Screen

(a) . (b) (c)

INTERFERENCE AN D
DIFFRACTION

, DISCUSSING YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

AND THE SINGLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

P. Ananya Bharati I Physics Investigatory Project I XII Sci 2019-2020

 CHINMAYA VIDYALAYA
BEGUMPET, HYDERABAD

CBSE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

2019-2020

CERTIFICATE

This is certified to be the bonafide work of P. Ananya Bharati of class XII

Science bearing Roll No: 2-0 6'+-=!2- 153 in Physics during the
academic year 2019-2020.

~ ~ $ ~ ~~ 7 - - D µ)
Examiner's Signature
WY
Teacher In-Charge

fiHINMAYA V![) Vl H.AYA

Sandeepc1ny K2i! as1 .
ltundhanbagh. Bngumi",1➔ t
~Vf)FRII Q t,r i::.nl" ~, ,..
 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my Physics Teacher Smt. T.M. Ranitha for the

constant guidance and support in the successful completion of this

project. I also thank the department of Physics, Chinmaya Vidyalaya

for supporting with the required materials and lab equipment for

conducting the experiments. I also thank my parents for their valuable

.,,,-/

suggestions and inputs, which have h~melo complete this project

successfully.

P. Ananya Bharati

•
•
►
►
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► PAGE 1

►
~
~•.
'I
In the 17th century, two different theories about the nature of light were
proposed; these theories were the 'wave theory' and 'corpuscular
theory'.
In this Investigative project, I have captured the details of both the
theories and have discussed the Wave theory of light in detail with
supporting experiments.

NEWTON'S CORPUSCULAR THEORY

Newton's corpuscular theory was based on postulates as follows:

Normal

•-.
''
,.
•.-.. ,•
}'
Incident\ .
corpuscles ~
\ .
\

.•
,
/ ~ ,
/I /
;1fRonecud
~rpusel••

·:· ' ,,,

',

Reflecting surface

1. Newton proposed that a source of light emits many minute, elastic,

rigid and massless particles called corpuscles.

2. These particles travel through a transparent medium at very high

speed in all direction along a straight line.

3. Th~s~ orpuscles enter our eyes and produce the sensation of

z:
colours.
to different sizes of the corpuscles, they produce different

5. These light particles are repelled by a reflecting surface and

attracted by transparent materials.

PAGE2
 Merits:
1. It explains the rectilinear propagation of light.

2. It could explain the reflection and refraction of light separately.

Drawbacks:
1. Newton's corpuscular theory fails to explain simultaneous
phenomenon of partial reflection and refraction on the surface of
transparent medium such as glass or water.

2. The corpuscular theory fails to explain optical phenomena such as

interference, diffraction, polarization etc.

3. According to this theory, velocity of light is larger in the denser

medium than in the rarer medium, experimentally it is proved wrong
► (va < vd).

4. As the particles are emitted from the source, mass of the source of
light should decrease but experiment proved that mass of the source
of light is constant.

HUYG 'S PRINCIPLE

e first person to explain how wave theory can also account for the
laws of geometric optics was Christiaan Huygens in 1670. At the time,
of course, nobody took the slightest notice of him. His work was later
rediscovered after the eventual triumph of wave theory.

Huygens had a very important ·insight into the nature of wave

propagation which is nowadays called Huygens' principle. When
applied to the propagation of light waves, this principle states that:

"Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of secondary

spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the
speed of light. The new wave-front is the tangential surface to all of
these secondary wavelets."

PAGE3
 •
) Source

Huygens considered light as a longitudinal wave travelling in a

hypothetical medium called Aether. Later, Young and Fresnel
assumed light as a wave.

According to Huygens' principle, a plane light wave propagates

through free space at the speed of light. The light rays associated with
this wave-front propagate in straight-lines. It is also fairly
straightforward to account for the laws of reflection and refraction using
Huygens' principle.

The wave theory successfully explains the three important phenomena

demonstrated by light, namely Interference, Diffraction and
Polarization.

INTE ERENCE

Interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form

a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive
and destructive interference result from the interaction of waves that
are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come
from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the
same frequency. Interference effects can be observed with all types of
waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity
waves, or matter waves. The resulting images or graphs are called
interferograms.

PAGE 4
 The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more
propagating waves of same type are incident on the same point, the
resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves. If a crest of a wave meets a crest
of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then the
amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitude s-this is constructive
interference. If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave,
then the amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual
amplitude s-this is known as destructive interference.

Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between

the waves is an even multiple of 1T (180°), whereas destructive
interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of 1T. If the
difference between the phases is intermediate between these two
extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed
waves lies between the minimum and maximum values.

Interference of light is a common phenomenon that can be explained

classically by the superposition of waves, however a deeper
understanding of light interference requires knowledge of wave-
particle duality of light which is due to quantum mechanics. Prime
examples of light interference are the famous double-slit experiment,
laser speckle, anti-reflective coatings and interferometers. Traditionally
the classical wave model is taught as a basis for understanding optical
interference, based on the Huygens-Fresnel principle.

