Pest control

Pest control is the regulation or management of a

species defined as a pest; such as any animal, plant or
fungus that impacts adversely on human activities or
environment.[1] The human response depends on the
importance of the damage done and will range from
tolerance, through deterrence and management, to
attempts to completely eradicate the pest. Pest control
measures may be performed as part of an integrated
pest management strategy.

In agriculture, pests are kept at bay by mechanical,

cultural, chemical and biological means.[2] Ploughing
and cultivation of the soil before sowing mitigate the
pest burden, and crop rotation helps to reduce the
build-up of a certain pest species. Concern about
environment means limiting the use of pesticides in
favour of other methods. This can be achieved by
monitoring the crop, only applying pesticides when
necessary, and by growing varieties and crops which
are resistant to pests. Where possible, biological means
are used, encouraging the natural enemies of the pests
An agricultural aircraft applies low-insecticide bait
and introducing suitable predators or parasites.[3]
against western corn rootworm.

In homes and urban environments, the pests are the

rodents, birds, insects and other organisms that share
the habitat with humans, and that feed on and/or spoil possessions. Control of these pests is attempted
through exclusion or quarantine, repulsion, physical removal or chemical means.[4] Alternatively, various
methods of biological control can be used including sterilisation programmes.

History
Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been
a need to keep crops free from pests. As long ago as 3000 BC in
Egypt, cats were used to control pests of grain stores such as
rodents.[5][6] Ferrets were domesticated by 1500 BC in Europe for
use as mousers. Mongooses were introduced into homes to control
rodents and snakes, probably by the ancient Egyptians.[7]
Bronze cat, Ancient Egypt. (664–525
BC) The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed,
since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or
ploughing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores.
Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping),
and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.[8]
Chemical pesticides were first used around 2500 BC, when the
Sumerians used sulphur compounds as insecticides.[9] Modern pest
control was stimulated by the spread across the United States of the
Colorado potato beetle. After much discussion, arsenical
compounds were used to control the beetle and the predicted
poisoning of the human population did not occur. This led the way
to a widespread acceptance of insecticides across the continent.[10]
With the industrialisation and mechanization of agriculture in the
18th and 19th centuries, and the introduction of the insecticides Red weaver ants, here feeding on a
pyrethrum and derris, chemical pest control became widespread. In snail, have been used to control
the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, pests in China, Southeast Asia, and
such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development.[10] Africa for many centuries.

The harmful side effect of pesticides on humans has now resulted in

the development of newer approaches, such as the use of biological control to eliminate the ability of pests
to reproduce or to modify their behavior to make them less troublesome. Biological control is first recorded
around 300 AD in China, when colonies of weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina, were intentionally
placed in citrus plantations to control beetles and caterpillars.[9] Also around 4000 BC in China, ducks were
used in paddy fields to consume pests, as illustrated in ancient cave art. In 1762, an Indian mynah was
brought to Mauritius to control locusts, and about the same time, citrus trees in Burma were connected by
bamboos to allow ants to pass between them and help control caterpillars. In the 1880s, ladybirds were
used in citrus plantations in California to control scale insects, and other biological control experiments
followed. The introduction of DDT, a cheap and effective compound, put an effective stop to biological
control experiments. By the 1960s, problems of resistance to chemicals and damage to the environment
began to emerge, and biological control had a renaissance. Chemical pest control is still the predominant
type of pest control today, although a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control developed
towards the end of the 20th century and continues to this day.[11]

In agriculture

Control methods

Biological pest control

Biological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as

insects and mites by using other organisms.[12] It relies on
predation, parasitism, herbivory, parasitody or other natural
mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human
management role. Classical biological control involves the
introduction of natural enemies of the pest that are bred in the
laboratory and released into the environment. An alternative
approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a particular
area by releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or in a
single large-scale release. Ideally, the released organism will breed
Biological pest control: parasitoid
and survive, and provide long-term control.[13] Biological control
wasp (Cotesia congregata) adult with
can be an important component of an integrated pest management
pupal cocoons on its host, a tobacco
programme.
hornworm Manduca sexta (green
background)
For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a
bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources.[14]

Cultural control

Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as

simple equipment and devices, that provides a protective barrier
between plants and insects. This is referred to as tillage and is one
of the oldest methods of weed control as well as being useful for
pest control; wireworms, the larvae of the common click beetle, are
very destructive pests of newly ploughed grassland, and repeated
cultivation exposes them to the birds and other predators that feed
on them.[15]

Crop rotation can help to control pests by depriving them of their

host plants. It is a major tactic in the control of corn rootworm, and Cultivation by ploughing exposes
has reduced early season incidence of Colorado potato beetle by as insect pests to predators such as
much as 95%.[16] black-headed gulls.

