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Implications of exposure to high temperatures

for stone cladding requirements of three
Portuguese granites regarding the use of
dowel–hole anchoring systems

ARTICLE in CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS · AUGUST 2014

Impact Factor: 2.3 · DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.03.035

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 Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Implications of exposure to high temperatures for stone cladding

requirements of three Portuguese granites regarding
the use of dowel–hole anchoring systems
Vera Pires a,⇑, L.G. Rosa a, A. Dionísio b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon (TULisbon), Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources, Centro de Petrologia e Geoquímica, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon (TULisbon), Av. Rovisco
Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal

h i g h l i g h t s

 This article enhances granite behaviour to high temperature.

 Changes in physical and mechanical properties due to thermal exposure.
 Implications on granite cladding dimension requirements are highlighted.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, implications of high temperature and subsequent shock cooling by water on stone cladding
Received 8 November 2013 requirements is studied through the assessment of physical and mechanical properties after laboratory
Received in revised form 26 February 2014 heat-induced tests. Three different Portuguese granites: Amarelo de Vila Real, Cinzento de Alpalhão and
Accepted 24 March 2014
Cinzento de Pedras Salgadas widely used as cladding building materials, were heated in a muffle furnace
Available online 6 May 2014
at 500 °C for 24 h and then immediately cooled down to room temperature using tap water. Character-
ization included measurement of CIELAB colour indexes, determination of open porosity, water absorp-
Keywords:
tion by capillarity, flexural resonance Young modulus and flexural strength under constant moment. This
Cladding requirements
Dowel–hole anchor system
study describes the strong effect of high temperature damage on granites physical–mechanical proper-
High temperatures ties, and their influence on cladding dimension requirements. If the implications of exposure to high
Granite temperatures on the studied granites are considered prior to selection and dimensioning stages on a
Durability stone cladding project, selected granite might change and then durability may increase.
Physical–mechanical properties Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction have low thermal conductivity (in comparison to steel). However,

