Examples : i) An audio amplifier, attenuator, TV set, transmitter, receiver etc. all are systems. ii) Any machine or engine are also systems. Signals and Systems Relations! * Every system has one or more inputs. It is called excitation. * Every system has one or more outputs. It is called response. + The inputs and outputs of the systems are always signals. «Fig. 1.1.1 shows an audio amplifier. It is a system. Input Output ; System signal ——+| : [> signal (Low level audio) (Ausioamplifer) | (Ampified audio) Fig. 1.1.1 Example of signals and system relationship © Input to the audio amplifier is low level audio. Output of the audio amplifier is amplified audio. Analogy of Signals and Systems Fig. 1.1.2 shows an example of central government, which can be considered as a big system. It consists of many sub systems which are interconnected. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge‘Signats and Systems 1-3 Introduction to Signals and Systems Central government as a system Revenue (taxes) —7 ai I Export { Government resolutions Import —={ [7 Finance Defence 1 Finance aids 4—= Government functions [Foreign affairs] [Home | [Culture] ;—= Orders to states }_» Welfare programs ‘Complaints and applications { { Proposals for financial aids —=! { | Social issues [Zareuture | [Human resources | jr Planning Business suggestions —-| [Socalwelfare | [industries | f-~flectons Policies of foreign j= Defence policies countries Input signals to ‘Output signals from government government Fig, 1.1.2 A government system and its inputs/outputs ance, defence, foreign © The system affairs, home, culture, agriculture, human resources, social welfare, industries, ete. composed of many subsystems such as * The system has input signals in the form of revenue (taxes), import, complaints and applications, proposals for financial aids, social issues, business suggestions, policies for foreign countries. These are the input signals to central government based on which it functions. + The central government processes input signal and produces output signals in the form of exports, government resolutions, orders to states, welfare programs, planning, law and order, elections, business policies, defence policies etc. ancial aids, government functions, Signals and Systems in Biomedical Field nals are * Types of biomedical signals : Following types of biomedical s emitted/generated by human body i) Heart : Human heart generates ECG ii) Brain : Human brain generates EEG iii) Muscles : Human muscles generate EMG iv) Vocal tract : It generates speech. * Analysis of biomedical signals : Biomedical signals are mainly nondeterministic or random type. However they exhibit some hidden periodicities. * Hidden periodicities in biomedical signals can be studied with the help of short time Fourier transform, Laplace transform or z-transform, * Power density or energy density are also important tools for analyzing biomedical signals. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:4 Introduction to Signals and Systems Systems in biomedical field : All the physical instruments and operating procedures are called systems. These systems accept some signals and give the processed signals. For example : ECG machine, EEG machine, X-ray machine, sonography machine all these machines are examples of biomedical systems. Signals and Systems in Domestic Instrumentation Signals and Systems Heat, pressure, temperature, fluid flow signals are the examples of domestic instrumentation. Various signals used in weather reports such as rain fall, windspeed, clouds, humidity are also the signals used in domestic instrumentation. Sensors, signal conditioners, amplifiers, signal transmitters, signal receivers, actuators, control valves, limit switches, pressure switches displays, keyboards ete. are the systems used in domestic instrumentation. Industries Both analog as well as digital industries use signals and systems extensively. Automobile industry used various sensors to detect conditions of vehicle such as rpm, temperature, doors open/close, speed fuel assumption, oil level air conditioning, ete. Chemical industry uses fluid flow, fluid pressure and temperature, chemical saturation, mixing, reactions, timing etc. signals with the help of sensors. Textile industry uses signals to control texture, speed, quality of fabric. The durability, strength and uniformity of the thread uses in textiles is measured and controlled with the help of signals and systems. Computers and digital equipments function on digital signals. Data is stored and processed in the form of signals. The data is converted to digital signals and processed. Printers displays, monitors, consoles, keyboards, digital transceivers, storages, interfaces are all examples of computers and digital equipments. Consumer industry produces TVs, refridgeraters, microwaves, washing machines, mixers, music systems, amplifiers, etc. All these systems process audio, video or any type of data as a signal. There are many other examples of industries such as manufacturing, telecom, food, mining, energy, media, hospitality, health care, pharmaceutical, education, construction, agriculture, transport, aerospace, etc. industries that uses signal as a basic element for their production, feedback, control, monitoring and_ processing systems. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems ed Introduction to Signals and Systems Representation of Signals * Activity or status of various phenomenon in the nature can be represented interms of air pressure, temperature, flow, electromagnetic signal, light, electric current or voltage. © Speech signal is basically acoustic pressure which is sensed by a microphone, which is then converted to an electric signal. Thus speech signal is represented by acoustic pressure and electric signal. « The brightness level of the picture element in image can be represented with the help of electric signal. The brightness level in a video becomes function of time * In geophysics, depth of physical quantities such as density, porosity and electrical resistivity are used to study structure of the earth. * In meteorological investigations air pressure, temperature and wind speed with respect to altitude are measured with sensors and then converted to electric signals. * Signals can be represented as analog/continuous or digital/discrete. Analog to digital converters are used to convert continuous signals to discrete signals. Computers, microprocessors, digital controllers need discrete signals for their processing Classification of Signals The Continous Time (CT) and Discrete Time (D7) signals are classified as follows i) Periodic and non-periodic signals. ii) Even and odd signals. iii) Energy and power signals. iv) Deterministic and random signals. CT and DT Signals Definition : A CT signal is defined continuously with respect to time. A DT signal is defined only at specific or regular time instants. Examples : at * Fig. 1.3.1 (a) shows an example of CT signal, which is x()= eT". Here e" is continuous function of time 'f' © Fig, 1.3.1 also shows a DT version of exponential signal. It is defined as xt) = MTs = 0, eATs, Ts, o-A9Ts Thus the DT signal is defined only at 0, T,, 25, Ts. and so on. e TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-6 Introduction to Signals and Systems DT signal x0) ICT signal x(n aim si H et : 8 defines § sects 43 sa 3 mad 2 : é e IY & & TT rT Fig. 1.3.1 CT and DT signals icance : i) Analog circuits process CT signals. Such circuits are op-amps, filters, amplifier etc. ii) Digital circuits process DT signals. Such circuits are microprocessors, counters, flip-flops ete. Analog and digital signals : i) When amplitude of CT signal varies continuously, it is called analog signal. In other words amplitude and time both are continuous for analog, signal. ii) When amplitude of DT signal takes only finite values, it is called digital signal. In other words amplitude and time both are discrete for digital signal. Fig, 1.3.2 below shows the summary of CT/DT, analog/digital signals. Continuous am plitude OT signal ‘The signal Shes ampitudes at Tee Te Te Discrete amplitude CT signal tit ‘The signa is ju funeton ‘oftime, bultaie peareat fied ‘smpliode a ‘Gentnuous tme | 3. | 4 Discrete time intervals Fig. 1.3.2 Exponential signal as CT/DT, analogidigital TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-7 Introduction to Signals and Systems ‘Comparison between analog, digital and discrete signals : St. Parameter Analog signal Digital signal Discrete signal No. 1, Continuity in Time and. Discontinuous in time Discontinuous in time amplitude both and amplitude both but continuous in amplitude 2. Quantization No quantization Amplitude levels are No quantization quantized 3. Sampling No sampling Sampled at regular Sampled at regular intervals, internals 4. Suitable for Analog signal Digital signal Needs to be converted processing, processing to digital signal. Periodic and Non+Periodic Signals Definition ; A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at regular intervals, Non-periodic signals do not repeat at regular intervals. + Examples of CT and DTT periodic/non-periodic signals. is DT signals at) (6) For pencil | aiti= xT) Fig. 1.3.3 Examples of periodic and non-periodie signals * Condition for periodicity of CT signal The CT signal repeat after certain period Ty ie, x(t) = x(F+T) (1.3.1) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:6 Introduction to Signals and Systems * Condition for periodicity of DT signal Consider DT cosine wave, x(n) = cos(2n fn) * x(n +N) = cos[2n fg (n+N)] = cos(2n fon+2n fo N) For periodicity, x(n) = x(n + N) cos(2m fy n) cos(2n fgn+2n fy N) Above equation is satisfied only if 2x foN is integer multiple of 2. ie, 2m foN = 2nk, where k is integer k tory (1.3.2) The above condition shows that DT signal is periodic only if its frequency is rational (function of two integers). * Periodicity of signal x, (1)+x2(F) Let us consider that the signal x(1)=.1(#)+x2(0) Then x(f) will be periodic if, x1(f) = xy(E+Ty) = 44 (f+ 2T)) = or x4 (8) = xy(t+mT,), Here ‘mr’ is an integer. Similarly x(t) will be periodic if, xp() = x2(I+Tp) = x9(1+2h)=... or x9(f) = x2(t+nT2), Here ‘nis an integer. Then x(t) will be periodic if, mT, = nTz=To, here Tp is period of x(#) This means Tp is integer multiple of periods of x)(f) and x(#). For above equation we have, tT noo . =—, i.e. ratio of two integers Tym This is the condition for periodicity. The period of x(t} will be least common multiple of Ty and T. * Periodicity of x,()+xp(n) Here x(n) = x4(1) +x2(n) is periodic i ratio of two integers No it o The period of x(n) will be least common multiple of N, and N2 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-9 Introduction to Signals and Systems Even and Odd Signals Definition of even signal : A signal is said to be even signal if inversion of time axis does not change the amplitude, isto, Condition for ee = x(t) signal to be even |x(1) = x(-n) Definition of odd signal : A signal is said to be also inverts amplitude of the signal © Odd signals are also called anti-symmetric signals. Examples of even and odd signals * Cosine wave is an example of even signal. Since cos@ = cos(-6). Fig. 1.3.4 Examples of even and odd signals TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-10 Introduction to Signals and Systems «Sine wave is an example of odd signal. Since sin(@)=—sin(-0) Significance of even and odd signals * Even or odd symmetry of the signal have specific harmonic or frequency content. «Even or odd symmetry property is used in filter design. Representation of signal in even and odd parts i) Let the signal be represented into its even and odd parts as, a() = xet)+xo(8) w(L3.7) Here x,(i) is even part of x(t) and x,(1) is odd part of x(0) ii) Substitute +t