Trap cropping

A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them

from nearby crops.[17] Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be
more easily controlled using pesticides or other methods.[18]
However, trap-cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost
effectively reduce pest densities on large commercial scales, without
the use of pesticides, possibly due to the pests' ability to disperse
back into the main field.[18] Spruce budworm (adult and pupa
shown), a serious pest of forests,
can be monitored using pheromone
Pesticides traps.

Pesticides are applied to crops by agricultural aircraft, tractor-

mounted crop sprayers, aerial spray by modern aircraft or as seed
dressings to control pests. However, successful control by pesticides
is not easy; the right formulation must be chosen, the timing is often
critical, the method of application is important, adequate coverage
and retention on the crop are necessary. The killing of natural
enemies of the target pest should be minimized. This is particularly
important in countries where there are natural reservoirs of pests
and their enemies in the countryside surrounding plantation crops,
and these co-exist in a delicate balance. Often in less-developed
countries, the crops are well adapted to the local situation and no Spraying pine logs with insecticide
pesticides are needed. Where progressive farmers are using against Ips sexdentatus, a pine
fertilizers to grow improved crop varieties, these are often more engraver beetle
susceptible to pest damage, but the indiscriminate application of
pesticides may be detrimental in the longer term.[19]

The efficacy of chemical pesticides tends to diminish over time. This is because any organism that manages
to survive the initial application will pass on its genes to its offspring and a resistant strain will be
developed. In this way, some of the most serious pests have developed resistance and are no longer killed
by pesticides that used to kill their ancestors. This necessitates higher concentrations of chemical, more
frequent applications and a movement to more expensive formulations.[20]

Pesticides are formulated to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-target species; of particular
concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the
time of day when the spray is applied can be important.[21] The widely used neonicotinoids have been
banned on flowering crops in some countries because of their effects on bees.[21] Some pesticides may
cause cancer and other health problems in humans, as well as being harmful to wildlife.[22] There can be
acute effects immediately after exposure or chronic effects after continuous low-level, or occasional
exposure.[23] Maximum residue limits for pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by many
nations.[24]

Hunting

Pest control can also be achieved via culling the pest animals —
generally small- to medium-sized wild or feral mammals or birds
that inhabit the ecological niches near farms, pastures or other
human settlements — by employing human hunters or trappers to
physically track down, kill and remove them from the area. The
culled animals, known as vermin, may be targeted because they are
deemed harmful to agricultural crops, livestock or facilities; serve as
hosts or vectors that transmit pathogens across species or to
humans; or for population control as a mean of protecting other A contemporary wood engraving of
vulnerable species and ecosystems.[25] varmint hunters shooting passenger
pigeons, a varmint species that was
Pest control via hunting, like all forms of harvest, has imposed an known to damage crops.
artificial selective pressure on the organisms being targeted. While Overhunting resulted in complete
varmint hunting is potentially selecting for desired behavioural and extinction of the species.
demographic changes (e.g. animals avoiding human populated
areas, crops and livestock), it can also result in unpredicted
outcomes such as the targeted animal adapting for faster reproductive cycles.[26]

Forestry

Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the canopy and monitor pest
populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their
native range, may be transported large distances in cut timber to places where they have no natural
predators, enabling them to cause extensive economic damage.[27] Pheromone traps have been used to
monitor pest populations in the canopy. These release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps
can detect the arrival of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks. For example, the spruce budworm, a
destructive pest of spruce and balsam fir, has been monitored using pheromone traps in Canadian forests for
several decades.[28] In some regions, such as New Brunswick, areas of forest are sprayed with pesticide to
control the budworm population and prevent the damage caused during outbreaks.[29]

In homes and cities

Many unwelcome animals visit or make their home in residential buildings, industrial sites and urban areas.
Some contaminate foodstuffs, damage structural timbers, chew through fabrics or infest stored dry goods.
Some inflict great economic loss, others carry diseases or cause fire hazards, and some are just a nuisance.
Control of these pests has been attempted by improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the
habitat, and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides.[30]