In cladding applications, high temperatures are essentially
related to fire events. Within the last decades there has been an
increased interest in the subject of fire damage (natural or arson-
related) on building stones. Several research initiatives dealing
with different aspects like vulnerability of historical buildings to
fire, risk assessment methodologies, behaviour of materials and
building structures, protection of fabric and content, prevention
of fire and fire spread, detection and suppression requirements,
training and management of staff and insurance considerations
were undertaken. Concrete and natural stone offer good resistance
to fire because they are incombustible (contrarily to wood) and
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 938436402.
E-mail address: vera.pires@ist.utl.pt (V. Pires).
physical–chemical changes and mechanical damage caused by
heat followed by shock cooling by water will eventually compro-
mise the load-bearing capacity of concrete, natural stone masonry
and facade panels.
Decay of building stones induced by heat is a complex reality
that includes two fundamental mechanisms: (i) ‘insolation weath-
ering’, associated with environmental cycles of heating and
cooling, and (ii) the decay generated by fires. The discussion on
these mechanisms goes back to the 19th century [1]. Nevertheless,
a relative lack of knowledge on the real extent of decay processes
caused by temperature has persisted to date [1,2]. Although insu-
lation weathering and fire decay find their causes in a same mech-
anism (temperature changes), they are quite distinct: insolation is
a very slow process, and the effects caused by fire are immediate
and also cause of the development of other decay phenomena.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.03.035
0950-0618/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Fire (and subsequently high temperatures exposure) is unques-
tionably identified as an agent of change in buildings [1–10].
Different degrees of risk to fire can be attributed to day to day
activities, building construction works and also to human factors
like lit candles, fireplaces or chimneys in poor condition [6]. Previ-
ous works demonstrated that the main effects of stone decay
caused by fire are mainly dependent on the lithology (mineralogi-
cal composition, texture and structure of the stone involved) more
than on the fire conditions [1,3,4,9,10].
Fires can generally be grouped into two types [5]: (i) small and
localized fires that generally do not generate much heat (tempera-
tures are in general lower than 800 °C) and (ii) large and
widespread fires that generate higher temperatures (maximum
temperatures 1200 °C) and as a result have a significant effect on
the physical–chemical properties of stone. Earlier works [1,2,12,
13] refer the importance of the fire-fighting methods applied, i.e.,
steep temperature gradients that occur across stone slabs when
fires are extinguished or cooled rapidly by water. These gradients
will cause differences in the degree of thermal expansion on stone
and induce stress in stone.
According to the existent literature the main effects of decay
caused by fire on stones are [1–3,8,11,12,14]: (i) spalling on the
areas of higher thermal gradient; (ii) contour scaling and flaking
due to mineral thermal expansion differences; (iii) granular disag-
gregation and disintegration; and (iv) microcracks and fractures.
These thermal effects may be identified through: (i) changes in
porosity, (ii) formation of new mineral phases and (iii) colour
change.
Among natural stones, granites are one of the major construc-
tion materials. This type of stone is not only one of the most
abundant on the earth’s crust, but also one of the hardest and must
durable [15]. When selected as cladding material, granites are
chosen due to the fact they are seen as very durable, uniform,
sound, weather resistant, low porosity materials with huge
aesthetical options [16,17].
Granite is widely considered as a very durable building stone
and because of that (and also because of availability) several
well-known historic buildings all across the world are made of
granite and numerous contemporaneous buildings are covered by
granite. Although its susceptibility to dissolution is very much less
than that of calcareous stone, numerous examples of severe granite
decay caused by the action of thermal loads due to sunshine [1],
freezing or fire [3,6,23,24], chemical effects due to salt [25–27],
acid rain or polluted air [17–21,22,27–29], mechanical loads due
to wind pressure, earthquakes and vandalism [30–32] have been
observed from a wide range of geographic locations. Some of these
actions such as the mechanical loads due to wind or due to
repeated freeze–thaw cycles, are easy to predict owing to the pos-
sibility of dimensioning calculus based on specific data according
with the CEN Eurocodes 0, 1, 3, 8 and 9 [33–37]. Other actions, like
high temperature and its effect on physical–mechanical properties
of granites are not fully understood. Research must still be done on
high temperature decay quantification allowing a more suitable
and accurate selection and dimensioning of stone panels for
cladding.
An engineering evaluation of a stone cladding system ideally
starts with a comparison between stone physical–mechanical
properties and the intended application requirements: the anchors,
support system, installation, maintenance and environmental
agents susceptible of damaging stone physical–mechanical proper-
ties over time.
Recommended tests methodologies for stone slabs for cladding
can be found on the European harmonized reference standard, EN
1469:2004, and includes: flexural strength, density, porosity, water
absorption, anchorage strength, among other properties [41]. Other
technical information such as guides or technical specifications
441
with suitable physical–mechanical reference properties for clad-
ding applications according to the stone type, can be found in the
British Standard Code Practice for Design and Installation of Natural
Stone Cladding and Lining [42], in the Indiana Limestone Handbook
[43], in Cahier du CSTB 3266 [44], or in the Manual da Pedra Natural
para Arquitectura [45]. However, most of these technical specifica-