for t in above equation, x) = x4) Now by definition of even signal, x,(-1) = x,(t) and by definition of odd signal Xo(-f) = -x,(1). Hence above equation will be, xf) = x) Kolt) + (1,3.8) iii) Adding equation (1.3.7) and equation (1.3.8), x(t+x(-1) = Brel) = xe =F bd) +x 91 Subtracting equation (1.3.8) from equation (1.3.7). x()—x(-1) = 2x Q(t) => x= FEA) ot Even part : x =F (4x ») 1 1.3.9) Odd part = x,()=5 (x()-x1(-9) Similarly for DT signals we can write, Even part : x,(1) $ feo) +x(-m) 1 see(1.3.10) Odd part = x9(0 = 5 (x(v)—x(-1)} TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems Introduction to Signals and Systems 2 If need Energy and Power Signals tion of Energy and Power 1. Energy of CT and DT signals : It is given by following equations, Energy, E f Ix()P dt — for CT signal (1.3.11) 5 ¥ lx? T si and, E y x(n) for DT signal ae Power of CT and DT signals : It is given by following equations, Ts Power, P= lim = J la(pl? dt for CT signal (1.3.13) oe . 2 2 : and, a Me as Pe for DT signal (1.3.14) the signal is periodic, then the period (T or N) have finite value, Hence there is no to take limits. Definition of an energy signal A signal is said to be an energy signal if its normalized energy is nonzero and finite. For an energy signal, 0 < E < = jon of power signal A signal is said to be power signal if its normalized power is non zero and finite. ie, F Il, 0< P. Here the least common multiple of Ny = 5 and Nz = 7 is 35. Hence the signal is periodic with period N = 35] iv) x(t) = cost+siny2t Compare above equation with x(#) = cos 2nf,t+sin 2nfyf, we get, Int = to fee # hence T; = 2m and 2nfot = V2 fo 2 2h 2n hence Ty = B= 2 ‘The ‘atio of ‘two periods is, = 2 Jp. since'tha ratio “1 is not tational (We. ratio Tz Jn Ty of two integers) the signal is{non periodic. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-15 Introduction to Signals and Systems Check whether following signals are periodic. If yes, (find fundamental period. i Sykar-20) ii) x(n) = (-1)" o a 4 5 a iti) x(t) = Sw(t-2k) i) xt) = Pw(t-3h), 5 20 a 1 Fig. 1.3.6 Triangular Here w(t) is shown in the Fig. 1.3.6. Solution : i) y's (¢-2k9 k The given signal can be expressed as, Toykar-2y = ke The above signal 8 -2k) for odd values of k 8(--2k) for even values ofk is shown in the Fig, 1.3.7, Observe that the signal is periodic with period T= 4] t+ 4) 8-4) adn) = (-1)" Lk che a eke m=0y (ney! (=2y (ney This signal is|periodic with period N = 2 samples pulse TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-16 Introduction to Signals and Systems 5 ii) AA) = Yw(t-2h ka5 [13-12 11 10-9 -8 -7 - -5 4 3 123 456 7 8 9 1011 i213k Fig. 1.3.8 Sketches of example 1.3.2 From above Fig. 1.3.8 (a), observe that x(1) exists from k = — 11 to 11 only. Hence it is non periodid signal. iv) xt) = Yywlt-3h) k Above signal is shown in the Fig, 1.3.8 (b). Observe that the signal is periodic with period 3 URAL MSIL) Check the periodicity of following signals, Determine their fundamental period, if they are periodic. iy xtn) = ell" Gi) x(t) = e PE iii) x(n) = «os( sin ) iv) x(t) =5 +t? 5 3 Solution : i) x(n) = ef(/# x(i) = cosn+jsinZ 1 since ef = cos0+jsin 0 = cos 2nfi jsin 2nfi Here f = £1 which is rational N73’ Hence the signal is[periodic with period N = 8 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 117 Introduction to Signals and Systems ii) x(B) = et x(i) = cos2t-jsin2t, since e® = cos0+jsind = cos 2nft—jsin 2nft Here fed-t Hence the signal is[periodic with period T= iii) x(n) = «os 3) sin( #) 3 We know that 2sinx cosy x) = 2 sin{ MEME) 5 sin( ME 4 ME) | = 1 sin 20 4 sin BE 2|°"\3 5 35 )) 2 15 15 Here 2nfyn in(x—y) +sin(x + y)] ' > 1 u a 1" a 8um 15 and nf Here N = N; = Nz = 15. The signal is| periodic with period N = 15 Determine the periodicity of following signal, If periodic, determine its fundamental period. i) x(t) = cos100nt +sin 50nt ii) x(t) = 5+ 07. Solution : i) x(t) = cos100xt + sin50xt Compare with x(t) = cos2nf t+ sin 2nfyt Qnfy = 100nt => fy = 50= 2, hence Ty = J 7 50 and Qnfy = 50nt = fy = 25-21, hence 2-4 q 35 Here a = uo = a which is rational. Hence the signal is| periodic, Tr ys To determine fundamental period Step 1: Multiply T, and 7) by a number such that they will be full integers. Here multiply by 100 x100 = 4 Step 2: Least common multiple of T, = 2 and T = 4 is 4 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge‘Signals and Systems 1-18 Introduction to Signals and Systems Step 3: Divide least common multiple by 100. It gives fundamental period. i.e. Te iil) x(t) = 5 +t? Here x(#+Ty) 54(t4+T 9)? = 541? +2'Ty +72 Since x(!) #x(!+To), the signal is|non periodic. GERERELD Determine periodicity of following signal. If periodic, determine its fundamental period. i) x(t) = cost-1(t) Solution : i) x(t) = cos t- u(t) Cosine wave is periodic, Here @ = 1 Period, T = = 2msec. o Examples on Odd/Even Signals ee cum A eu LA Lun) Sketch the even and odd components of the signals shown in the Fig. 1.3.9. Fig. 1.3.9 Solution : We know that even and odd components of a signal are given as, 1 1 xf) = ghO+rco] and x9() = 5 [x®-2-9] SLx(y-2en)] imilarly x,(1) = SL Osxen] and x(t) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-19 Introduction to Signals and Systems Here x(-1) is time folded version of x(!) and x(-n) is time folded version of x(1). Fig. 1.3.10 shows the even and odd parts of given signals. 