DSJ-18747

A SURVEY ON CAMOUFLAGE TARGET RECONNAISSANCE USING SPECTRAL

IMAGING

ABSTRACT
Spectral image processing is a current trend because of its ability to have more functionality
across various bands in an image. Many researchers are working on spectral images and
many algorithms have been constructed and developed, particularly in the field of remote
sensing and ground monitoring. As observed there is not much research and standard
algorithms developed especially in drone-based hyperspectral processing which is used
across agriculture, surveillance, and military and not limited to the mentioned applications.
Consequently, make HSI more popular than using normal frames for target recognition.
Therefore, a review of the aerial-based hyperspectral processing is performed, which
contributes to the researchers, providing the background work on the defined subject.

Keywords: Camouflage; Deep Learning (DL); Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) Datasets;

Machine Learning (ML); PreProcessing

1. INTRODUCTION
Today's hyperspectral processing technology, and the increase in drone surveillance
research, has resulted in a new research topic on drone hyperspectral image processing.
The applications of the research are surveillance, agriculture, medicine, transport, military,
environmental, and many more. The research application concentrates on military
surveillance for target reconnaissance.
The growing technology and new ideas have all been developed from an adequate
review of the literature on the chosen subject. It was quite evident that most research ideas
get in shape with reading and understanding the literature on the specific subject with the
state of the art. The current trend follows consistent, logical, empirical, and reproducible
research that is deemed good. Booysen et al. provided the results of trials that transmit the
use of drones with hyperspectral sensors for exploration and monitoring was well adapted
and should be considered. (DataSet used: refer to author’s primary collection) [1].
Hyperspectral processing is complex in comparison with normal image processing because
of its nature. Most researchers have constructed and trained their models and achieved a
certain precision better than that observed for normal images.
To attain improved accuracy than the present technology a preprocessing was adopted
which will analyze the data both spectrally and spatially, eliminate noise and reduce
complexity by principal component analysis (PCA). The preprocessing steps reduce time
and increase the accuracy of target reconnaissance thus making it robust. The dataset used
by the authors is also mentioned respectively. Now let us look into a brief review of HSI
advancements, methods, and future scope as mentioned by authors in their work.
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2. HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING
Gu et al. in their work explained important modes of HSI in existence that was, multi-
temporal HSI, which referred to observing the same area at changed dates, secondly, HS
video imaging, capturing full spectral frames in the present and HS stereo imaging, which
obtained full dimension data (image in 2D, spectra, elevation) of the region of interest
(ROI). Also, briefly reviewed current HSI data acquisition, processing, applications, and
challenges in the representation of data, feature learning, and interpretation are well
explained. Present and future scopes in the research field are well-detailed. (DataSet used:
America, ARIES-1 (Australia), GF-5, PROBA CHRIS (Europe), Tiangong-1, Tiangong-2,
Zhuhai-1 satellite constellation (China)) [2]. Inamdar et al. collected the datasets in three
various sites and gave information about camera sensors and spectral data of each site with
varying resolutions. Then explained metrics of quality in terms of pixel duplication, pixel
loss, pixel shifting, and requirements for the storage of data with other applications of HSI.
They also concluded that the method outperformed the classification of tested applications
for all rasters, spectral and target detection. (DataSet used: CASI) [3]. Wang et al. proposed
that HSI super-resolution overcame the limitations of hardware in existing HSI systems, in
terms of spatial resolution. That was by blending high-resolution HSI with low-resolution
conservative data of identical scenarios to acquire a high-resolution HSI. This method fits
in a physical model and deep past data to reconstruct HSI. (DataSet used: CAVE
DATASET) [4]. Riihiaho et al. proposed cheap and simpler tools to make researchers
easier access to HSIs [5]. Nalepa et al. described advancements in the field of multi and HS
analysis that is blooming and have become a stirring research field that allows the faster
implementation of these methods in actual applications. (DataSet used: refer to author’s
primary collection) [6].
Velez-Reyes et al. proposed a new dataset SPICE made available for the public. Army
Research Laboratory (ARL) collected the dataset, analyzed and characterized the data for
materials in the scenario both spatially and temporally with its radiance/reflectance data.
An equivalent spectral noise radiance specified by manufacturers when related to sensor
calculated noise of the setup are comparable in a laboratory and actual scenario. Datasets
processed are inconsistent cubes, for collected data right after measurement of a black
body, which was automatically implemented nearly at each hour mark. Neglecting this data
which was erroneous, various target/object detection methods like 1. Spectral Matched
Filter, 2. Spectral Angle Mapper, 3. Adaptive Coherent/ Cosine Estimator were
implemented on a dataset with temporal data having two spectral targets, noon and
midnight. They also recommended a spectral-matched filter method that resulted in a better
detection rate. (DataSet used: SPICE) [7].
Skauli et al. acquired hyperspectral data and made it accessible for imaging system
modeling. The collection included data on people, scenery, and structures. The information
spans the visible, near-infrared, and short-wavelength electromagnetic spectra, with
wavelengths ranging from 0.4 to 2.5 micrometers. The data collected were taken using
HySpex imaging which was a line scan spectrometer that span the regions of spectral 0.4-1
micrometers, and 1-2.5 micrometers. The collected HS data contained both software for
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transforming measured radiance data to estimated reflectance and measured illuminants.