General methods

Physical pest control

Physical pest control involves trapping or killing pests such as

insects and rodents. Historically, local people or paid rat-catchers
caught and killed rodents using dogs and traps.[31] On a domestic
scale, sticky flypapers are used to trap flies. In larger buildings,
insects may be trapped using such means as pheromones, synthetic
volatile chemicals or ultraviolet light to attract the insects; some
have a sticky base or an electrically charged grid to kill them.
Glueboards are sometimes used for monitoring cockroaches and to
catch rodents. Rodents can be killed by suitably baited spring traps Dog control van, Rekong Peo,
and can be caught in cage traps for relocation. Talcum powder or Himachal Pradesh, India
"tracking powder" can be used to establish routes used by rodents
inside buildings and acoustic devices can be used for detecting
beetles in structural timbers.[30]

Historically, firearms have been one of the primary methods used for pest control. "Garden Guns" are
smooth bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot or 9mm Flobert, and are commonly
used by gardeners and farmers for snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest. Garden Guns are short-range
weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they're relatively quiet when fired with snake shot,
compared to standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the
snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly, injure livestock with a ricochet.
They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.[32]

The most common shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with #12 shot. At a distance of about 10  ft
(3.0 m), which is about the maximum effective range, the pattern is about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter from a
standard rifle. Special smoothbore shotguns, such as the Marlin Model 25MG can produce effective
patterns out to 15 or 20 yards using .22 WMR shotshells, which hold 1/8 oz. of #12 shot contained in a
plastic capsule.

Poisoned bait

Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rats, mice, birds,

slugs, snails, ants, cockroaches, and other pests. The basic granules,
or other formulation, contains a food attractant for the target species
and a suitable poison. For ants, a slow-acting toxin is needed so that
the workers have time to carry the substance back to the colony,
and for flies, a quick-acting substance to prevent further egg-laying
Rodent bait station, Chennai, India
and nuisance.[33] Baits for slugs and snails often contain the
molluscide metaldehyde, dangerous to children and household
pets.[34]

An article in Scientific American in 1885 described effective elimination of a cockroach infestation using
fresh cucumber peels.[35]
Warfarin has traditionally been used to kill rodents, but many
populations have developed resistance to this anticoagulant, and
difenacoum may be substituted. These are cumulative poisons,
requiring bait stations to be topped up regularly.[33] Poisoned meat
has been used for centuries to kill animals such as wolves[36] and
birds of prey.[37] Poisoned carcasses however kill a wide range of
carrion feeders, not only the targeted species.[36] Raptors in Israel
were nearly wiped out following a period of intense poisoning of
rats and other crop pests.[38]
Bait being placed in a rodent bait
box.
Fumigation

Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-

boring beetles by sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover
such as a tent, and fogging with liquid insecticide for an extended
period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly and inconvenient as
the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets all
life stages of pests.[39]

An alternative, space treatment, is fogging or misting to disperse a

liquid insecticide in the atmosphere within a building without Tent fumigation of a house in
evacuation or airtight sealing, allowing most work within the America
building to continue, at the cost of reduced penetration. Contact
insecticides are generally used to minimize long-lasting residual
effects.[39]

Sterilization

Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release of sterile individuals. This
involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilising it by means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it
into a wild population. It is particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does
not disperse widely.[40] This technique has been successfully used against the New World screw-worm fly,
some species of tsetse fly, tropical fruit flies, the pink bollworm and the codling moth, among others.[41]

Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) were attempted in the early 1970s
for rat control, although these proved unsuccessful.[42] In 2013, New York City tested sterilization traps,[43]
demonstrating a 43% reduction in rat populations.[43] The product ContraPest was approved for the
sterilization of rodents by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in August 2016.[44]

Insulation

Boron, a known pesticide can be impregnated into the paper fibers of cellulose insulation at certain levels to
achieve a mechanical kill factor for self-grooming insects such as ants, cockroaches, termites, and more.
The addition of insulation into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control of common pests in
addition to known insulation benefits such a robust thermal envelope and acoustic noise-canceling
properties. The EPA regulates this type of general-use pesticide within the United States allowing it to only
be sold and installed by licensed pest management professionals as part of an integrated pest management
program.[45] Simply adding Boron or an EPA-registered pesticide to an insulation does not qualify it as a
pesticide. The dosage and method must be carefully controlled and monitored.