2 x 4 4 = a0) = Ldn +a) eat) = ay #0) Parts of Fig. 1.3.19 (b) Odd and even ee of ‘ay signal of Fig. 1.3.9 aaa gt)» Eisay aca 1 nt ee) (102) Here x(t) = [2+ Joos? a0) = a1) cos? (100, since cos(-0) = cos6 a()+x(-)] = 3 {a+ #) cos (108) +€1-# cos? ont {i +8 +1-1° }cos*(101) = cos*(101) x()—x(-)]= 3 {a+ #9) os9(108)—(1- #9) cos? (10 {149-14 }e0s9(109 = #9 cos? (10H x(t) = cos(t) + sin (t) + sin(t) cos (f) Here x(-#)= cos(—1)+sin(-1) + sin(—f) cos(—f) = cos(t)—sin(¥) —sin(1) cos(é) xe) = ZL - 3 [cos() +sin(£) + sin(#} cos(#) + cos(t)— sin(f)—sin(#) cos(!) | = cos(t) xt) = FE-xe-0 3 [cos(t) +sin(é) + sin(#) cos(#)— cos(t) + sin(t) + sin(#) cos(t) | = sin(#) + sin(t) cos(t) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-22 Introduction to Signals and Systems ee RMT Coy Sketch the even and odd parts of following t O J Ss to=To_ 2 of az Wt = lim — 5 { [L+cos(2wyt+20)]dt m=To 2 ip 1 2/4 To? = lim t+ J cos(2y#+20) dt Tore * Leiae ~tap2 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:26 Introduction to Signals and Systems Here second integration term will be zero since it is an integration of cosine wave over full cycle. Hence, nop Su niet Since the power is finite, this is power iii) x(t) = ¢ u(t) : This signal is nonperiodic. Hence it is not power signal. But this signal is of infinite duration, since u(t) = 1 for 0 < t < 0. At the same time the signal amplitude grows as time advances. Hence its energy will also be infinite. Therefore it is not energy signal also. Thus the signal is|neither energy nor power signal. iv) x(n) = (— 0.5)" un) + This signal is nonperiodic. Hence it is not power signal. Though the signal has infinite duration due to presence of (1), its amplitude goes on reducing. Hence this signal must be energy signal. Let us verify its energy, B= Y bP = Y (6 0.5)" en? too since u(n) = 1 for m = 0 to = > (0.25)" neo Here let us use geometric series JY n=0 1 4 Taos * 3 Thus the signal islenergy signal with E v) x(a) =2e/3" ; This is a phasor, which is periodic, Hence it must be power signal, Let us calculate its power, N Ny - 22 im P= Jim Nel lec] Net Pell 1 x 3ny2 = im —)_ 4. [ei Now ING x. re] Here lei3#| = 1 always. Heneg, a” 4 lin a, x 1 x 4 lim ow sq (2N +1), since Dy 1=2N+1 = 4Ww Thus the signal is [ power signal with P = 4 W. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-27 Introduction to Signals and Systems GERORERED Clieck chether the following signals are energy signals or power signals. Find the value of the same. Cnes 0 wT, J aD 7 Fig. 1.3.46 Fig. 1.3.17 Solution : i) The signal of Fig. 1.3.16 is nonperiodic. Hence let us calculate its energy. ie, = J Ix() FF dt weit 5. (s 3. for -10 0 otherwise _ ("for n20 0 otherwise Let us calculate power for this function, since cos (tn) is periodic function i.e, = 1 ia (2 pg yi P= Jim ayer 2, FOP = lim oer 2, Unt = tim eS (pF by reamrangin ima & if mearraiging new 1 oN > in a ey! jana eae Since power is finite, this is |power signal with P = 1 W Prove the following : i) The power of the energy signal is zero over infinite time. ii) The energy of the power signal is infinite aver infinite time, Solution : i) Power of the energy signal : Let x(t) be an energy signal. The power is given by equation (1.3.13) as, 7/3 T/2 ol 2 wn Ll te 2 P = lim = f[ la(Pdt= lim =| lim Ixqel? dt rit 1) Tool ed = lim } li Ixy? al Here limits are changed to —», © as T 3 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-30 Introduction to Signals and Systems lim 2.£, since quantity inside brackets is E. Tool OxE =0, Thus, power of the energy signal is zero over infinite time. ii) Energy of the power signal : Energy of the signal is given by equation (1.3.11) as, E= J Ix()P dt Lot us change the limits of integration as 4, 5 and take lim . This will not change se meaning of above equation. ie, mp 1 E= lim f[ lx(jPdt=_lim th f Ix@P dt} by rearranging Toi To! Ti 1 = lim T-| lim = J lx()P dt} =_ lim T-P since quantity inside brackets is P. Toe [Tool jy, Toe = o» By taking limits as T © Thus, energy of the power signal is infinite over an infinite time. EEMCRERED Determine whether the following signals are energy or power signal. Obtain energy or power of the same. i} x(t) = cos? wot ii) x(t) = rect (=) costot To iti) x(n) = u(n) ‘ Solution : i) x(t) = cos? wot This is a squared cosine wave. Hence it must be periodic. Let us calculate its power. at By defini 1 P= lime f la re The given signal x(#) = cos? pf has period Ty and it is real signal. Then above equation will be, 1 Tof2 P= lim > { [cos? wat}? dt nT) ip TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:31 Introduction to Signals and Systems Here [cos* wgt]?= cos* wt. It can be expanded by standard trigonometric relations as follows To/2 P = tim a] $19 +4 co8209F +084 0H at oon? —iyf2 1 23 To/2 Tol = a J att ay J aS ze Het a J cosd wot dt ~To/2 ey Tol ~To/2 This term willbe zero This term will be also vom since itis integration of site iis integration of cosine waveover fulleycles” cosine wave over “fulleycles” Tol? = tim 2.3.44 7? 4040 Tom To 8 ~Tof2 The power of the signal is finite and non-zero, hence it i power signal with P = = i t ii) x(t) = rect (x) cogmge 5 [e=steat © Fig. 1.3.19 shows the waveforms of coswgt, rect (+) and their product, ie. 0 t x(t) = rect (+) cos (ot. * Observe that x() is basically a cosine wave, but it has finite duration, Hence it xit) must be an energy signal. [ © Thus, x(#) = coswo? for tb sts2. It is IT To 2 2 4.3.19 : Waveform of assumed that x(t) has multiple cycles in Ty goodly ~yStsy x(t) = rect (% lcosuyt - Tol? Toj? , E = fiaoPae= f feostagntar = f (Heseot a se ~in2 ~To/2 To/2 1 a . 