tions lack on reference values for performance evaluation regarding
a specific action such as high temperature [46].
Laboratory studies reported by several authors/research teams
[12,23–25,38–40] used different set ups (sample dimensions, heat-
ing rates, atmospheres, temperatures) but all of them highlight
rock susceptibility to weathering and disintegration when heated
in laboratory conditions. Meanwhile, there are few literature works
that address fire (and subsequently heat) effects with the dimen-
sioning requirements of stone panels for cladding. The current
research programme intended to study, simultaneously, the effects
of high temperature and subsequent shock cooling by water on
three Portuguese granites, reproducing the effect of fire extinction.
High temperature effects on this granites thickness dimension-
ing, when used with dowel–hole anchor system, were also
considered. Details concerning dowel–hole fixing systems can be
consulted on previous works [11,16].
2. Experimental studies
2.1. Investigated granites
Three Portuguese granites were selected on the basis of their widespread use as
cladding materials and ornamental stones, in contemporaneous building facades
not only Portugal but in works spread all over the world [48,49]. Selected granites
are known under the commercial names of Amarelo de Vila Real (AVR), Cinzento de
Pedras Salgadas (PS) and Cinzento de Alpalhão (SPI). These granite materials have
great application in cladding fixing systems. AVR granite is preferentially chosen
due to its yellow colour that is associated with rustic and antique looks. On the
other hand, SPI and PS granites are above its mechanical resistance, chosen mainly
due their sober, modern and homogeneous colours [49].
Macroscopically, Amarelo Vila Real (AVR) is a medium to coarse-grained whit-
ish-yellow to brownish-yellow granite, showing some porphyroid tendency, more
or less pronounced weathering and incipient foliation. SPI is a fine grained granite,
with two micas but dominantly biotitic, with homogeneous grey/bluish colour.
Macroscopically, PS is a light-grey medium grained two-mica granite, essentially
biotitic, with disperse feldspar megacrystals.
Table 1 presents weight average mineral composition of the three studied gran-
ites according to [50]. Further details on AVR, SPI and PS geological context, petrog-
raphy and mineralogy can be found in [51–53].
2.2. Methodology
In order to evaluate and characterize the effects of high temperature and sub-
sequent shock cooling by water two sets of parallel studies were conducted, leading
to two groups of specimens: group I: 7 prismatic specimens of AVR, SPI and PS with
120  60  10 mm for assessment of stone decay induced by heat followed by
shock cooling by water (this procedure will be referred as heat treatment); and
group II: 7 prismatic specimens of AVR, SPI and PS with 150  30  25 mm for flex-
ural strength under constant moment (r4p) and Young modulus evaluation. Speci-
mens from group II were not tested for assessment of stone decay induced by the
heat treatment and were only used as reference for the dimensioning analysis that
will be further presented in this work.
Table 1
Average mineral composition (in wt%) of the three studied granites [51].
Stone Minerals
Quartz K-Feldspar Plagioclase Muscovite Biotite Others
AVR 27 30–32 26 10–11 3–6 1a
SPI 30 20–40 12–35 0–7 10 1b
PS 25–33 36–47 10–32 0–2 6–7 1b
a
Zircon, chlorite, rutile and opaques (graphite, magnetite or ilmenite, and
pyrite).
b
Zircon, chlorite and opaques.
442 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Stone samples used in this experimental research were obtained from quarries
and later cut in laboratory using a diamond saw. All specimen surfaces were fin-
ished using carborundum #180 (silicon carbide) without any other surface finish.
In this study the terminology ‘‘reference’’ will be used when mentioning physi-
cal–mechanical results achieved in unheated granite specimens.
Specimens from group I were heated in an Ehret muffle furnace (allowing
maximum temperature of 1100 °C) in an oxidizing environment at 500 °C for
24 h. The warming-up stage took 60 min and after exposure at 500 °C for 24 h
they were immediately cooled down to room temperature using tap water
immersion.
2.3. Analytical methods
Several evaluations were made before and after heating and cooling test
specimens from group I, such as: colour indexes determinations (assessed
according to the CIELAB method), water absorption by capillarity, open porosity,
and Young modulus (determined by flexural resonance dynamic method). More-
over, macroscopic features of reference and thermal aged specimens were also
evaluated.
Colour change quantification is important in stone cladding projects and may
help establishing which granite may present less colour shifts on a building’s facade
if subjected to fire. Colour measurement of building stones using a relatively faster,
affordable and simple methodology such as the CIELAB method have been reported
in several works for distinctive assessments such as: material characterization
[54–56], colour changes produced by consolidation and/or water repellent
treatments [57], ageing and weathering effects caused by environmental agents
[5,58–60], and change in colour produced by biological colonization [61].
Colour characterization was carried out with a Minolta portable spectropho-
tometer (model CM508i) with integrating sphere (diffuse illumination/8° viewing
angle), featuring an 8 mm diameter of the measuring area with diffuse illumination
by means of xenon flash arc lamp and 10 nm diffuse bandwidth. This relatively
small viewing area seemed to be suitable for colour measurement taking into
account the granites grain size.
In order to quantify colour CIELAB values (L*, a*, b*) for D65 average daylight
illuminant including ultraviolet radiation and CIE 2° Standard Observer, according
to the ASTM-D2244-79/D2244-85 standard method, were used [54]. The L* values
refer to the luminosity which varies from 0 (black) to 100 (white); while a* and
b* are the chromaticity coordinates: +a* is red, a* is green, +b* is yellow and b*
is blue [54,56]. Colour differences can be evaluated as follows, Eq. (1):
 