Methods for specific pests

Rodent control

Urban rodent control

Rodent control is vital in cities.[46]: 1 33  New York City and cities across the state dramatically reduced their
rodent populations in the early 1970s.[46]: 1 33  Rio de Janeiro claims a reduction of 80% over only 2 years
shortly thereafter.[46]: 1 33  To better target efforts, London began scientifically surveying populations in
1972 and this was so useful that all Local Authorities in England and Wales soon followed.[46]: 1 33 

Natural rodent control

Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form

of rodent control through exclusion and predator support and
preventing secondary poisoning altogether.[47] The United States
Environmental Protection Agency notes in its Proposed Risk
Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that "without habitat
modification to make areas less attractive to commensal rodents,
Brown rat infestation even eradication will not prevent new populations from
recolonizing the habitat."[48] The United States Environmental
Protection Agency has prescribed guidelines for natural rodent
control[49] and for safe trapping in residential areas with subsequent release to the wild.[50] People
sometimes attempt to limit rodent damage using repellents. Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an
EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent.[51] Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits
chemical compounds that repel animals including rats.[52][53]

Pantry pests

Insect pests including the Mediterranean flour moth, the Indian

mealmoth, the cigarette beetle, the drugstore beetle, the confused
flour beetle, the red flour beetle, the merchant grain beetle, the
sawtoothed grain beetle, the wheat weevil, the maize weevil and the
rice weevil infest stored dry foods such as flour, cereals and
pasta.[54][55]

In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded,

The red flour beetle, Tribolium
and storing such products in sealed containers should prevent the
castaneum, attacks stored grain
problem from reoccurring. The eggs of these insects are likely to go products worldwide.
unnoticed, with the larvae being the destructive life stage, and the
adult the most noticeable stage.[55] Since pesticides are not safe to use near food, alternative treatments such
as freezing for four days at 0  °F (−18  °C) or baking for half an hour at 130  °F (54  °C) should kill any
insects present.[56]

Clothes moths

The larvae of clothes moths (mainly Tineola bisselliella and Tinea

pellionella) feed on fabrics and carpets, particularly those that are
stored or soiled. The adult females lay batches of eggs on natural
fibres, including wool, silk, and fur, as well as cotton and linen in
blends. The developing larvae spin protective webbing and chew
into the fabric, creating holes and specks of excrement. Damage is
often concentrated in concealed locations, under collars and near
seams of clothing, in folds and crevices in upholstery and round the
edges of carpets as well as under furniture.[57] Methods of control
include using airtight containers for storage, periodic laundering of
garments, trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals;
mothballs contain volatile insect repellents such as 1,4- Larva, pupa and adult clothes moth
Dichlorobenzene which deter adults, but to kill the larvae, Tineola bisselliella with
permethrin, pyrethroids or other insecticides may need to be characteristic damage to fabric
used.[57]

Carpet beetles

Carpet beetles are members of the family Dermestidae, and while the adult beetles feed on nectar and
pollen, the larvae are destructive pests in homes, warehouses, and museums. They feed on animal products
including wool, silk, leather, fur, the bristles of hair brushes, pet hair, feathers, and museum specimens.
They tend to infest hidden locations and may feed on larger areas of fabrics than do clothes moths, leaving
behind specks of excrement and brown, hollow, bristly-looking cast skins.[58] Management of infestations
is difficult and is based on exclusion and sanitation where possible, resorting to pesticides when necessary.
The beetles can fly in from outdoors and the larvae can survive on lint fragments, dust, and inside the bags
of vacuum cleaners. In warehouses and museums, sticky traps baited with suitable pheromones can be used
to identify problems, and heating, freezing, spraying the surface with insecticide, and fumigation will kill
the insects when suitably applied. Susceptible items can be protected from attack by keeping them in clean
airtight containers.[58]

