MODULE 8: ROCK MECHANICS

Engineering classification of Rocks-Intact and In-situ; Rock quarrying-rock drilling, rock boring, core
recovery, modified core recovery, Rock Quality Designation (RQD).

INTRODUCTION:

Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the behaviour of
rocks of engineering scale. Different rocks occurring in nature have diverse physical properties and
mineralogical compositions. Rocks are mainly of three types which are as follows:

 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic

The physical properties of rocks like density, porosity, permeability, hardness, abrasivity, swelling etc.
are dependent on the mineralogical compositions of the rocks which are different from each other.
Similarly, the geomechanical properties like compressive, tensile, shearing and abrasive strengths of
different rocks are different.

The composition, strength, durability and other properties of construction materials affect the life and
economy of a structure. Consequently, it becomes essential to ascertain the engineering properties of
rocks. It must be noted that rocks which are useful for one purpose may not be suitable for the other.
Hence, a civil engineer must be well versed with the engineering properties of rocks so as to make
the right choice of the material for the particular structure.

Besides the use of rocks as construction material, all the sites of civil engineering projects like dam,
bridge, tunnel, etc., are founded on rocks which are directly related to the geology, rock types and
geological structures encountered.

Besides the use of rocks as construction material, all the sites of civil engineering projects like dam,
bridge, tunnel, etc., are founded on rocks. This requires the classification of rocks from their use and
application point of view to achieve economy and ensure safety and sustainability of the project.

PROPERTIES OF ROCKS:

The properties of rocks are classified as:

 Physical Properties
 Geomechanical Properties

Physical Properties:

The physical properties are: density, porosity, permeability, hardness, abrasivity and swelling.

Density:

Density is a measure of mass per unit volume. Density of rock material varies, and is often related to
the porosity and compaction of the rock.

Non-porous and compact rocks have higher density and toughness. Typically, rocks have three times
higher density of that of water. But few rocks with high porous volume have density less than water,

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like pumice rock. Most rocks have density between 2.5 and 2.8 g/cm 3. Density of some important
rocks is: Basalt: 3 g/cm3, Granite: 2.7g/cm3 and Sandstone: 2.3 g/cm3

High density rocks like massive gabbro, basalt and quartzite are very hard and most suitable for
foundation purposed.

Density of the rock is used to estimate the overburden stress.

Porosity:

Porosity is defined as the ratio of total volume of pores to total volume of rock sample. Porosity,
therefore, is a fraction that ranges between 0 and 1. Typically, porosity ranges from less than 0.01 for
granite to upto 0.5 for sandstone. It may also be represented in per cent terms by multiplying the
fraction by 100.

Since low porosity rocks are generally strong and durable, they are favourable for construction and
foundation purposes. Some of the examples of low porosity rocks are: quartzite, marble and massive
granite, etc.

Permeability:

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluids. The permeability of a rock is
governed by porosity. Porous rocks such as sandstones usually have high permeability while granites
have very low permeability. High permeability will allow fluids and gases to move rapidly through
rocks.

The permeability of rocks, to some extent, may be thought to be important for structures like dams,
reservoirs etc.

Hardness:

Hardness is the measure of resistance to abrasion. The property indicates resistance to permanent
deformation. Hardness of rock materials depends on a number of factors including mineral
composition, density and arrangements of grains.

Hardness of a stone is one of the properties that contribute to the identification of the rock. Hardness
is also an attribute which is important to be aware of, because it may be helpful in deciding the use of
a particular variety of rock for a particular purpose (carving, facing, jewellery, handling, storage etc.).

Abrasivity:

The resistance to abrasion is defined as the capacity to rub the material with minimum required force.
For example, quartzite and gabbro are very good abrasive materials because they have much harder
minerals. This property helps in deciding the rocks for building decorative, and flooring and paving
purposes.

Swelling: Some rocks swell when they are saturated with water. Swelling is governed by the amount
of montmorillonite clay minerals in the rock.

Rock swelling is measured in confined and unconfined conditions. While confined swelling index
measures the swelling in one direction, the unconfined swelling is measured by the percentage
increase of length in three perpendicular directions (X, Y and Z) when a rock specimen is placed in
water.