DL ¼ L1  L0 ; Da ¼ a1  a0 ; Db ¼ b1  b0

 
where L1 , a1 , b1
are the final values, and L0 , a0 , b0
are the reference values.
The total colour difference is determined as follows, Eq. (2):
2 1=2
DE ¼ ðDL2 þ Da2 þ Db Þ
In each granite specimen, a minimum number of six measurements were
assessed before and after heat and subsequent shock cooling by water.
Water absorption by capillarity and open porosity were measured according to
European Standards EN 1925:1999 and EN 1936:2006, respectively [62,63].
A resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA) equipment was used to
assess the elastic constants of studied granites – and in particular Young modulus
[64,65]. RFDA lies in the analysis of the damping for each resonance frequency,
which represents the energy absorption by the material, induced using a mechan-
ical discrete impulse [66]. The RFDA equipment allows the immediate calculation of
elastic parameters by analysing the signal directly from a microphone transducer
and transforming it into an elastic variable. It can test specimens in both flexural
and torsional vibration mode geometries, allowing simultaneous and accurate mea-
surements of Young modulus, E, shear modulus, G, and Poisson ratio, m, assuming
that the material is isotropic. Young modulus and Poisson ratio were evaluated
for AVR, SPI and PS before and after thermal treatment. Seven specimens from each
group (I and II) were selected. A minimum number of six valid measurements were
made in each granite specimen.
Granites flexural strength was assessed in ten specimens from group II
(150  30  25 mm). Four-point bending configuration was selected (flexural
strength determination under constant moment). Flexural strength was assessed
with specimens from group II due to the fact that their size was more suitable for
flexural strength evaluation. Test methodology was conducted according to EN
13161:2008 [67].
An accurate assessment on the heat and subsequent shock cooling by water
implications on the porous structure of the studied granites was conducted by
electron microscopy techniques. Rock fragment samples (before and after heat
exposure tests) were examined by field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FESEM) with X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) for chemical analysis
using secondary X-rays and standard ZAF corrections that allow semi-quantitative
microanalysis and characterization of mineralogical phases. These analyses were
carried out with a FESEM Jeol JSM-7001F microscope equipped with an Oxford
EDS light elements detector on samples previously sputter coated with a thin
gold/palladium film, using an acceleration voltage of 15 kV.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Macroscopic features
Tests confirmed that, for the three studied granites, colour
modification occurs (see Fig. 1A and B) as a result of exposure to
a 500 °C temperature (and even before shock cooling by water).
Higher intensification of red hue was detected for AVR, less intense
red hue for SPI and a rose/yellowish hue for PS (see Fig. 1). On AVR
thermal aged samples, Fig. 1B, it is possible to perceive red colour1
intensification. This red colour appears to be related with biotite
oxidation and was visible across all specimen thickness. A red
powder covers the surface of AVR specimens. After heat treatment
SPI colour changed and colour alteration is visible on a superficial
layer (approx. 0.5–1 mm). SPI heated specimens, Fig. 1B, display an
increase in biotite oxidation. SPI granite shows granular disaggrega-
tion with a yellowish powder covering the samples surface.
Colour change is no exception for PS. After being heated, PS acquires
a light rose colour all over the specimens’ surface, Fig. 1B. This
alteration is not superficial; it affects the entire volume of PS
specimens.
3.2. Effects of heat treatment on granites physical properties
3.2.1. Colour indexes
Differences in colour between reference and thermal aged
granite specimens were expressed as a single numerical value (in
CIELAB units), DE*, using Eq. (2). Individual analysis of the colour
changes due to the heat treatment is presented in Fig. 2.
DE* average values can be resumed as 7.9, 5.2 and 9.2 respec-
tively for AVR, SPI and PS and are above the colour perceptibility
threshold (DE*<5) [68]. Achieved total colour differences, DE*, val-
ð1Þ idate the macroscopic observations in which AVR and PS present
the most human eye perceptible colour changes. It is important
to take into account that the minimum increment in colour that
observers can appreciate is still under study and this might be
especially harder for heterogeneous coloured rocks such as
ð2Þ
granites [55]. However, in this study, all colour changes were
unanimously identify even by simple visual analysis.
Total colour differences, DE*, show the total colour change mag-
nitude between each granite, but they do not specify in what way
colours vary. For that analysis L*, a* and b* chromatic coordinates
are compared with reference values assessed before heat treat-
ment. L*, a* and b* variation values are presented in Fig. 2. From
the analysis of Fig. 3 it is possible to perceive that after heat expo-
sure, granites chromatic coordinate a* shows a positive shift
towards red hue. This change was quantified for the three granites
and can be resumed with average Da* of 3.7 for AVR, 2.6 for SPI and
2.7 for PS.
Granite reddening is usually attributed to the oxidation of iron
minerals such as biotite [2,3,47,69]. Changes in colour can also be
attributed to chlorite minerals which change their colour from pale
green (at 22 °C) to brownish (at 300 °C) [5].
Besides a*, chromaticity coordinates b* show a positive shift
towards yellow hue for the three granites: particularly for SPI
and PS which present Db* average values of 3.1 and 5.0, respec-
tively. AVR presents the lowest Db* change of the three granites
with an average value of 1.4. In what concerns L* values, a gen-
eral trend towards white direction is observed after heat treat-
ment i.e., all tested granites become slightly lighter. Granites
lightness average shifts DL* are 5.9 for AVR, 1.8 for SPI, 6.5 for
PS.
1
For interpretation of colour in Fig. 1, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.
 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450 443

Fig. 1. Examples of comparison between reference specimen (A); and specimen exposed to 500 °C for 24 h (B).