3 | cos 2argt aio Thi term willbeze0 since itis integration of cosine wave over full cycles" Here energy is finite and non-zero, hence it is| Energy signal with E TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-32 Introduction to Signals and Systems iii) x(n) = w(n) This signal is periodic (since u(n) repeats after every sample) and of infinite duration. Hence it may be power signal. Therefore let us calculate power ie, N P= him ma YP ae ' 1 5 um wo zx (1)? Since n(n) = 1 for 0S 1 < Nn Here, (1)? means 1+1+1+1..... for = 0 to N. In other words, n=O 1414141 nu (N #1) times = (N +1), Therefore above equation will be, Te. P= lim ma WeD= jin, NO. iy — ed li Neo 2N+ Ngo INF] Nooo 9,1 The power is finite and non-zero, hence unit step function is| power signal with P= Obtain an energy or power of following signals. i xO) N L] x= 1+ e0s( 3) 7 lt [ i | a4 s(t I 4-3-2 40] 4 Fig. 1.3.20 Solution : i) Observe that the signal is non periodic. Hence it can be energy signal. Let us calculate its energy first. x(t) can be expressed as, f+5 for = -5sts-4 x= 4 1 for —4st<4 -t+5 for 4st<5 = 45 Energy, E = f|x@Pae= {os a+ fidte (t+3)?dt os “404 («+m Here let us use [ (a+bx)"dx a TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:33 Introduction to Signals and Systems Then, ii) x) =1+0s| 5 This signal is periodic, and it has a DC shift. It's frequency is, 2nfn Power is, = P= Here 1+cos 4 4 43 4m p= 5[t+200 (x) +2 cos! SE +20e84% _4 1,,.1)_16 -% (1 42454043) “8 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:34 Introduction to Signals and Systems cman e Tire aisy Example 1.3.46 Determine whether the following signals are periodic or not. If yes, then determine the fundamental period. 1, x(n) = cos (0.01 mn) Ans. : Periodic, N = 200) 2, x(n) = cos (3m) (Ans, : Periodic, N = 2) 3, x(n) = cos (2) cos (¥) 8 8 [Ans. : Non periodic] (Hint + f; ae product of non periodic and periodic signal makes overall signal non periodic 4, xn) = sin (x +0.2n) [Hint : Compare with x(n) = sin (2njn+ 0) here @ = x is phase shift] [Ans. : Non periodic] 5. xf) = 2 cos 100 nt + 5 sin SOL (Ans. : Non periodic] t 6, x(t) = 2cost+3 cos Deon 3 Ans. : Periodic, T = 6r] 7. x(t) =7 cost-+2cosmt [Ans. : Non periodic] 8, x(t) = 2cosl. Smt + sin3.5mt Ans. : Periodic, T = 5.25] 9. x(t) = cos 2n [Ans, : Non periodic}, = ‘ wt 10. x¢t) = 8sin( 400nt) (Ams. : Periodic, T = 555) 11, xtt) = 2c0s 28 +3.c0s 2M 3 7 [Ans. : Periodic, T = 21) 12. x(t) = cos(2#) + sin(30) Ans, : Periodic, T = 27] 13. xn) = cos?(F] be Ans. : Periodic, N = 8] nt, ae 14. x) = cos + sin Ui ees Pa Ans. : Periodic, T = 24) 15. xt) =4 cos i) +2e0s{ a) 100, 280, [Ans. : Periodic, T = 1800] 16. x(t) = Ssin 200nt Ans. : Periodic, T = 0.01 sec] 17. x(n) = cos(Snnt) [Ans. : Periodic, N = 2] TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:35 Introduction to Signals and Systems 18. x(n) = cos( EJ -sin( 2 [Ans. : Periodic, N = 16] 19. x(n) = cos(2nm) [Ans. : Periodic, T = 1] 20. x¢n) = [cos(2nt)|° er Wee Example 1.3.17 Find even and odd parts of x(t) = u(t), 5 od (Ans. : Pertodic, T = 5] Ans. : x0 = Fut) + ud) 4 2 0 xall)= putt) U0) 2 Fig. 1.3.21 Odd and even part of u(t) Example 1.3.18 Find even and odd parts of x(t)=1+tcos(t) +t? sin(t)+t> sin(#) cos(t). + t5 sint)eostt) and x,(¢) = t cost) +t? sing] (as. + x(t) = Example 1.3.19 Find even and odd parts of x(n) = eG n) . Ans. : 4 1 T 40) = Fiala) #2401 40) = Fale) =x) “Sa4cs-e-a ot 2 SAS Fig, 1.3.22 Odd and even parts of x(n) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:36 Introduction to Signals and Systems Example 1.3.20 Sketch exen and odd parts of following signal. Ans. : Fig. 1.3.24 Example 1.3.21 Sketch the even and odd parts of the following signals : i) x(n) = of) n—4) ii) x(n) = sin{ 2) 0). Ans.: i) xQin) | (A) 42 i 2 Fig. 1.3.25 EHH Fig. 1.3.26 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:37 Introduction to Signals and Systems Example 1.3.22 Sketcl odd and even parts of following signal. Jo] 4 | | 0 1[2 {fq Fig. 1.3.27 Ans. “x(t x(t) | 2 x(t) oe cy ft) R=) | i ' | | I 2 2 | l 1 | 2) 11/214] |-2 (a) Even part (b) Odd part Fig.1.3.28 Sie Mics nolo Example 1.3.23 Determine whether the following signals are energy or power signals and calculate their energy or power. 1 xm =(5) un) : a4 (Ans. : Energy, E = 3 J] 2. x(t) = rect (re) 0 ) yoy et int : ret (f-) = |1 for—Pses 0 ae a ai tine «ret ae |= jf meses 1 Ans. : Energy, E = Tp J} sain 2 3. x(t) = Ae nt), > 0 [Ans. : Energy, E = $a 4, x(n) -( i un) [Ans. : Energy, E = 2] 5. x(n) = 1a) 114) (Ans. : Energy, E = 4] TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:38 Introduction to Signals and Systems 6. x(n) = (—03)"> dn) 7. x(n) = 2140) wm 7 Nm (Hint © P= yi oy SI = noe oy INH] 8x) = Qe" 627 na) (Hint: E = [°] 20 60°?) "a 9. x(t) = 667/54 a = 36 since |e*| = 1) x(n) = a"u(n) where Val > 1 10. Obtain an energy for the following signal. [Ans. : Energy, E [Ans. : Power, P = 2W] [Ans. : Energy, 3 J) [Ans. : Power, 36 W) [Ans. Rea Cae Classify signals. Give the examples of each. analog discrete time signal, ‘Compare energy signal and power signal. With the help of neat sketches explain the difference between analog continuous time signal and Define energy and power. Hence define energy signal and power signal. Some Special Signals of Importance + The standard or elementary signals are used for analys of systems. Such signals are i) Unit step, ii) Unit impulse iii) Unit ramp iv) Exponential and v) Sinusoidal function, * In addition to this there are some commonly used functions such as i) signum ii) triangular iii) rect and iv) sine functions. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-39 Introduction to Signals and Systems Unit Step Function Parameter CT unit step signal u(t) DT unit step signal u(n) Definition The unit step signal has amplitude of 1’ for positive values of independent variable. And it has amplitude of '0' for negative values of independent variable. Mathematical 4) _ fort 20 un) = for n20 representatio 0 fart <0 0 fornOand since u(n) = 1 for n> Oand u(t} = 0 fort <0 u(n) = 0 for n<0 ={0,1, 2,3, 4,5, r(n) 49 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-41 Introduction to Signals and Systems Waveform [a o) { EERE 3 3 : 2 1 4 ° of 123 ia [oy 1234 | Significance + The ramp function indicates linear relationship. + It indicates constant current charging of the capacitor. Rectangular, Triangular, Signum and Sinc Pulses ‘These signals are used for analysis of communication systems. 