/
/ 'RACTION

Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave

encounters an obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of waves
around the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the
region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture. The diffracting
object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the
propagating wave. Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined

PAGE5
 the word "diffraction" and was the first to record accurate observations
of the phenomenon in 1660.

In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described by the

Huygens-Fresnel principle that treats each point in a propagating
wave-front as a collection of individual spherical wavelets. The
characteristic banding pattern is most pronounced when a wave from
a coherent source (such as a laser) encounters a slit/aperture that is
comparable in size to its wavelength, as shown in the inserted image.
This is due to the addition, or superimposing, of different points on the
wave-front (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel by paths of
different lengths to the registering surface. However, if there are
multiple, closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying
intensity can result.

These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium
with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through
a medium with varying acoustic impedance - all waves diffract,
including gravitational waves, water waves, and other electromagnetic
waves such as X-rays and radio waves.
Diffraction and interference are closely related and are nearly - if not
exactly - identical in meaning. Richard Feynman observes that
"diffraction" tends to be used when referring to many wave sources,
and /erenc e" when only a few are considered.

//
/ OUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

In modern physics, the double-slit experiment is a demonstration that

light and matter can display characteristics of both classically defined
waves and particles. The experiment was first performed with light by
Thomas Young in 1801. In 1927, Davisson and Germer demonstrated
that electrons show the same behavior, which was later extended to
atoms and molecules.

PAGE6
The experiment belongs to a general class of "double path"
experiments, in which a wave is split into two separate waves that later
combine into a single wave. Changes in the path lengths of both waves
result in a phase shift, creating an interference pattern.
In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source, such
as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and
the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the
plate. The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through
the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen
- a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical
particles. However, the light is always found tq be absorbed at the
screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves); the
interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle
hits on the screen.

Young's Double Slit Interference

-
d sin 8 = m A

I
( m= 0.±1.± 2. . . . )

0
~) r
j ) d
t~'~. .•· · · ·. .
··· ·· ............. .... -
ConstrncJfre ime,ference
occurs at positio1tr 011 the
.,c~en "·here the path dif
fenmce from the Mo slits
l ~ d sin9 is an im,,gral 1111mber of

r
M=l":}"'_o#c

/"~' ~ ;;_d·_---•
" ·a ,·elen,:tl,s.

br At
_/ Y = In J/0issmall. tlie11 sin 0 - y!D. and thisform11/oca11be"pplied No-
tice tliot narrou-i11g slit separation. d. caust•s tlie fringes to .fJJt't'atl
tm = 0.± 1.± 2 . ... ) out. (A larger an,:le is requiredfort/re same pmh diffen.•,icr.)

PAGE7
 The figure below shows the pure constructive and destructive
interference of two waves having the same wavelength and amplitude.

(a)

o---+ -o;;___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Resultant

-+.;;;.

(b)
_/

The amplitudes of waves add. (a) Pure constructive interference is

obtained when identical waves are in phase. (b) Pure destr uctive
interference occurs when identical waves are exactly out of phase, or
shifted by half a wavelength . Note that regions of constructive and
destructive interference move out from the slits at well-defined angle s
to the original beam. Thes e angles depend on wave lengt h and the
distance between the slits.

PA GE S
 s1
d

s2 1 --
~e = ds in 8
Screen

figu re is use d to exp lain how to determine the path length

Ab ove
ere nce for wa ves tra vel ing from two slits to a common point on a
diff
. If the scr een is a larg e dis tan ce away compared wit h the
screen
ce bet we en the slits, the n the ang le e between the path an d a
distan
the figure) is nearly the sam e for
line from the slits to the screen (see
pat h. Th e diff ere nce bet we en the paths is shown in the figure;
each
ple trig ono me try sho ws it to be d (si ne ), where "d" is the dis tan ce
sim
en the slits. T.o obt ain con str uct ive interference for a do ub le
betwe
the pat h len gth diff ere nce mu st be an integral multiple of the
slit,
wavelength, or
ructive)
,,./
dsin 8 =mA for m=0,1,-1,2,-2 ...... (const
,,.

Sim
/

ilarly, to obt ain de str uc tiv e int erference for a double slit, the
J
tegral multiple of the
path length difference must be a half-in
wavelength, or
(de stru ctiv e)
dsin 8 =(m +l/ 2)1 for m=0,1,-1,2,-2 ......

t, "d" is the distance between slits

where "- is the wavelength of the ligh
ction of the beam as discussed
and 8 is the angle from the original dire
rference.
above. We call "m" the ord er of the inte

PAGE9
-
The equations for double slit interference imply that a series of bright
and dark lines are formed. For vertical slits, the light spreads out
horizontally on either side of the incident beam into a pattern called
interference fringes. The intensity of the bright fringes falls off on either
side, being brightest at the center. The closer the slits are, the more is
the spreading of the bright fringes.
Below images captured during Young's double slit experiment
conducted using a laser light of 532nm wavelength as part of this
investigative project shows the interference patterns formed:

PAGE 10
 SINGLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the

light into a series of circular waves and the wave front which emerges
from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity, in accordance
with Huygens-Fresnel principle.
Light passing through a single-slit forms a diffraction pattern somewhat
different from those formed by double slits or diffraction gratings.
Monochromatic light passing through a single slit has a central
maximum and many smaller and dimmer maxima on either side. The
central maximum is six times higher than shown. The drawing shows
the bright central maximum and dimmer and thinner·maxima on either
side.

oI
....-
iii
t C

-
iiii

(a) (b)

r
r
~

PAGE u
 . . d . be lo w fig ur e:
illustrate ,n
The analysis of si ngle slit diffraction is

Tl~\\
{ 0 9:

l~ 4~
-'·"-~
8

- - T ~
l
,r
-A ~~ __:_---
-- -- -

- - -- 0 __;y--- ·- --

- -1
2

1 .
51 n9 =o
A
8= 0
Darl<
Bright (b)
(a)

½~
b-
fr· 2 '
A~

sin B = 20A
M
sin 8= 2D
-
Dar k
Brig ht
(d)

o f th e sa m e slit.
(c)

m di ffe re nt pa rt s
ht coming fro ef ro nt in th e sl it
Here we consider lig er y pa rt o f th e w av
's principle, ev as e an d he ad in
According to Huygens th at st ar t ou t in ph
e are like rays nt o f a w av el et .)
emits wavelets. Thes la r to th e w av ef ro
ray is perpendicu th e si ze o f th e
all directions. (Each ay co m pa re d w ith
is very far aw e ne ar ly pa ra lle l.
Assuming the screen on de st in at io n ar
ward a comm e, th ey re m ai n in
slit, rays heading to in fig ur e- (a ) ab ov
ight ahead as tr av el
When they travel stra um is ob ta in ed . H owever, w he n ra ys
maxim
phase, and a central ct io n o f th e beam, ea ch tr av
el s
to th e or ig in al di re r out
at an angle 8 relative m on lo ca tio n, an d th ey ca n ar ri ve in o
a com
a different distance to
of phase.

PAGE 12
In fig(b) above, the ray from the bottom travels a distance of one
wavelength A fa~her than the ray from the top. Thus a ray from the
center travels a distance IJ2 farther than the one on the left arrives out
of phase, and interferes destructively. A ray from slightly above the
center and one from slightly above the bottom will also cancel one
another. In fact, each ray from the slit will have another to interfere
destructively, and a minimum in intensity will occur at this angle. There
will be another minimum at the same angle to the right of the incident
direction of the light. ·

Light passing through a single slit is diffracted in all directions and may
interfere constructively or destructively, depending on the angle. The
difference in path length for rays from either side of the slit is seen to
be Dsin9.

At the larger angle shown in fig(c) above, the path lengths differ by
3 A/2 for rays from the top and bottom of the slit. One ray travels a
distance A different from the ray from the bottom and arrives in phase,
interfering constructively. Two rays, each from slightly above those
two, will also add constructively. Most rays from the slit will have
another to interfere with constructively, and a maximum in intensity will
occur at this angle. However, all rays do not interfere constructively for
this situation, and so the maximum is not as intense as the central
maximum. In fig (d) the angle shown is large enough to produce a
second minimum. ·

A graph of single slit diffraction intensity showing the central maximum

to be wider and much more intense than those to the sides. In fact the
central maximu ·s six times higher than shown here.

Intensity

:U sin 8
o
u
D

PAGE 13
 A slit which is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects
in the space downstream of the slit. These can be explained by
assuming that the slit behaves as though it has many point sources
spaced evenly across the width of the slit. The analysis of this system
is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the incident
light is coherent, these sources all have the same phase. Light incident
at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of
contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative
phases of these contributions vary by 2TT or more, we may expect to
find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences
are caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing
rays reach the point from the slit.
Below image captured during a single slit experiment conducted as
part ot this investigative project shows the bands formed due to a
monochromatic laser light diffraction through a vertical single slit :
/

PAGE 14
 an d
Differences bet we en the do ub le slit inte rfe ren ce
single slit diffraction
perpendicular to
In a single slit diffraction, light spreads out in a line
the slit. No interesting phenomena are observed.

Single Slit
Dou ble Slit .. ..

n passing tho ugh the

But in a double slit diffraction, light diffracts whe
interfere with eac h
slits, but the light waves coming out from those slits
screen. The ligh t is
other to produce an interference pattern on the
e there is interference,
spread out in a line, like in the single slit, but her
and destructive (da rk
producing regions of constructive (bright fringes)
centre of the screen,
fringes) interference and a very bright spot at the
called the central maxima.
ce between sing le slit
So, looking at diffraction only, there is no differen
on happen; but in a
and double slit because in both cases diffracti
rference am ong the

d i/ ·
double slit there is diffraction as well as inte

PAGE 15
 Bibliography

1. NCERT Class XII Physics text book

2. En.Wikipedia.org

3. https://opentextbc. ca/physicstestbook2

4. https:/ .optics4kids. org

PAGE 16