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Geomechanical Properties of Rocks:

The properties which are determined in a geo-technical laboratory using different equipment are
known as geomechanical properties. On the basis of these properties, rocks are classified and
identified as suitable for different purposes along with other geological properties.

The important geomechanical properties are:

 Compressive Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Shearing Strength
 Abrasive Strength

Strength is the property of the rock to resist the load on it. It is dependent on hardness, density,
texture and structures occurring in the rock. The different strengths are described below:

Compressive Strength:

Compressive strength of a rock is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed compressive
forces. It is one of the most important mechanical properties of rock used in design, analysis and
modelling and their classification. It is also known as crushing strength of the rock. This property is
very important for the road metal, and foundation stones for structures.

Usually, the compressive strength of the rock is defined by the ultimate stress i.e., the stress at which
the rock develops a fracture. The most common measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial
compressive strength or unconfined compressive strength.

Triaxial apparatus used for testing

Triaxial cut method is used to obtain resulting strain and stress in rocks. Rock specimen with a length
to diameter ratio of 2 is used for testing.

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Tensile Strength:

Tensile strength of rock material is normally defined by the ultimate strength in tension, i.e., the
maximum tensile stress that the rock material can withstand. Most rocks generally have low tensile
strength. The low tensile strength is due to the existence of microcracks in the rock which are
developed either during the formation of rocks or deformational processes.

Tensile strength of rock can be obtained from several types of tensile tests: direct tensile test,
Brazilian test and flexure test.

Direct test is not commonly performed due to the difficulty in sample preparation. The most common
tensile strength determination is by Brazilian test.

Typically, tensile strength of rock is about 1/10 to 1/8 of the compressive strength.

Shear Strength:

Shear strength is used to describe the resistance against deformation of the rock due to shear stress.
Rock resists shear stress by two internal mechanisms, cohesion and internal friction. Cohesion is a
measure of internal bonding of the rock material. Internal friction is caused by contact between
particles, and is defined by the internal friction angle. Different rocks have different cohesions and
different friction angles.

Young’s Modulus:

Young’s modulus is the modulus of elasticity which is a measure of the stiffness of a rock. For small
strains, it is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of stress with strain. This can be experimentally
determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve obtained during compressional or tensile tests
conducted on a rock sample.

Strain at failure is the strain measured at ultimate stress. Rocks generally fail at a small strain,
typically around 0.2 to 0.4% under uniaxial compression.

Brittle rocks, typically crystalline rocks, have low strain at failure, while soft rocks, such as shale and
mudstone, could have a relatively higher strain at failure. Strain at failure sometimes is used as a
measure of brittleness of the rock. Strain at failure increases with increasing confining pressure under
triaxial compression conditions. Rocks can have brittle or ductile behaviour after peak.

Most rocks, including all crystalline igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, behave brittle
under uniaxial compression. A few soft rocks, mainly of sedimentary origin, behave ductile.

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Rock Quarrying:

Quarrying is the process of removing rock, dimension stone, sand, gravel or other minerals from the
ground in order to use them to produce materials for construction or other uses. So, a quarry is any
such working on the surface of the earth where minerals are extracted. Quarries are also known by
other names around the world: 'surface mine', ‘pit’, 'open pit' or 'opencast mine'. 

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Methods of Quarrying:

Methods of quarrying include:

 Digging – This method is used when the quarry consists of small & soft pieces of stones.
 Wedging –This method is used when the hard rock consists of natural fissure. When natural
fissures are absent then artificial fissures are prepared by drilling holes.
 Blasting – It is the process of removal of stones with the help of controlled explosives is filled in
the holes of the stones. Line of least resistance plays very important role in the blasting process.

Following steps are used in the blasting process;

 Drilling holes – Blast holes are drilled by using drilling machines.

 Charging – Explosive powders are fed into the cleaned & dried blast holes.
 Tamping – The remaining portion of the blast holes are filled by clay, ash, fuse & wirings.
 Firing –The fuses of blasting holes are fired by using electrical power supply or match sticks.

Slabs:

Many quarry stones such as marble, granite, limestone, and sandstone are cut into larger slabs and
removed from the quarry. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen
or luster. Polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of
residential and commercial properties.

An abandoned quarry Stone quarry

Rock Drilling:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid material.
The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece
and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting
edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips  from the hole as it is drilled.

Rock drilling is widely used in various types of rock engineering. In rock drilling, the hole is usually
not made through a circular cutting motion, though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is
usually made by hammering a drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The
hammering action can be performed from outside the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the hole (down-
the-hole drill, DTH).

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Rock Boring:

Rock boring is often used in tunnelling, underground mining, and nuclear waste depository. 

Boring is used for various applications in geology, agriculture, hydrology, civil engineering,

and mineral exploration. Today, most earth drilling serves one of the following purposes:

 return samples of the soil and/or rock through which the drill passes

 access rocks from which material can be extracted
 access rocks which can then be measured
 provide access to rock for purposes of providing engineering support

Unlike drilling in other materials where the aim is to create a hole for some purpose, often the case of
drilling or coring is to get an understanding of the ground/lithology. This may be done
for prospecting to identify and quantify an ore body for mining, or to determining the type of
foundations needed for a building or raised structure, or for underground structures, including tunnels
and deep basements where an understanding of the ground is vital to determining how to excavate
and the support philosophy. Drilling is also used in vertical and inclined shaft construction.

Methods:
When drilling in stone, one must pay particular attention to the type of material. There are three
different classifications of drill bits used for drilling into stone: soft, medium, and hard. Soft formation
rock bits are used in unconsolidated sands, clays, and soft limestones, etc. Medium formation bits are
used in dolomites, limestones, and shale, while hard formation bits are used in hard
shale, mudstones, granite, limestones and other hard and/or abrasive formations.

Testing of the material in boreholes is also possible. In soft ground the standard penetration test can
be used to determine the strength of the material. In rock in-situ stress testing
using hydrofracturing or overcoring, Acoustic Televiewer can be used to map discontinuities to
determine their orientation. It is also possible once a borehole is complete to measure
the permeability. Samples of water and material are also taken for examination and lab testing.

Figure: Borehole in granite rock

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What is the difference between Drilling and Boring?

• Drilling is the process of perforating a solid material surface using a drill bit to create a cavity. The
surface of the drilling is rough, and the edges of the entrance may be rugged. It is done using a drill
bit of a characteristic shape and size.
• Boring is the process of cutting the internal surfaces of an existing hole, where the goal may be
enlarging the hole or to achieve higher tolerance and finish in the product.

Core Recovery:

Before getting into the core recovery, let us understand how coring of the rocks to be investigated is
done.

Coring:

Coring is one method of collecting rock and sediment samples for geological research. A core
sample is a cylindrical section of (usually) a naturally occurring substance (Figure-1). Most core
samples are obtained by drilling with special drills into the substance, for example sediment or rock,
with a hollow steel tube called a core drill (Figure-2). A variety of core samplers exist to sample
different media under different conditions. In the coring process, the sample is pushed more or less
intact into the tube. Removed from the tube in the laboratory, it is inspected and analyzed by different
techniques and equipment depending on the type of data desired.

The NX - size core [54.7 mm (2.16 inch)] diameter is most frequently used for engineering
explorations. The length of each core run should be limited to 3.0 meter maximum. Core run lengths
should be reduced to 1.5 meter (5 ft), or less, just below the rock surface and in highly fractured or
weathered rock zones. Shorter core runs often reduce the degree of damage to the core and improve
core recovery in poor quality rock.

Figure-1: Rock Core Samples

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Figure-2: Double Tube Core Barrel. (a) Outer barrel assembly (b) Inner barrel assembly

Figure-3 : Coring Bits. From left to right: Diamond, Carbide, & Sawtooth.

Core Recovery

The core recovery is the length of rock core recovered from a core run, and the recovery ratio is the
ratio of the length of core recovered to the total length of the core drilled on a given run, expressed as
either a fraction or a percentage. Core length should be measured along the core centerline. When
the recovery is less than the length of the core run, the non-recovered section should be assumed to
be at the end of the run unless there is reason to suspect otherwise (e.g., weathered zone, drop of
rods, plugging during drilling, loss of fluid, and rolled or re-cut pieces of core). Non-recovery should be
marked as NCR (no core recovery) on the boring log, and entries should not be made for bedding,
fracturing, or weathering in that interval.

Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD) was developed by Deere (Deere et al 1967) to provide a
quantitative estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs. RQD is defined as the percentage of
intact core pieces longer than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core. The core should be at
least NW size (54.7 mm or 2.15 inches in diameter) and should be drilled with a double-tube core
barrel. The correct procedures for measurement of the length of core pieces and the calculation of
RQD are summarised in Figure-4.

RQD is intended to represent the rock mass quality in situ. When using diamond drill core, care must
be taken to ensure that fractures, which have been caused by handling or the drilling process, are
identified and ignored when determining the value of RQD.

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 RQD
RQD

Figure -4: Procedure for measurement and calculation of RQD (After Deere, 1989).

Classification table:
From the RQD index the rock mass can be classified as follows:
RQD Rock mass quality

<25% Very poor

25-50% Poor

51-75% Fair

76-90% Good

91-100% Excellent

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Classification of Intact Rocks:

INTACT ROCKS:

Intact rock refers to the unfractured blocks (absence of any joint or hair cracks) between
discontinuities in a typical rock mass. These blocks may range from a few millimeters to several
meters in size (Hoek, 1994; Hudson and Harrison, 1997). The properties of intact rock are governed
by the physical properties of the materials of which it is composed and the manner in which they are
bonded to each other. The parameters which may be used in a description of intact rock include
petrological name, color, texture, grain size, minor lithological characteristics, density, porosity,
strength, hardness, and deformability.

How Tests are Performed ?

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Rock cores from the boreholes are taken to carry out the standard tests. These cores would separate
along the joints and we trim them and test the “joint-free” samples which we call intact rock. The
most common tests done on intact rocks are: uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian indirect tensile
strength test, point load test, slake durability test, direct shear test, and triaxial test. The major
deformability parameters that are required in the analysis are: compressive strength, tensile strength,
Poisson’s ratio, Young’s modulus, cohesion and friction angle.

HOW TO CLASSIFY ROCKS? (ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF INTACT ROCK):

This method of rock classification was introduced by Deer & Miller in the year 1996. Two parameters
are considered while classifying rocks on this method, which are:

 Uniaxial compressive strength

 Modulus of elasticity

STEP BY STEP METHOD TO CLASSIFY ROCK BASED ON ENGINEERING PARAMETERS:

This method of rock classification consists of 3 steps, as given below.

Step-1 (Classifying the rock based on uniaxial compressive strength)
Step-2 (Classifying the rock based on modulus ratio)
Step-3 (Combining both the above classification)

STEP-1 (CLASSIFYING THE ROCK BASED ON UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH):

1. Perform uniaxial compressive strength test on a cylindrical rock specimen having length to
diameter ratio of at least 2. 
2. Based on the uniaxial compressive strength test result, the rock is classified as Class A, B, C,
D & E. the table given below was prepared by Deer & Miller to classify rock based on uniaxial
compressive strength.

Class Description Uniaxial Rock Material

Name
A Very high strength
B High strength
C Medium strength
D Low strength
E Very low strength
Compressive
Strength (kg/cm2)
Over 2250 Quartzite, diabase, basalt, majority of igneous
rocks, strong metamorphic rocks
1125 to 2250 Weakly cemented sandstones, hard shales,
majority of limestones, dolomites.
562.5 to 1125 Many Shales, porous sandstones and
limestones, schists, varieties of metamorphic
rocks.
281.5 to 562.5 Porous, low density rocks, friable stone, tuff.
<281.25 Clay shale, weathered & chemically altered
rocks of any lithology

STEP-2 (CLASSIFYING THE ROCK BASED ON MODULUS RATIO)

1. From the stress-strain curve obtained from uniaxial compressive strength test, draw a tangent at
50% ultimate compressive strength of rock & calculate the tangent modulus at this point.
2. Then using the following formula, calculate modulus ratio

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MR = Et50 / σult
Where,
MR = Modulus Ratio
Et50 = Tangent modulus at 50% ultimate compressive strength of rock
σult = Uniaxial ultimate compressive strength

3. Based on modulus ratio, rock is classified as class H, M & L. After calculating modulus ratio, use
the table given below to classify rock based on modulus ratio.

Class Description Value of Modulus Ratio

H High >500

M Medium (average) 200 to 500

L Low < 200

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