4. Rectangular pulse ‘The rectangular pulse centered at t = 0 represents the double sided frequency response of low pass filter. tt Fig. 1.4.1 shows the rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and unit duration. The pulse is centered around f= 0. The rectangular pulse is represented by rect (#) Fig. 1.4.1 Rectangular pulse of abbreviation, ie, unit amplitude and unit duration Rectangular pulse i rect) = 1 for-b< ech (Unit duration and unit amplitude) 2 2 0 elsewhere .. (14.7) Representation of rectangular pulse of width °T” and a amplitude ‘A’, The pulse is shown in Fig, 14.2. This - pulse can be represented using definition of rect (#) tot function given in equation 1.4.3. Fig. 1.4.2 Rectangular pulse of duration 'T' amplitude ‘A’ Hestangiar pulse sma(t)- 4 or-Bar eb rary Sc emr tac 0 elsewhere wa (148) The above equation follows from equation (1.4.3). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:42 Introduction to Signals and Systems 2. Triangular pulse : Fig. 1.4.3 shows the triangular pulse. It is expressed xO ba mathematically as, 2A x T r (#3) for -Ests0 “4 Soe x(i) = 2a(_T -B(5] fer Osts> Fig. 1.4.3 Triangular pulse The triangular pulse is particularly useful in representing band limited signal spectrums. 3. Signum pulse ‘The signum function is defined as, xt) = sanity 1 1 for £>0 cen=[, Brye0 a (149) CT Fig. 144 shows the signum function. It is positive fie. + 1) for positive time and negative (ie. -1) for negative time. The signum function is odd function. Fig. 1.4.4 Signum function 4, Sinc pulse Fig. 1.4.5 shows the plot of sinc pulse. Tine PSPRIATLL IAT Fig. 1.4.5 Sinc pulse Sine pulse or sine function is very important mathematical model. It is used extensively in mathematical analysis of communication systems. Sampling theory, digital transmission uses this model. Sinc(x) is defined as, sin (nx) me sinc(x) = = (L410) Here x is an independent variable. Sinc function is an even function. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-43 Introduction to Signals and Systems Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal (CT and DT real exponential nals nals Parameter CT real exponential signal DT real exponential signal It is exponentially growing or decaying signal. ti) = belt band a are real iii) Radioactive decay Waveform aio) =b Significance i) Charging and discharging of a |) Population growth as a function of or capacitor. generation. Uses ii) Current flow through an inductor, ii) Return on investment as a function. f day, month or quarter. ‘Complex exponential and sinusoidal signals Definition : When exponent is purely imaginary, then the signal is said to be complex exponential signal. It is given as, CT: x DT: x cr DT x( x¢ py aeivat 1) = 070" The sinusoidal signal is given as, t)=cos(wgt +0) 11) = cos(ogn +0) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” = An up thnust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1244 Introduction to Signals and Systems 6) Coniplec eeparienial esi bel wwittten sa Geeinb af stnuikoldal eigeials ay, oot CT : el! = cosmpt+jsin wot GA TREEO By Euler's identity e/ = cos6+ jsin6 DT : el" = cosmon+ jsin oon # Similarly sinusoidal signal can be written in terms of complex exponential as, jg 8+6) 4 6° loot 6) i By Euler's identity cos 9 = <=" CT : cos(wof-+0) Jeloo!. ci at jog tg Ie DT: cos(wgn+o) = 2 Significance/Applications of complex exponential and sinusoidal representation * Fourier series, Fourier transform and Laplace transform uses complex exponential functions. © Any other signal can be analyzed with the help of complex exponential representation by Fourier and Laplace tools. Periodicity properties of DT complex exponentials Definition : A DT complex exponential is periodic if it repeats after certain number of samples. Consider, xn) = elo” : x(n4N) = ef 0(#*N) 2 e/%0M. pio’ For periodicity x(n) = x(n+N) ie cioon = pi007.pf00N _, pio 4 Expressing ¢/°0'’ in terms of sinusoidal functions, ef0N = cosmpN +jsinwyN by Euler's identity ¢/9 = cos0+jsin0 For periodicity e/N= 1 gives cosmpN-+jsinwgN = 1. This equation can be satisfied for, @oN = 2n, 4m, 6m, 88, = = 0 integer. mo _ k oe an N Qnf_k k Since @ = 2nf, aay faa TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:45 Introduction to Signals and Systems Note that this condition is derived earlier also. Thus, For complex exponential to be periodic, 2° = (ie. rational) - (14.11) Relationships between the Signals Now let us consider the relationships between an elementary signals : 4. Relationship between unit step and unit ramp functions. The unit ramp function is defined as, 1 for 420 = {5 for #<0 Differentiating r(#) with respect to 't, d d “+ for £20 1 for £20 “1 = la -| a (; for treo 10 for t<0 The R.HS. of above equation is unit step function. Hence, d zs er =) drt) = u(t) dt Integrating both sides of above equation, fa@ =fu@a r() = f u(t at Thus we obtained the relationship between unit step and unit ramp function as, £ H(i) = u(t) it vn (L412) r(t) = J u(t) dt 2. Relationship between unit step and impulse functions : The wi step function is defined as, 1 for 20 ty ee deo TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge‘Signals and Systems 1-46 Introduction to Signals and Systems * Differentiation of a function with respect to 't’ means change of that function with + The unit step function changes from 0 to 1 at f= 0, There is no change in the values of u(t) for £< 0 and f>0. © Hence fu() will be zero for #> 0 and # <0. But at #=0, (2) changes from 0) to 1. a Thus in zero time the amplitude changes from 0 to 1. Hence the derivative will be, 1-0 _ Sup = 19 ‘ 0 for t>O and t<0 oo at £=0 The R.HS. of above equation represents impulse function. It has infinite amplitude at t=Oonly. Hence, 4 u(t) = 8(1) or u(t) =f (1) dt ww (14.13) SU Rm ut eet Ue} Evalitate the following : i fr acoat ii) fren aenyar et iii) f x(t) 8(4 8) dt = al iv) x(f)-sin t- Bt) v) sin[x(1)-8(4)] Here x(t) i shown in the Fig. 14.6. Fig. 1.4.6 Signal x(t) ‘Solution : i) J x(H Sede : Shifting property of impulse function states that, J a(#)8 (I-tp) dt = x (to) By equation (1.4.1) Let ty = 0, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:47 Introduction to Signals and Systems J 9X) = x From Fig. 1.4.6 x(0) = 2. Hence, J HX) = 2 Ge i) f x(t-1)8(t-1) dt: Shifting property of impulse function states that se J x(f)3(t=ty) dt =x (tg). Applying this property to above equation, J x(E-1)8(t-I)dt = (1-1) with to =1 = x(0)=2 from Fig. 1.46. ii) { x@8(4Ndt + The scaling property of impulse function states that equation (1.4.3) 8(a!) “4 8(H. Hence (4) = $50) ‘Jrosana = ‘fae fou 4 fo S(t de From part (i) we know that fi x(t) (dt =2 Then above equation becomes, Troacanat = dxaat i x(t)-sin £-8(t) : We know that f(#)-5(é) = f (0)8(1) from equation (1.4.5), Here let f()= sin t. Hence sinf-5(f) = sin(0)-3(t) x()-sinf-8() = x()-sin(0)-8() =0 since sin(0)=0 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1-48 Introduction to Signals and Systems v) sin [x(t)- &(t)] : Here x(t)-8(t) = x(0)-8(f) =2 from equation (1.4.5) and Fig. 1.4.6. 