(DataSet used: refer author primary collection) [8].
Rangnekar et al. examined the use of convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture
to make it easier to comprehend aerial hyperspectral scenes and proposed AeroRIT, a novel
hyperspectral dataset big enough for CNN training. (DataSet used: dataset-AeroRIT) [9].
Huang et al. proposed a nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF)-based HS image
simulation method that attempted to produce HS images from multispectral (MS) data. The
key innovation was the spectral transformation matrix and new simulation technique. To
convert HS endmembers into MS endmembers, first created a spectral transformation
matrix. To optimize the HS and MS endmembers, employed an iteration strategy. The MS
endmembers factor then tests MS data to get the abundance matrix. Then abundance matrix
is multiplied by the HS endmembers to get the final image [10].

3. CAMOUFLAGE AND TARGET DETECTION

Tiwari et al. discovered that target identification used normal shape information, but
when considering spectrum images, hyperspectral detectors use the target's spectral
information. The identification of sub-pixel objects often forces a compromise among
spectral-spatial resolution. Even when the target was hidden, the basic principle of
modeling a sub-pixel target detection for camouflaged target detection was that its spectra
still contribute to the observed pixel spectra because concealment does not fully cover it.
The only concealment methods taken into consideration are camouflaged net and tree
canopy cover since hyperspectral imaging does not reveal any penetration [11].
Zhao et al. proposed a system to take scenes of desert and jungle settings in
hyperspectral sensor technology, as well as clothing and nets used for camouflage, in the
hyperspectral range (400–1000 nm). As a preprocessing step for the correction method
denoising, the black and white correction was deployed. Principal component analysis was
used to assess the trained samples’ region of interest. Then averaged the pixels in the
region of interest and its surroundings. The dataset had training and test samples, 60% and
40% respectively. Based on their similarities and differences with the cited spectrum, the i.
K-Nearest Neighbour (KNN), ii. Naive Bayes (NB), iii. Random Forest (RF), iv. Support
Vector Machines (SVM) methods were integrated to develop classification models.
(DataSet used: Simulated Operational Environment) [12]. Liu et al. investigated the
problem when having hyperspectral training data available for multi-pixel targets to detect
an anomaly. The probabilities of detection and false alarm for the generalized likelihood
ratio test are calculated analytically. The detector effectiveness of the suggested method
was estimated for both actual and simulated data. The outcomes showed that this detector,
which was helped by training data, performed better than its equivalent. (DataSet used:
ROSIS) [13]. Liu et al. proposed a method to identify the target automatically from the
data, a novel semi-supervised network was presented for camouflaged armed person
detection. To enhance the boundary/edges based on the network of search identification
firstly, the edge attention was employed to camouflaged object detection dataset. In
addition, to improve the detection accuracy of the data scarcity and unlabeled dataset, a

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semi-supervised learning strategy was proposed. In comparison to previous object

detection techniques, experiments indicated that the proposed network method Semi-SINet
detected camouflaged persons successfully. (DataSet used: COD10K) [14].
Shen et al. used band selection techniques and snapshot multispectral imaging
technologies in urban-related settings. And was able to locate concealed targets with great
accuracy. The camouflaged target detection approach, which was created to get early target
identification outcomes and adaptively segment the target zone, associated methods like
Constrained Energy Minimization (CEM), enhanced maximum between-class variance
(OTSU), algorithms (t-OTSU) were employed. Furthermore, a complete target contour was
created to improve the capacity of multispectral images to recognize targets (MSI) using
the Object Region Extraction (ORE) approach. (DataSet used: ASRC-NET, AIRC-NET)
[15]. Szabadföldi et al. provided a summary of the potential of AI applications in the
military while emphasizing the necessity for quantifiable metrics to evaluate the
advantages of radical tools, and techniques that are expected to enhance the effectiveness,
and efficiency of procedures when concentrating on crucial areas like situational awareness
and decision support, as well as logistical and operational planning, modeling, and
simulation (M&S) [16].
Bistron et al. proposed a summary of the potential of AI applications in the military
and present trends and algorithms, in addition to researching applications in the
noncombatant scenes. The majority of the focus was on using methods, and algorithms on
AI in the field of; cybersecurity, military logistics, object detection, and robotics. As it
draws attention to the difficulties in the current fixes and also the potential benefits of
artificial intelligence. Additionally, it briefly described the mathematical underpinnings of
the expectation maximization & gaussian mixture model methods, as well as the CNN, and
SVM networks that are utilized to solve the problems. The final chapter talks about how
society feels about using neural network algorithms for military purposes [17].
Khoshboresh-Masouleh et al. analyzed a fact about targets in sub pixels that occupied only
a small fraction of single pixels because of constrained spatial resolution in a hyperspectral
cube that adopted a replacement signal model for sub-pixel detection of targets. Using the
HyMap data cube to enhance the detection of hyperspectral targets in sub-pixel, created a
revised replacement signal model in this work based on an autonomous target creation
process. To provide reliable findings, the impacts of different real targets on the
hyperspectral data cube were assessed. In tests with seven targets, the suggested technique
obtained an average 99% area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve.
(DataSet used: COOKE CITY) [18].
Rodriguez et al. evaluated third-generation forest nets as a hyperspectral imaging
defense presented in this article. The analysis was conducted at three varying levels of
difficulty: (1) by utilizing calibration spectra and simulated pictures; (2) at an operational
background; and (3) by hiding items in an operational setting. Glana Sensors' L4
hyperspectral imager was used to scan the region. The components of this sensor are
cutting-edge variable optical filters operated in 2D spatial mode. The imager offered 48
distinct spectral bands and great spatial resolution in the VNIR range of 450-950 nm using
this novel method. (DataSet used: 2D and 2nd generation camouflage nets available within
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the Belgian Defence) [19]. Zhu et al. study exhibited effective radiative preservation in the
space of non-atmospheric as well as multispectral camouflage in the visible spectrum, mid-
infrared spectrum (3-5, 8-14 m), and other spectral bands. The multispectral camouflage
device had wavelength selective emission in ZnS/Ge multilayer and microwave absorption