3.2.2. Open porosity and water absorption by capillarity

Fig. 2. Total colour differences (DE*) induced by heat for the three studied granites.
In crystalline rocks, such as granites, even a small temperature
variation is expected to cause cracking due to the residual stresses
arising from differential thermal expansion between mineral
grains which may produce new microcracks or open cracks that
already exist [1,13,47,70]. Thus, water–stone interactions and tem-
perature changes during heating and cooling may enhance porosity
changes.
Heat and subsequent cooling by water affects open porosity, P0,
of studied granites as presented in Fig. 4. Results indicate that heat

Fig. 3. Chromatic coordinates variation values: (a) Da*; (b) Db*; and (c) DL*.
444 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Fig. 4. Mean and standard deviation values of open porosity for AVR, SPI and PS
before and after the heat exposure test at 500 °C.
treatment causes a relatively high increase on granites open poros-
ity which might be responsible for considerable structural modifi-
cations. P0 differences before and after the heat treatment were
+117% for SPI, +79% for PS and +61% for AVR. SPI shows the highest
porosity increase and is also the granite with the lowest grain size.
AVR P0 measurements show that this granite achieved the highest
mean values but also the highest standard deviations, demonstrat-
ing the complexity of its porous network.
Fig. 5. FESEM images showing granites porous structures: before (A) and after the heating at 500 °C (B). Arrows identify fissures.
SEM analyses confirmed that, for the three studied granites,
porosity changes occur induced by an increase in fissures density
and width (Fig. 5). In what concerns the granites porous structures,
three types were identified (Fig. 6): inter-granular fissures (mainly
in quartz–quartz and quartz–feldspar contacts); intra-granular fis-
sures (mainly within mica or plagioclase grains); and trans-granu-
lar fissures (fissures that cut across the grain boundaries). It is also
important to mention that AVR and PS fissures exhibited similar
morphology with a practically uniform width along fissure length.
SPI fissures present lower width than the other studied granites.
The combination of inter and intra-granular fissures are
considered as the most important source of failure in cladding
applications since they may progress faster through the stone slab
resulting in possible fracture and causing subsequent risk to users
[1].
According to technical specifications regarding recommended
values for cladding applications, open porosity values should be
lower than 1.5% [46]. In our case, AVR open porosity mean value
is 1.7% in reference specimens; and the other two granites show
lower values (0.8% for SPI reference specimens and 1.1% for PS ref-
erence specimens). After heat treatment, all open porosity values
rise. Two of the studied granites still show porosity values not
much higher than 1.5%; SPI shows 1.8 ± 0.1% and PS shows
1.9 ± 0.2%. AVR open porosity increased from 1.7 ± 0.9% to
2.7 ± 0.3% after heat treatment. If occurrence of fire is taking into
 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Fig. 6. FESEM images depicting granites porous structures: before (A) and after the heat treatment at 500 °C (B). Arrows identify intra-granular fissures.
account when selecting granite for cladding, AVR will be consid-
ered unsuitable for that application.
The study of water transport through stone slabs in buildings,
such as water rise through the granites porous network, is of par-
ticular importance and must be considered when selecting stones
for cladding [71–73]. Higher values of water absorption capillary
coefficients (Cc) might be responsible for a faster transport of
moister or harmful solutions with soluble salts, capable of increas-
ing granites decay [73].
Stones physical damages caused by heat followed by shock
cooling by water can be better understood from capillary absorp-
tion curves (Fig. 7). The present granites capillary absorption
curves show good agreement to the ones presented by Mosquera
et al. [71]. Two stages can be identified in each curve: the station-
ary stage (plateau) which corresponds to the specimen saturation;
and the first stage which corresponds to the water rise and which
does indeed follow the expected square-root time dependent
kinetics [14], as also studied by Mosquera et al. [71]. The values
of Cc are assessed from the initial slope of the first stage and are
shown in Table 2.
Among the granites, AVR was the stone type which presented
higher Cc rise comparatively to reference values. AVR Cc increase
represents a difference of almost 1000%. Similar but lower decay
effect was seen on SPI and PS, where increases on Cc of approx.
500% and 640% were attained. Higher rises on capillary coefficient
are usually linked to higher density of macro-fissures. However,
445
fissures dimensions are another important data to consider once,
as detailed in previous work [71], large macro-fissures might not
always give origin to granites with the highest capillarity rises.
Capillarity rise differences achieved in this research are inter-
preted as being caused by the growing number of fissures caused
by the thermal expansion of different minerals in the granites.
Intra-granular fissures must have also contributed to the overall
capillarity rise. The three studied granites after the heat treatment
at 500 °C exhibit higher P0 and higher Cc suggesting that water
transport became easier not only due to a rise on the number of
open pores but probably essentially due to an increase on the
macro-fissures density and length.
Comparison of the results for the three granites shows that AVR,
with the highest average P0 after heat treatment; also present the
highest Cc after heat treatment. In contrast, SPI show the highest P0
change after heat treatment. However, this granite did not exhibit
the highest Cc rise. This fact is linked to SPI more compact structure
and a lower capacity for water absorption by capillarity explained
by smaller and fewer macro-fissures comparatively to AVR and PS.
3.3. Effects of heat treatment on granites mechanical properties
3.3.1. Elastic modulus and flexural strength
Flexural resonance method for dynamic Young modulus (ERD)
assessment interacts with the type of damage and also with stone
pores and fissures at the same time [23]. Consequently, this
446 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450

Fig. 7. Examples of capillary absorption curves for: (a) AVR; (b) SPI; and (c) PS; before and after the heat exposure test at 500 °C.

method allows not only the determination of stones elastic modu-
lus but also the evaluation of overall damage occurred. A decay of
granites elastic modulus will be intrinsically related with a reduc-
tion on flexural strength. Flexural strength under 4-point bending
(r4p), i.e. through constant moment method, was firstly assessed
for the three granites before heat treatment (Table 3).
Comparison of r4p for the three granites shows that AVR has the
lowest mean value and the highest variability (showing a coeffi-
cient of variation CV = 20%). It is important to reinforce the idea
Table 2
Water absorption capillary coefficients (Cc) results before and after the heat treatment
at 500 °C.
that AVR flexural strength variability is in agreement with the vari-
ations noticed in porosity and in capillary coefficient. Relatively to
the other granites, SPI is the most prominent stone type in terms of
flexural strength (18.02 ± 0.75 MPa, with a CV of only 4%).
Comparison of granites elastic modulus mean values, ERD,
before and after the heat treatment at 500 °C (using specimens
from group I) is depicted in Fig. 8. After the heat treatment, AVR
presents the highest ERD reduction (32%) followed by PS (18%)
and SPI (6%). In fact, AVR ERD decay was higher comparatively with
the other granites. This decay can be explained by the effect of
thermal expansions/contractions of AVR different minerals origi-
nated during heating and cooling stages. As presented in Fig. 5,

Cc
Mean value (g m2 s1/2) SD (g m2 s1/2) CV (%)
AVR 2.5 0.3 12.1
AVR 500C 27.2 1.7 6.3
SPI 1.5 0.04 2.6
SPI 500C 9.3 0.1 1.1
PS 1.7 0.05 2.8
PS 500C 12.6 0.2 1.6

Table 3
Reference values of flexural strength under constant moment for AVR, SPI and PS.

r4p
Mean value (MPa) SD (MPa) CV (%)
AVR 5.08 1.02 20
SPI 18.02 0.75 4
PS 13.92 0.67 5 Fig. 8. Dynamic Young modulus, ERD: comparison (mean values) for the three
granites before and after the heat treatment at 500 °C (using specimens from group I).
 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Fig. 9. Relationship between ERD and flexural strength r4p reference values for AVR,
SPI and PS.
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of dowel–hole horizontal anchoring. lp represents
dowel contact length; L1 is the anchored edge length; L2 is the non-anchored edge
length (slab span); and a is the distance between the centre of the hole and the
adjacent edge on a stone slab. Adapted from Camposinhos [16].
heat and subsequent shock cooling by water caused an increase in
the number and dimension of intra and inter grain porosity.
As expected and based on the physical properties already
assessed, SPI shows the lowest ERD reduction after the heat treat-
ment. Observation of SPI scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images (see Fig. 5) confirms that less evident changes are noticed
in terms of the porous structure.
Flexural strength and Young modulus are important stone char-
acteristics when selection of stones for cladding is made. Based on
those values, slabs minimum thickness can be assessed. As natural
materials with brittle behaviour, stones flexural strength predic-
tion (and generally stones mechanical strength) is considered com-
plex and large dispersion is expected. Flexural strength coefficients
of variation are used to establish a safety factor which is directly
link with the expected risk of failure associated to each stone type
[11,16]. Relationships between flexural strength (r4p) and dynamic
elastic modulus (ERD) reference values for the three studied
granites are shown in Fig. 9. Attained correlations for SPI and PS
are considered good (R2 = 0.82 and 0.98 correspondingly) and
AVR correlation was considered average (R2 = 0.62). This means
that heat treatment effect on granites r4p may be assessed from
these correlations.
In this study, flexural strength values after heat treatment were
estimated from the relationships between the reference values of
r4p and ERD. Elastic modulus mean values after heat treatment
(Fig. 8) were substituted in the equations shown in Fig. 9. Calcu-
lated r4p values after heat treatment show the following results:
(i) AVR r4p estimated mean value (after heat treatment) is highly
447
negative (88.6 MPa), which means that according to the correla-
tions established between ERD and r4p, heat treatment has a critical
effect on AVR flexural strength. (ii) SPI r4p estimate (after heat
treatment) is 15.9 MPa which means that this granite will still
present relatively suitable flexural strength after the heat exposure
(at least until 500 °C). (iii) PS r4p estimate (after heat treatment) is
5.4 MPa, a relatively low flexural strength value taking into
account that recommended r4p for granite cladding products is
10 MPa [45].
Based on the calculated AVR r4p mean value and on the ERD
decay (the highest) it is possible to recognize that as a brittle
material, AVR will present the highest risk of failure in a cladding
application, relatively to SPI and PS. Results obtained in this study
seem to suggest that fire may cause loss in AVR and PS strength in a
non-recommended level for cladding applications on building
facades. Based on this, AVR and PS might be seen as unsuitable
for cladding applications in which fire regulation is constricting.
Taking into account the heat treatment implications on granites
mechanical properties and the established correlations indicated in
Fig. 9, an example of stone slabs dimensioning (particularly mini-
mum recommended slab thickness) was made and is presented
in the next section.
3.4. Implications of heat treatment on stone panels dimensioning
The main intention of the examples shown herein was to dem-
onstrate how, in a first approach, stone panels thickness may vary
if fire effect on granites mechanical strength is taken into account.
Among indirect fixing systems, dowel–hole anchor systems are
one of the most usually selected for stone cladding. Schematic rep-
resentation of dowel–hole horizontal anchoring on a stone slab is
shown in Fig. 10.
Calculations of slabs minimum thickness (t) to use with dowel–
hole fixing system were made for AVR, SPI and PS, considering two
scenarios: (i) slab thickness based on r4p mean value before heat
treatment (reference values) presented in Table 3; and (ii) slab
thickness based on calculated r4p mean value after heat treatment.
Moreover, these calculations aim to show how granites for clad-
ding may be selected if fire effects are taking into account. Stone
slabs thickness t (in mm) is assessed from Eq. (3), proposed by
[16,72]:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
W Sd
t P L2 ð3Þ
rRd
where WSd represents the wind load dynamic pressure (KPa); L2 is
the slab span dimension (m); and rRd is the flexural strength
(MPa). Thickness (t) calculations represented in Fig. 11 were made
for several slab spans (L2) usually selected for dowel–hole anchored
stone facades and assuming a lateral average wind load, WSd, with a
dynamic pressure of 1 KPa [15]. Selected wind dynamic pressure is
the average usually set value for 35 m meter high building (approx-
imately 12 floors) located in urban areas. More data concerning
wind loads can be consulted on Eurocode 1 [34].
Taking into account an example of a stone slab with 1.2 m span
(non-anchored edge) and a wind dynamic load of 1 KPa, it is possi-
ble to recognize from the analysis of plots presented in Fig. 11: (i)
AVR minimum recommended thickness is 18 mm (see Fig. 11a). To
resist the same wind load after the flexural strength decay caused
by heat and subsequent shock cooling by water, slabs thickness
should rise to 120 mm. This represents an increase of approxi-
mately 100 mm for this granite, meaning 500% larger slab thick-
ness, which obviously means that the ventilated facade concept
does not makes sense anymore and thickness values become com-
parable to stone masonry; (ii) SPI minimum recommended thick-
ness does not seem to be affected by the flexural strength decay
448 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
Fig. 11. Examples of calculated slab minimum thickness (t) according with slab span, for reference and heat-treated specimens: (a) AVR; (b) SPI; and (c) PS.
caused by the heat treatment (see Fig. 11b) which implies that,
comparatively to AVR, SPI strength is less affected by fire (for tem-
peratures until 500 °C); (iii) PS minimum recommended thickness
rises from 10 to 20 mm to resist the same wind action after decay
caused by the heat treatment (see Fig. 11c). Comparatively to SPI,
PS granite is more vulnerable to the heat treatment, and if facade
fire constricting requirements exist its thickness should be
increased to avoid possible premature failure.
Increasing stone slabs thickness might conduct to higher per-
pendicular wind load resistance. However, this rule should not
be directly applied on granites such as AVR with high flexural
strength scatter (CV = 20%). Nonetheless, it is important to balance
the material increasing cost on thickness (and weight) versus the
selection of another stone material with relatively lower decay
rates for the same durability conditions.
A possible solution for AVR panels to attain higher mechanical
strength could be developed based on back-up structures attached
to the granite slabs (such as polymeric fibres impregnated with
resin, or honeycomb structures) or other fixing system which
allows different moments, such as the undercut system. This last
solution is an anchoring type characterized by a special expansive
head forged on the end of a threaded shank which fits into a
matching slot in the back side of the stone slab. Stone panels are
fixed in four points in the back side of the slab. This type of anchor
promotes higher pull-out resistance compared, for example, with
slabs fixed with dowels. Since bending strength is reduced by
approximately 50% (compared with dowel anchorages) these
anchors allow to reduce stone slabs thickness and to increase slab
dimensions.
On the other hand, due to lower flexural strength decay, SPI and
PS will probably resist the same action with 20 mm slabs thickness
(minimum). From this analysis it is clear that AVR is the most crit-
ical of the three studied granites in regarding possible damages
caused by fire and subsequent effects on stone cladding.
4. Conclusions/final remarks
In this paper a study was presented regarding the implications
of heat (500 °C) followed by shock cooling by water on granites
cladding requirements. The multi-analysis approach provided use-
ful information concerning physical and mechanical properties of
the Portuguese granites Amarelo de Vila Real (AVR), Cinzento de
Pedras Salgadas (PS) and Cinzento de Alpalhão (SPI), and their con-
nection with the stone mineralogical and structural features. This
study involved the identification of granites colour indexes, open
porosity, water absorption by capillarity, flexural strength, and
Young modulus, in reference conditions and after heat treatment.
This research work shows that all studied granites show
changes in colour that were easily detected, such as reddening
caused by biotite oxidation on AVR and SPI, and a light-rose colour
attained by PS.
Besides, all studied granites exhibit an increase in porosity
induced by heat exposure. SPI was the granite which presented
 V. Pires et al. / Construction and Building Materials 64 (2014) 440–450
higher open porosity increase caused by the heat treatment (117%).
AVR was the granite which attained higher P0 (2.7% ± 0.3%) after
the heat treatment. It was confirmed that, after the heat treatment,
the porosity change of the three studied granites was due to an
increase in fissures density and fissures length.
Moreover capillary kinetics also increased for all granites after
heat treatment. The highest capillary coefficient rise (%) was
attained for AVR and PS. Differences in capillary coefficient rise
achieved in this research are interpreted as being caused by the
growing number of macro-fissures due to the thermal expansion/
contraction of granites different minerals.
Regarding mechanical behaviour, results show that the heat
treatment has different effect on the three granites. Granites with
highest P0 and Cc rises (%) show highest mechanical decay, assessed
through ERD and r4p. However, among the three granites SPI
appears to be the less vulnerable stone type and AVR the most one.
Concerning stone selection for cladding, based on the existing
physical-mechanical requirements, SPI can be considered as the
most suitable choice among the three studied granites, not only
due to its lower variability (allowing lighter stone slabs) and higher
mechanical strength, but also due to its lower colour changes (only
at specimens surface).
To summarize, the results of this study lead us to propose that
stone thickness dimensioning might take into account unexpected
variables such as fire leading to high temperature exposure. The
experiments performed in this work make clear that only from
understanding each specific decay process it is possible to attain
a careful selection and maintenance of stone facades.
It was our aim that the characterization cladding methodology
presented herein might lead to a better granite selection for
dowel–hole anchor systems when project fire requirements exist.
In future works, the suggested methodology might be applied to
other stone types beside granites and contribute to a higher service
life in cladding.
Acknowledgments
This paper was partially financed by the research project
PROVIPS ‘‘Development of an automated classification system for
polished stone slabs and tiles’’ www.provips.net (E.U. 7th
Framework Programme ‘‘CAPACITIES – Research for the benefit of
SMEs’’); by FEDER Funds through the Programa Operacional Factores
de Competitividade – COMPETE and by Portuguese Funds through
FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (Pest-OE/CTE/
UI0098/2011).
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