2. sin[x()-8()] = sin2=09 Find and sketch the derivatives of the following signats : i) x(t) = ult) ult-@), a> 0, ii) x(t) = t [u(t)—u(t—a)], a> 0, 1, t>0 itii) x(t) = sgn (1) = { eo. da ap (UW = ult = ad] KOS 4 Eu (yeu(t-a)] =u) A u(ta) We know that fut) =8(1). Hence above equation becomes, d dx(t 20) = 8(t)-8(t-a) a) 4 ii) Fel Hu(t)—u(t-a)l } Let ui) = ult) -u(t—a) Then from (i) we have, at = 8(1)-8(t-n) dx «(9 = 4G tq ymu-ay f= 40 y= Lay em he = #[8(t)-8(t-a)] + (4) +1 = £[8(4)-8(t-a)] + u(#) —u(t-2) [1 for t>0 | for t<0 iii) x(t) = sgn(t) = Note that this function changes its value from —1 to +1 at f= 0. Hence, a(t) _ ae) os at £=0 at 0 for #>0 and t<0 RS. of above equation is impulse function. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1249 Introduction to Signals and Systems SCR UmS Lea) Express the signum function it terms of step function and find even and odd parts of step function. Solution ; Unit step function is defined as, am = {i for 120 0 for t<0 ey © fe for #>0 Ul for #50 1 for £>0 ui)—u(-f) = Ms {i for £<0 = sgn (t) The odd and even parts of u(t) are shown in the Fig. 1.4.7. Fig. 1.4.7 Odd/Even parts of u(t) Example 1.4.4 Prove the following relationships between functions : 1) 8) = 1) = wr=1) 1 for n=0 0 for neo [Hint + u(n)uln=1) = { ii) Wn) y aK) f 0 for k<0 iti) wn) = Y S(n—*) =o e 0 for k<0 tei + Btn—h) fi ie bod TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:60 Introduction to Signals and Systems iota Cour) 1. Draw standard signals used for system analysis. 2, ‘Dif nite inc 3. State the properties of unit impulse function 4, Derive the relationship between unit step and ramp function. 5. inl vtado beled il he. andl pie’ ucton EE system Properties CEST Definition : A system is a set of elements or functional blocks that are connected together and produce an output in response to an input signal. Classification © There are two types of systems : i) Continuous time and ii) Discrete time systems. * Continuous Time (CT) systems handle continuous time signals, Analog filters, amplifiers, attenuators, analog transmitters and receivers ete are examples of continuous time systems. « Discrete Time (DT) systems handle discrete time signals. Fig. 1.5.1 (b) shows such system. Computers, printers, microprocessors, memories, shift registers ete are examples of discrete time systems, They operate only on discrete time signals. CT input Continuous CT output ‘signal ——| time (GT) | signal (a) x(t) systems yw) DT input Discrete DT output signal time (OT) |—> signal (e) x(n) systems yin) Fig. 1.5.1 Two types of systems based on signals they handle Continuous as well as discrete time systems can be further classified based on their properties. These properties are as follows = i) Dynamicity property : Static and dynamic systems. ii) Shift invariance : Time invariant and time variant systems. iii) Linearity property : Linear and non-linear systems. iv) Causality property : Causal and non-causal systems. v) Stability property : Stable and unstable systems. vi) Invertibility property : Inversible and non-inversible systems. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:51 Introduction to Signals and Systems In this section we will study all the above properties for continuous and discrete time systems. Static and Dynamic Systems (Systems with Memory or without Memory) Definition : The continuous time system is said to be static or (memoryless, instantaneous) if its output depends upon the present input only. + Example of memoryless (static) system : Consider voltage drop in the resistance depends upon current through v(t) = Ri(t) Thus output v(#) depends upon present current i(f). Hence this is static or memoryless system. + Example with memory (dynamic) system: Consider an example of a capacitor. e. v(t) = z iO dt Thus the voltage across the capacitor depends upon present as well as past current values, Here integration indicates the system with memory. Such systems are also called dynamic systems. * The discrete time systems can also be static or dynamic. If output of the discrete time system depends upon the present input sample only, then it is called static or memoryless or instantaneous system. For example, y(n) = 10- x(x) or y(n) = 15-x? (1) +10 x(n) are the static systems. Here the y(n) depends only upon 1 Hence such systems do not need memory for its operation. “! input sample. * A system is said to be dynamic if the output depends upon the past values of input also. For example, ye), = x(n) te(e-1) This is the dynamic system. In this system the n‘' output sample value depends upon n” input sample and just previous ie. (”—1)"" input sample. This systems need to th store the previous sample value. + Important point : Dynamic systems consists of integration, differentation, delay’ |elements or accumulation terms in their equation. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:62 Introduction to Signals and Systems ime Invariant and Time Variant Systems | Definition : A continuous time system is time invariant if the time shi signal results in corresponding time shift in the output. in the input * Let y(t) = f[x(1)] ie. y(t) is response for x(t). Then if x(t) is delayed by time ty, then output y(#) will also be delayed by the same time. i.c., f[eG-4)] = v8) -- (5.1) The time variant system do not satisfy above relation. The time invariant systems are also called fixed systems * Similarly if the input/output characteristics of the discrete time system do not change with shift of time origin, such systems are called shift invariant or time invariant systems. Let the system has input x(1) and corresponding output y(1), ie. y(n) = f [x(n)]. Then the system is shift invariant or time invariant if and only if, f[x(@r-)] = v8) (15.2) Here ‘is constant. If the input is delayed by ‘k’ samples, then output is also delayed by the same number of samples for time invariant system. «Steps to test for time invariance property : Step 1: For continuous time systems determine the output of the system for delayed input x(t-f) ie, wh) = f[e(-)] Step Then delay the output itself by fy, ie. y(t-f). Step 3: If v(t.f1) #y(t-f) time variant y(hty) =y(t-4) time invariant | ve (15.3) For discrete time systems determine the output of the system for delayed input x(n-k) ie, wk) = f [x(r-8)] Then delay the output itself by 'k’ samples, ie. y(n—k). Then if nk) # y(n—k) time variant | yCmk) # y(n) time varian 54) y(1,k) = y(n-K) time invariant + Important point : The system becomes time variant when the output is some| function of time parameter 't’ or 'n’ directly. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 163 Introduction to Signals and Systems Linearity : Additivity and Homogeneity The linearity property is actually combination of two properties : Additivity and Homogeneity. Additivity : Let the system has yi(t) = f{r1(8] and yo(t) = flta(}. Then the system is said to be additive if, m+) = fl+x2(01 Homogeneity (Scaling) : Let the system produces output y(F) in response to input x(f). Then, flax] = ait) Here a; is constant. Linearity : [Definition : A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the superposition principle. * Consider the two systems defined as follows : ai () = Fea ())] ie. x1 (4) is input and y; (1) is output. and yo (1) =f [x2 (f)] ie. x (1) i Then the continuous time system is linear if, Fees +02 x2 (H] = ary (402 ¥2() = 58) input and yp (f) is output. Here a; and a> are arbitrary constants. This condition states that combined response due to x; (1) and x2 (#) together is same as the sum of individual responses for a linear system. + Similarly, the discrete time system is said to be linear if it satisfies superposition principle. Consider the two systems defined as follows un (1) = fe ()] ie. 2; (1) is input and y; (n) is output ya () = f[x2 (Ji Then the discrete time system is linear if, fei i (n) +3 x9 (n)] = 04 4 () Fag Yo (m) + (5.6) Here a, and ap are arbitrary constants. 2. (n) is input and yp (1) is output. © Important point : Linear system produces zero output if the input is zero under) relaxed condition. | TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge‘Signats and Systems 1-54 Introduction to Signals and Systems Causal and Non-causal Systems | Definition : The system is said to be causal if its output at any time depends upon | present and past inputs only. ie, y(to) = f [x(); tsb] w= (LS.7) Thus the output at time fy, depends on inputs before fg. The causal system is not anticipatory. Similarly, a discrete time system is said to be causal if its output at any instant depends upon present and past input samples only. i.e., y(n) = f(s k sn] ~~ (1.5.8) Thus the output is the function of x(n), x(m-1),x(n—2),x(n-3) .. ete. For causal system. The system is non-causal if its output depends upon future inputs also, ie. x (n+l), x(n+2), x(n+3) ... ete + Important point : Normally all causal systems are physically realizable. There is no system which can generate the output for inputs which will be available in future. |Such systems are non-causal, and they are not physically realizable. Causality, physical realizability and Paley-wiener Criterion + We know that the system is physically realizable if it is causal. Such system can be constructed in reality. Sueh system cannot produce response before the input is applied. # In frequency domain, the necessary and sutficient condition for the system to be physically realizable is, = InfACo, i FHC 2, +0? lan < as t >, Hence this is unstable system. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeSignals and Systems 1:56 Introduction to Signals and Systems iv) Time invariance : Here y(t, ty) = flx(t—fy)] = el!) ‘The delayed output becomes, wif) = se In the above equation ‘t’ is replaced by t—fy. Since y(t, f))#y(t—h), the system is time variant. Above system is time variant since y() is exponential function of time factor 'f. ¥) Linearity : The exponential function present in the system equation makes it nonlinear. vi) Invertibility : Taking natural logarithm of system equation, Tn y(t) = tx(h) * ; In y(t) = x(t) ‘The system is invertible since there is unique output for unique input. 2) y(t) = x(t/2) i) Dynamicity : The system is dynamic since output depends upon past input. For example (4) = x(2). ii) Causality : The system is noncausal since at t be future input. | WA) = (2). Here x(-2) will iii)Stability : As long as x(!) is bounded, output (4) will be bounded. Hence the system is stable. iv) Time invariance : The time factor in x(t) is modified ie. t/2. This makes the system time variant. v) Linearity : Qutput is direct function of input. Hence the system is linear. vi) Invertibility : The system is invertible. 3) y(t) i) Dynamicity ; Since y(t) depends upon present input (1), this is static system. cos[x(t)] ii) Causality : Output depends upon present input, hence this is causal system. iii) Stability : Since -1=. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge