Solar cells manufacturing

Hazards assessment and methods of

protection

Prepered by HSE Specialist /Ahmed Ibrahim Ahmed Hammad

Abstract:
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. But The
introduction and rapid expansion of solar technology has brought
with it a number of occupational hazards for workers responsible
for installation or manufacturing . In this research we will introduce
content related with steps of fabrication of solar cells and the
hazards related to it and how we can assessment and avoid this
hazards .

The basic raw material of a solar cells is pure silicon ,which is not
pure in its natural state . Pure silicon is derived from such silicon
dioxide as quartzite gravel (the purest silica) or crushed quartz.
Pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous and
boron . The cell have protective material consists of an transparent
silicon rubber or plastic .
There are several steps to convert quartzite gravel to solar cell ,
and at each step there are some hazards.

Below , we will mention the steps of manufacturing in brife .

First: Purifying the silicon
The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is
placed into an electric arc furnace which have temperatures can
reach 1,800 . The products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon.
This simple process yields silicon with one percent impurity.
Second : ingots
After removing impurity , The silicon is collected, usually in the form
of solid rocks. Hundreds of these rocks are being melted together
at very high temperatures in order to form ingots in the shape of a
cylinder.
In the process of melting, attention is given so that all atoms are
perfectly aligned in the desired structure and orientation. Boron is
added to the process, which will give the silicone positive electrical
polarity (P-Type).
Third: wafers
The silicon ingot is sliced into thin disks, also called wafers. A wire
saw is used for precision cutting. The thinness of the wafer is
similar to that of a piece of paper.
In order to remove the organic contaminants from the c-Si wafer
surfaces, we used 12% In order to remove the organic
contaminants from the c-Si wafer surfaces, we used 12% NaOCl
solution and cleaned the wafers ultrasonically at room temperature
(RT) for five minutes. solution and cleaned the wafers ultrasonically
at room temperature (RT) for five minutes.
Forth :solar cells
Each of the wafers is being treated and metal conductors are
added on each surface. The conductors give the wafer a grid-like
matrix on the surface. This will ensure the conversion of solar
energy into electricity. The coating will facilitate the absorption of
sunlight, rather than reflecting it.
Phosphorous is being diffused in a thin layer over the surface of the
wafers. This will charge the surface with a negative electrical
orientation. The combination of boron and phosphorous will give the
positive – negative junction, which is critical for the proper function
of the PV cell.
Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the
sunlight. To reduce the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective
coating is put on the silicon wafer. The most commonly used
coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide, by heated until its
molecules boil off and travel to the silicon and condense

Hazards Assessment
The production of solar panels involves the use of chemicals and
materials that can be harmful to the workers , and the steps of
process of fabrication may impact on occupational safety for
workers .
We can classified this hazards into basically three types
1. Chemical hazards
In all steps of fabrication we use many chemical materials that
can be harmful on human , and we should know the limit dose
(threshold limit value ) for this materials to avoid any
occupational disease . This material below
 Silicon dioxide : Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact
(irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of
inhalation , which cause silicosis .Repeated or prolonged
exposure to the substance can produce target organs
damage.

 Silane gas :Silicon Its boiling points of 3265 c , which

cause a silane gas Silane gas is very harmful to breathe.
 Inhalation of high purity silane can cause silicic acid to
form in the lungs, which is slightly toxic. Silane can also
form silica fume irritants in air, which are separate
compounds which are also hazardous. Silane wants to
burn Silane is pyrophoric, which means it don't need an
ignition source --- like a spark, hot surface, or open flame
--- to start a fire.

 Phosphorus
can affect you when breathed in.
Contact can irritate and burn the skin and eyes with possible
eye damage . Breathing Phosphorus can irritate the nose and
throat causing coughing and wheezing. Repeated high
exposure may affect the liver and kidneys.
 Phosphorus is on the Hazardous Substance List because it is
regulated by OSHA and NIOSH .
OSHA: The legal airborne permissible exposure limit
(PEL) is 0.1 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour work shift.
NIOSH: The recommended airborne exposure limit 0.1 mg/m3
averaged over a 10-hour work shift.
 Sodium Hypochlorite can affect you when inhaled, Contact
can severely irritate and burn the skin and eyes with possible
eye damage . Inhaling Sodium Hypochlorite can irritate the
nose and throat . Inhaling Sodium Hypochlorite can irritate the
nose and throat, can irritate the lungs , can cause headache,
dizziness, nausea and vomiting.
NIOSH: The recommended airborne exposure limit (REL) is 0.5
ppm (as Chlorine), which should not be exceeded during any 15-
minute work period.
AIHA: The American Industrial Hygiene Association recommends
a Workplace Environmental Exposure Level (WEEL) of 2 mg/m3
for a 15-minute work period.
 Titanium dioxide can create an occupational hazard through
inhalation, as well as through eye and skin contact, when it
enters the air and contaminates surfaces. At high
concentrations, particles can irritate the nose and throat,
creating an unsafe environment for facility workers. Long-term
exposure may even cause bronchitis, resulting in symptoms
such as coughing, phlegm, and/or shortness of breath .The
following recommended exposure limits have been classified:
OSHA TWA – 15 mg/m3 as total dust NIOSH
TWA – 2.4 mg/m3 for fine titanium dioxide particles and 0.3
mg/m3 for ultrafine particles.
Control of chemical hazards and protection methods
 Storage: for silicon dioxide we should Keep container tightly
closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.
Hygroscopic
 Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other
engineering controls to keep airborne levels below
recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate
dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to
airborne contaminants below the exposure limit.
 Personal Protection: Safety glasses. Lab coat. Dust respirator.
Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent.
Gloves.
 We will try to develop method to remote control to a furnace
and avoid direct exposure to chemical materials that used in
melting and removing impurity of silicon
 For silane Flammability Limits in Air:Between 1.4%--4.1% in
air, silane gas is flammable Anything over 4.1% in air, silane
gas becomes a metastable mixture that is borderline
pyrophoric to absolutely pyrophoric Autoignition Temperature:
Less than 54 deg. C (130 deg. F), this material is pyrophoric
so , We will use cooling system to to keep surrounding at
normal temperature , and we will use ventilation system to
reduce concentration of silane gas that may be evaporate
during boiling process
 Do not eat, drink, smoke, or use personal products when
handling chemical substances. If in a laboratory setting, follow
Chemical Hygiene Plan . Use only in well ventilated areas .
Avoid generation of dust or fine particulate.Avoid contact with
eyes, skin, and clothing.
2. Physical hazards
 Electric arc furnaces operate at extremely high
temperatures ranging from 2500to more than 3000
degrees Celsius . Workers who come into contact with hot
surfaces or materials can suffer severe burns or heat
exhaustion.
 Electric arc furnaces generate a great deal of noise during
operation due to the passage of high voltage electricity
through the electrodes and the sound of silicon being
melted and poured. Prolonged exposure to high levels of
noise can lead to hearing loss or other hearing problems
Control of physical hazards and protection
methods
 We will implement engineering controls such as barriers
or screens to prevent workers from coming into contact
with hot surface , and also sound barriers or enclosures
around the oven area
 We will provide workers with appropriate personal
protective equipment such as gloves and heat-resistant
clothing , and Earplugs or earmuffs

3.Engineering hazards (electrial and mechanical)

 Electric arc furnaces operate at high voltages, typically
between 440 and 750 volts. Workers who come into
contact with live electrical components or wires can
receive severe electric shocks or burns. In addition, arc
flash incidents can occur when an electrical fault causes
a sudden release of energy in the form of intense
flashes of light and heat.
  Slicing silicon wafers for solar cells and micro-electronic
applications by diamond wire sawing , and this method
this method may injure the worker which consider
mechanical hazard
Control of engineering hazards and protection
methods
 Good training for workers on dealing with electricity,
placing warnings and instructions everywhere, placing
electrical insulators around the locations of high
voltage cables, and warning non-specialists not to
approach them.
 For wire saw we can Install sensors in the machine to
avoid human errors

Finally :
Occupational safety and health are the responsibility of all workers,
and without the workers’ commitment to safety rules, protection
measures will not help. Occupational safety rules do not aim to
disrupt work, but rather aim to reach the maximum quality and also
with standards that preserve the health of workers so that
production continues and does not stop with injury to one of the
employees.