in the Cu-ITO-Cu metasurface. At 2500Wm2 input power density, this device's IR
camouflage capability exhibited an (8.4 to 5.9) °Celcius drop in (inner to the surface)
temperature and a (53.4 to 13%) reduction in IR spectra in the mid-long wavelength IR
bands compared to typical broadband low emittance material (Cr). In addition,
demonstrated that space of non-atmospheric radiation present may augment natural
convection in the atmosphere, increasing the overall cooling power from 136 Wm2 to
surface temperature 252W∙m−2 at 150 °C [20].
Abbott et al. proposed two new strategies for using the quantity of related RGB frames
to structure the shortage of annotated long-wavelength infrared data. Provided a brand-new
unsupervised cycleGAN method adaption in converting non-corresponding LWIR/RGB
datasets. The objective was to train recognition algorithms to achieve high identification
rates in actual LWIR images using simply RGB tagged imagery. (DataSet used: LWIR-
RGB, CYCLE-GAN, THALES) [21].
Moscadelli et al. proposed a technique for finding materials in thermal infrared
hyperspectral data with known spectrum emissivity. The methodology considered the
spectrum variability of the downwelling light, which was often disregarded in most target
identification methods. Assuming that low-rank subspace which was caused by the
downwelling radiance, and learned its source matrix using MODTRAN, handled such
fluctuation. Then tested the method's efficiency using simulated data, and then offered the
findings, which demonstrated the usefulness of the suggested approach [22]. Jiang et al.
work was to detect items more precisely that are concealed. Proposed a camouflage object
detection network, the MAGnifier Network (MAGNet), which replicated the observing
effect of a magnifier and was encouraged by the usage of magnifiers in images to find
hidden items. (DataSet used: lab camouflaged dataset) [23].
Cheng et al. evaluated the efficiency of IR camouflage, utilizing picture saliency.
According to a target's internal form features and backdrop associated properties, the
target's saliency both master and internal respectively were computed. Ultimately target's
camouflage effectiveness value was determined to produce a whole saliency value. The
target without camouflage had the lowest camouflage efficiency rating under the identical
testing settings, whereas the target with camouflage that blended in well with the backdrop
had the greatest value. This suggested that the camouflage effectiveness value, which
served as a measurable index, enabled to relate usefulness in the camouflage detection of
objects and target under various conditions as well as that of several targets under the same
circumstances, such as the location of military equipment on the battlefield and the
development of IR camouflage materials both need this. (DataSet used: Real IR Target)
[24]. Zhao et al. proposed a fractional domain-based updated restricted energy
minimization detector that increased the separability of background and target from
prominent spectral domain characteristics onto the transform domain. To improve the
distinction between the target and the background, the spectral data were first projected
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into the fractional domain using the fractional Fourier transform. Then by using a sliding
double window method, a freshly updated restricted energy minimization detector was
implemented to yield the benefit of the tested picture pixel's resident spatial statistical
characteristics. The mean Pearson correlation coefficient between the preceding target
pixel and the testing pixel, together with its four neighboring pixels, was determined to
maximize the use of the inner window data. (DataSet used: Bay Champagne, Chikusei, Los
Angeles, Texas Coast) [25]. Yadav et al. evaluated Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) that
are used to determine the best spectral choice in identifying targets. ANN has been used to
explore three fabric targets with three different backgrounds to determine, and the
effectiveness of it in enhancing target identification has also been examined. (DataSet
used: RIT, NY, July 26–29, 2010) [26].
Hossain et al. in their work explained military research for single and multidimensional
battle backgrounds against hyperspectral imaging has a limited amount of assessments of
camouflage materials. To accommodate the capabilities of contemporary battlefield (CB)
surveillance, the production of camouflage materials needed to be improved. The goals of
this modeling endeavor are the development of remote sensing techniques and the desired
spectral features of camouflage materials. To assess camouflage textiles, a spectral signal
of the fabric was simulated against woodland-marine and marine-desert CBs, as well as
dried leaves, green leaves, tree bark-woodland, water-marine, sand-desertland, stone-
stoneland, snow-snowland, sky, and ice-iceland CBs (DGTWSIB). The goal of this
simulation was to develop SL assessment mechanisms for object background (OB) in the
ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) (Vis), and IR to improve and establish the
assessment of camouflage fabrics, Fourier transforms infrared spectrometry and near-
infrared spectrophotometry (NIRS) (FTIRS) were used. To conceal, detect, recognize, and
identify in OB conditions, the broad geographical DGTWSIB of camouflage materials has
been taken into mind (CDRI). To evaluate camouflage fabrics against single, concurrent,
and adaptive backdrops from military CB or sites, theoretical modeling of SL has been
developed. To counter the threat of HSI from the defensive mechanism of reflection, a
better formulation of camouflage textile measurement was guided by the theoretical and
methodological model. (DataSet used: Vis-IR -SL- CDRI- OB -DGTWSIBUV (100-
10,000 nm)) [27]. Appice et al. suggested a method for saliency detection known as
ensemble learning in hyperspectral imaging datasets. This improved saliency assignments
obtained using a reliable color-based method with fresh saliency data obtained that utilized
the wealth of spectral data on several hyperspectral frames. (DataSet used: HS-SOD) [28].
Sharma et al. focused on the long and intermediate infrared wave bands, that
influenced the emissivity of the target on deceptive thermal dissimilarity and the thermal
imagers detection range was assessed. Before computing the apparent thermal contrast, the
apparent thermal contrast, which takes background radiation reflected off the target, was
evaluated first in both IR bands in terms of the emissivity of the target. For the calculation
of the entire thermal dissimilarity taking emission and reflection parameters, a graphical
user interface simulation in MATLAB was constructed. Finally, the detection range
performance of thermal imagers was predicted using this entire deceptive thermal
dissimilarity in the night vision thermal and radar technology. According to the analyzed
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findings, thermal contrast estimations are more significantly impacted by target emissivity
in LWIR. Fewer levels of target emissivity result in lower thermodynamic temperature
differences between the target and background, which caused negative thermal contrast and
larger detection ranges [29].
Kowalski et al. used reflexive imagers functional in the terahertz (THz.) spectrum at
1.2mm (250. GHz.), and the midwave infrared (MWIR) spectrum at 3-6m, the study
compared the detection and identification of concealed items covered by different forms of
clothing (50–100 THz). A sizable collection of frames featuring diverse objects wrapped in
various kinds of apparel has been gathered for this investigation. The detection and
classification algorithms were designed to function reliably and quickly throughout these
two spectrums. Physical characteristics of textiles in both spectral domains, theoretical
restrictions, imager performance, and attributes of both spectrums are presented. In the
study, two deep learning-based processing techniques are compared. The two spectra's
original findings from several tests are compared [30].

