OB Session 4 Contd.

Micro-Organizational Behavior
Session 4:
Perception, Learning and
Individual Decision Making
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Objectives
6.1 Explain the factors that influence perception.
6.2 Describe attribution theory.
5.6 Define learning and outline three major theories of learning
5.7 Define shaping and How it can be used in OB
6.3 Explain the link between perception and decision making.
Key Terms
Perception Learning
Attribution Theory Classical conditioning Fixed ratio
Fundamental Attribution Operant conditioning Variable ratio
Error
Selective Perception Behaviourism OB Mod
Halo effect Social learning theory Decisions
Horns effect Shaping Behaviour Problem
Contrast effect Continuous Rational Decision
Reinforcement Making Process
Stereotyping Intermittent Bounded Rationality
Reinforcement
Self-fulfilling prophecy Schedule_Fixed Interval Intuitive Decision Making
Variable interval Biases and Errors in DM
Key Terms
Overconfidence Bias Ethical Values Creativity

Anchoring Bias Utilitarianism Problem formulation
Confirmation Bias Whistle-blowers Information gathering
Availability Bias Deonance Idea Generation
Escalation of Behavioural Ethics Creative outcome
commitment
Random error
Hindsight Bias
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (1 of 2)
• Perception is a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning
to their environment.
• It is important to the study of OB because people’s
behaviors are based on their perception of what reality
is, not on reality itself.
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (2 of 2)
Exhibit 6-1 Factors That Influence Perception
Explain Attribution Theory (1 of 10)
• Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an
individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it
was internally or externally caused.
• Determination depends on three factors:
– Distinctiveness
– Consensus
– Consistency
• Clarification of the differences between internal and
external causation
– Internally caused – those that are believed to be
under the personal control of the individual.
– Externally caused – resulting from outside causes.
Exhibit 6-2 Attribution Theory
• Fundamental attribution error
– We have a tendency to underestimate the influence
of external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors.
• Self-serving bias
– Individuals attribute their own successes to internal
factors.
• Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
– Selective perception
▪ Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or
event stand out will increase the probability that it
will be perceived.
▪ Since we can’t observe everything going on around
us, we engage in selective perception.
• Halo effect
– The halo effect occurs when we draw a general
impression based on a single characteristic.
• Contrast effects
– We do not evaluate a person in isolation.
– Our reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons we have recently encountered.
• Stereotyping
– Judging someone based on one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
▪ We have to monitor ourselves to make sure we’re
not unfairly applying a stereotype in our evaluations
and decisions.
• Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
– Employment Interview
▪ Evidence indicates that interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate.
– Interviewers generally draw early impressions
that become very quickly entrenched.
– Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions
change very little after the first four or five
minutes of the interview.
• Performance Expectations
– Evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to
validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perceptions are faulty.
▪ Self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion effect,
characterizes the fact that people’s expectations
determine their behavior.
– Expectations become reality.
• Performance Evaluation
– An employee’s performance appraisal is very much
dependent upon the perceptual process.
▪ Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms.
▪ Subjective measures are problematic because of
selective perception, contrast effects, halo effects,
and so on.
2-17
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
•Learning components:
Is Is Acquired
Involves
Relatively Through
Change
Permanent Experience
© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

2-18
Theories of Learning
• Classical Conditioning
– A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce such a response.
• Operant Conditioning
– A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or
prevents a punishment.
• Social-Learning Theory
– People can learn through observation and direct experience.

2-19
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Dog Drool
• Key Concepts:
– Unconditioned stimulus
▪ A naturally occurring phenomenon.
– Unconditioned response
▪ The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
– Conditioned stimulus
▪ An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
– Conditioned response
▪ The response to the artificial stimulus.
This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best theory for
OB learning.

2-20
Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking
manner.
• Key Concepts:
– Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not reflexive.
– Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can increase or decrease the
likelihood of behavior repetition.
– Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
– Rewards are most effective immediately after performance.
– Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.

2-21
Social-Learning Theory
• Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by observation, reading, or just
hearing about someone else’s – a model’s – experiences.
• Key Concepts:
– Attentional processes
▪ Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.
– Retention processes
▪ Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.
– Motor reproduction processes
▪ Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.
– Reinforcement processes
▪ Positive incentives motivate learners.

2-22
Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the
desired response.
•Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:

– Positive reinforcement
▪ Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
– Negative reinforcement
▪ Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs
(learning)
– Punishment
▪ Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
(“unlearning”)
– Extinction
▪ Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)

2-23
Schedules of Reinforcement: A
Critical Issue
• Two Major Types:
– Continuous Reinforcement
▪ A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated
– Intermittent Reinforcement
▪ A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth
repeating but not every time it is demonstrated
▪ Multiple frequencies

2-24
Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

• Ratio
– Depends on the number of responses made.
• Interval
– Depends on the time between reinforcements.
• Fixed
– Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a
set number of responses.
• Variable
– Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary relative to
the behavior.

2-25
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio
2-26
Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting
•Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model
1 • Identify critical behaviors
2 • Develop baseline data
3 • Identify behavioral consequences
4 • Develop and apply intervention
5 • Evaluate performance improvement

2-27
Problems with OB Mod and

Reinforcement
• OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.
• OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling.
• Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior.
Modern managers and

OB theorists are using
cognitive approaches to
shaping behavior.

2-28
Global Implications
• Intellectual Abilities
– Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across cultures.
• Biographical Characteristics
– Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships described in
this chapter.
– Countries do vary dramatically on their biographical composition.
• Learning
– Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point.
2-29
Summary and Managerial

Implications
• Three Individual Variables:
– Ability
▪ Directly influences employees level of performance.
▪ Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and transfer.
▪ Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities.
– Biographical Characteristics
▪ Should not be used in management decisions: possible source of bias.
– Learning
▪ Observable change in behavior = learning.
▪ Reinforcement works better than punishment.

•Thank You

OB Session 4 Contd.

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OB Session 4 Contd.

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Micro-Organizational Behavior

6.2 Describe attribution theory.

5.6 Define learning and outline three major theories of learning

5.7 Define shaping and How it can be used in OB

6.3 Explain the link between perception and decision making.

Overconfidence Bias Ethical Values Creativity

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Shaping: A Managerial Tool

•Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

•Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model

1 • Identify critical behaviors

2 • Develop baseline data

3 • Identify behavioral consequences

4 • Develop and apply intervention

5 • Evaluate performance improvement

Problems with OB Mod and

• Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior.

Modern managers and

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Summary and Managerial

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

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