Bookworms

Books are sometimes attacked by cockroaches, silverfish,[59] book mites, booklice,[60] and various beetles
which feed on the covers, paper, bindings and glue. They leave behind physical damage in the form of tiny
holes as well as staining from their faeces.[59] Book pests include the larder beetle, and the larvae of the
black carpet beetle and the drugstore beetle which attack leather-bound books, while the common clothes
moth and the brown house moth attack cloth bindings. These attacks are largely a problem with historic
books, because modern bookbinding materials are less susceptible to this type of damage.[61]
Evidence of attack may be found in the form of tiny piles of book-dust and specks of frass. Damage may be
concentrated in the spine, the projecting edges of pages and the cover. Prevention of attack relies on
keeping books in cool, clean, dry positions with low humidity, and occasional inspections should be made.
Treatment can be by freezing for lengthy periods, but some insect eggs are very resistant and can survive
for long periods at low temperatures.[59]

Beetles

Various beetles in the Bostrichoidea superfamily attack the dry, seasoned

wood used as structural timber in houses and to make furniture. In most
cases, it is the larvae that do the damage; these are invisible from the outside
of the timber but are chewing away at the wood in the interior of the item.
Examples of these are the powderpost beetles, which attack the sapwood of
hardwoods, and the furniture beetles, which attacks softwoods, including
plywood. The damage has already been done by the time the adult beetles
bore their way out, leaving neat round holes behind them. The first that a
householder knows about the beetle damage is often when a chair leg
breaks off or a piece of structural timber caves in. Prevention is through
chemical treatment of the timber prior to its use in construction or in
furniture manufacture.[62]

House timber split open to

Termites reveal larvae of the house
longhorn beetle, Hylotrupes
Termites with colonies in close proximity to houses can extend their
bajulus, in their burrows,
galleries underground and make mud tubes to enter homes. The insects which are partially filled with
keep out of sight and chew their way through structural and decorative frass
timbers, leaving the surface layers intact, as well as through cardboard,
plastic and insulation materials. Their presence may become apparent when
winged insects appear and swarm in the home in spring. Regular inspection of structures by a trained
professional may help detect termite activity before the damage becomes substantial.;[63] Inspection and
monitoring of termites is important because termite alates (winged reproductives) may not always swarm
inside a structure. Control and extermination is a professional job involving trying to exclude the insects
from the building and trying to kill those already present. Soil-applied liquid termiticides provide a chemical
barrier that prevents termites from entering buildings, and lethal baits can be used; these are eaten by
foraging insects, and carried back to the nest and shared with other members of the colony, which goes into
slow decline.[64]

Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most

species feed on blood and some act as vectors for malaria and other
diseases. Historically they have been controlled by use of DDT and other
chemical means, but since the adverse environmental effects of these
insecticides have been realized, other means of control have been
attempted. The insects rely on water in which to breed and the first line of
control is to reduce possible breeding locations by draining marshes and
reducing accumulations of standing water. Other approaches include Mosquito (Aedes aegypti)
biting a human
biological control of larvae by the use of fish or other predators, genetic control, the introduction of
pathogens, growth-regulating hormones, the release of pheromones and mosquito trapping.[65]

On airfields
Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, but it is difficult to keep
them away from airfields. Several methods have been explored.
Stunning birds by feeding them a bait containing stupefying
substances has been tried,[66] and it may be possible to reduce their
numbers on airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and
other invertebrates by soil treatment.[66] Leaving the grass long on
airfields rather than mowing it is also a deterrent to birds.[67] Sonic
nets are being trialled; these produce sounds that birds find
distracting and seem effective at keeping birds away from affected
Jet engine fan blades damaged by
areas.[68] bird strike

Guidelines and legislation

Guidelines and legislation regarding the usage permitted methods of application and the storage conditions
of pesticides and chemicals vary from country to country, often being legislated by each state of territory.

Australia

Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

Environment Protection Act 1997 ACT[69]

New South Wales

[70][71]

South Australia

Pesticides Regulations 2003 SA Pursuant to Controlled Substances Act 1984 SA[72]

Victoria

Health (Pest Control) Regulations 2002 Vic pursuant to the Health Act 1958 Vic[73]

Western Australia

Health (Pesticide) Regulations 2011 WA pursuant to Health Act 1911 WA[74]

India
The Insecticides Act 1968[75]

Malaysia

Pesticide Act 1974[76]

Singapore

Control of Vectors and Pesticides Act[77]

United Kingdom

Prevention of Damage by Pests Act 1949[78]

See also
Bee removal
Electronic pest control
Garden guns
Nuisance wildlife management
Rabbits in Australia
Wildlife contraceptive

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External links
Pest Control and Pesticide Safety for Consumers (https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol)

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