4. PRE-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
To attain improved accuracy than the present technology a preprocessing method was
adopted which will analyze the data both spectrally and spatially, eliminate noise, and
reduce complexity by principal component analysis (PCA). The preprocessing steps used
reduce time and increase the accuracy of target reconnaissance thus making it robust. Vidal
et al. demonstrated how the most popular solutions may be used to address the problems.
Then implemented the same in a useful way by giving instances of how they are applied,
along with their benefits and drawbacks [31].

4.1. DENOISING
One of the preprocessing methods was Denoising, it eliminates noise and inaccuracy
present in the hyperspectral image. Thus, making the target object in the image more
distinct and visible increased the speed of detection and increases accuracy. Zhuang et al.
introduced Fast Hyperspectral Inpainting (FastHyIn) a restoration algorithm for Hyper
Spectral Images in which observations are made prior in the pixels of the identified bands
that were missing when processing. Also, introduced a Fast Hyperspectral Denoising
(FastHyDe) algorithm that handled Gaussian and Poissonian noise. Both of these
restoration algorithms are incredibly quick and competitive. The low-rank and self-
similarity qualities of their incredibly sparse and compact HSI representations are fully
used by FastHyDe and FastHyIn. With much less computational complexity, the recently
proposed FastHyDe and FastHyIn compete with cutting-edge methods in some tests
utilizing real and simulated data. (DataSet used: Washington DC) [32].
Kim et al. described the drawbacks of traditional approaches, and a new technique
Background Registration Based Adaptive Noise Filtering (BRANF) was proposed to avoid
the drawback. The suggested BRANF approach made use of resilient principle component
analysis and background registration processing (RPCA). The performance of the noise
filtering may also be quantitatively assessed using methods for evaluating the image
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quality without the need for groundtruth. Midwave and longwave infrared i.e., MWIR and
LWIR respectively, data in actual armed optical organizations were used in experiments
for performance verification. As a consequence, it was discovered that BRANF has a 30%
better rate of picture quality improvement than traditional methods. (DataSet used:
MWIR/LWIR refer to author’s primary collection) [33].

4.2. SPECTRAL AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS

Another method was spectral-spatial analysis, the characteristic of a hyperspectral
image having a distinct spectral signature for each object in different bands makes it
probable to detect the target object, along with the spatial information of the object in terms
of its features like size, shape, and edges. This method made the model to be robust
because of its distinct feature. Ozisik Baskurt et al. proposed a unique spatial-contextual
unmixing method that was created in this context, particularly for the expansive ground of
understanding of hyperspectral imaging equipment. The suggested approach was assessed
using a variety of simulated and real-world instances [34]. Kirsch et al. proposed a
combination of drone based terrestrial Remote Sensing that improved the security,
consistency, and productivity of all terrestrial events such as monitoring, exploration, and
mining. Sets forth a coordinated workflow that produced a spectrally and geometrically
precise blend of Hyper Spectral Data Cubes and Structure from Motion Multi-View Stereo
Point Cloud in the visible and near infrared, Shortwave infrared, and longwave infrared
spectrum, attained by imaging sensors from drone based remote sensing. (DataSet used:
Germany Terrestrial refer author primary collection) [35]. Fejjari et al. with the help of
spatial features in the hyperspectral scenario developed a framework of intrinsic
decomposition to remove unwanted spatial data and then use the useful information in the
tensor structure as a tensor component for feature extraction. Therefore, provided useful
information for the classification process. (DataSet used: Indian Pines, Pavia, Salinas) [36].
Chen et al. proposed an innovative Tensor based Principal Component Analysis a
preprocessing method that takes the target's backdrop (TPCA). In this approach, the
residual part of HSI was subjected to TD after being split into its major component (PC)
and residual parts. According to the physical definitions of HSI, TPCA simultaneously
takes and handles spectral and spatial information. Experiments on simulated and real-time
data show that this TPCA preprocessing technique outclassed earlier employed feature
extraction compared to other target and object detection systems. (DataSet used: Synthetic
And Real) [37]. Shah et al. proposed the use of entropy to leverage spatial information
while convex set optimization was used to use spectral information. The endmember
extraction procedure was more accurate when this entropy-based spatial information was
presented. (DataSet used: Synthetic And Real) [38].

4.3. NORMALIZATION
Manian et al. proposed hyperspectral labeling and classification of images utilizing a
semi-supervised approach. In the unsupervised step, feature extraction was used to improve
the image before clustering was used to label the data and produce the groundtruth image.

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Preprocessing steps involved normalization, principal component analysis, and feature

extraction made up the supervised stage of classification. The generated information in the
unsupervised step such as groundtruth and extracted feature are fed into a collective of ML
approaches, after which a judgment block associated with the computer results to label the
image using a majority vote. ML approaches included Gaussian classifiers, gradient
boosting, linear perceptrons, and SVM. Overall, the supervised classification of
hyperspectral pictures performed best using the gradient boosting approach. For creating
labeled data for hyperspectral data without groundtruth information, the ensemble
technique that has been provided was helpful. Overall accuracy for the HSI2 Lake Erie
photos was 100%, the Jasper hyperspectral image has a 93.74% accuracy, and the
categorization of cyanobacteria, toxic algal blooms, and surface scum has a 99.92%
accuracy. The approach does a good job of separating surface scum from blue-green algae.
A cloud server's whole pipeline ensemble technique classified Lake Erie photos 24 times
quicker than a workstation. (DataSet used: HSI2 Lake Erie images) [39].

4.4. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA)

PCA method visualizes the data and one of the methods in PCA is the dimensionality
reduction technique which reduces the vast bands into necessary bands needed for target
reconnaissance. Therefore, reducing complexity contributes to the speed of execution.
Bandyopadhyay et al. presented a book that contained a range of applications for ML and
DL in calculating urban settings. They also, discussed hypothetical and underlying
systems, platforms, research, tools, and their uses. Then provided exposure to several
machine learning fields in metropolitan settings. This book's chapters incorporated actual
geographic data in a few of them. (DataSet used: Real Geographical data) [40].

5. MACHINE LEARNING (ML)

Lv and Wang et al. in the article gave insight into various classification algorithms
such as supervised, unsupervised, and semisupervised classification methods. (DataSet
used: refer to author’s primary collection) [41]. Huckridge et al. proposed a Long Wave
Infrared (LWIR) sensor for mid to long range target detection that improved recognition of
targets and reduced false alarm rates caused by the system. The system offered automatic
target detection skills and utilized current advances in machine learning and high-quality
thermal imaging data. For classifications linked to land defense, a classifier was trained
over Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) which attained more than 95% accuracy.
(DataSet used: THALES) [42]. Kemker et al. proposed self-taught learning for the
categorization of HSI. For many machine learning applications, supervised DL techniques
were advanced technology. But were inefficient with a tiny labeled training dataset. Hence,
an unsupervised method as an alternative, employed a feature extraction framework from
unlabeled hyperspectral data to train a self-taught learning algorithm. These models were
trained to extract generalized properties using adequately huge volumes of the unlabeled
dataset which differ from the dataset of the target. After the dataset was trained with
different models finally, a smaller dataset containing the actual target was trained in the

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framework using self-learning techniques for HSI classification. In an independent

component analysis, a shallow method was used in the first, while a stacked three-layer
convolutional autoencoder was used in the second. (DataSet used: IP, Salinas, Pavia) [43].
Manian et al. proposed hyperspectral labeling and classification of images using a
semi-supervised approach. In the unsupervised step, feature extraction was used to improve
the image before clustering was used to label the data and produce the groundtruth image.
Preprocessing steps involved normalization, principal component analysis, and feature
extraction made up of the supervised approach of classification. The generated information
in the unsupervised step such as groundtuth and extracted features are fed into a collective
of ML approaches, after which a judgment block associated with the computer results to
label the image using a majority vote. ML approaches included Gaussian classifiers,
gradient boosting, linear perceptrons, and SVM. Overall, the supervised classification of
hyperspectral pictures performed best using the gradient boosting approach. For creating
labeled data for hyperspectral data without groundtruth information, the ensemble
technique that has been provided was helpful. Overall accuracy for the HSI2 Lake Erie
photos was 100%, the Jasper hyperspectral image has a 93.74% accuracy, and the
categorization of cyanobacteria, toxic algal blooms, and surface scum has a 99.92%
accuracy. The approach does a good job of separating surface scum from blue-green algae.
A cloud server's whole pipeline ensemble technique classified Lake Erie photos 24 times
quicker than a workstation. (DataSet used: HSI2 Lake Erie images) [39].

5. CONCLUSION
A brief survey on drones with Hyperspectral/Multispectral sensors was carried out to
provide the groundwork for future research scope. An attempt was made to provide all
ideas of the researchers into one single review paper with datasets, processing, and ML/DL
techniques used in the respective articles for the desired application. The application was
wider than observed. Hence, the future for this technology is bright with a lot of research
scope.

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