University of Technology

Building & Construction Department / RS & GIS (II)

Year 2016-2017
4. Active Remote Sensing ((Laser Scanning)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic principles of Laser
4.3 Laser Radar Performance
4.3.1 The Laser Radar Range Equation
4.3.2 Laser Receivers
4.4 Basic Principles of Laser Ranging, Profiling, and Scanning
4.4.1 Laser Ranging
4.4.2 Laser Profiling
4.4.3 Laser Scanning
4.5 Laser Scanning Flight Planning

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4. Laser Remote Sensing Scanning
4.1 Introduction
Laser remote sensing (LRS)) is the general term to describe the procedure to gain
physical information on systems from a large distance with the aid of lasers. The
technique is also referred to as LIDAR: Light Detection And Ranging. The principle is
simple: light from a laser strikes the system of interest and the returning light is detected
by a telescope and analyzed.. The technology is developing from the 1970's but especially
the rapid advances in laser technology and computers ove overr the past ten years opened up a
wide variety of applications. Most commonly LRS is used in atmospheric and
environmental studies applied from an airplane, minivan or satellite, measuring
concentrations of pollutants, mapping
apping cloud formation and monitoring
moni agricultural crops
for stress.
The acronym “laser” stands for (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation). A laser is a device which generates a stream of high energy particles
(photons) within an extremely narrow range of wavelengths. Laser Laserss produce a coherent
light source designed for a specific purpose, which could be anything from a CD or DVD
player to an industrial cutting tool, a surgical instrument, a surveying instrument, or a
LiDAR mapping system. A laser light source forms the basis for a LiDAR system. The
term “LiDAR”” is an acronym for ““light detection and ranging.”
anging.” The wavelength chosen
for most airborne topographic mapping lasers is 1064 nanometers, which is in the near- near
infrared band of the electromagnetic spectrum. Two sources of light are said to
be Coherent if the waves emitted from them have the same frequency and are 'phase 'phase-
difference. Figure 4.1
linked'; that is, they have a zero or constant phase differenc

Coherent Source (Laser)

Incoherent Source

Figure 4.1:
.1: Coherent & Incoherent source light

4.2 Basic principles of laser:

Stimulated emission in which atoms in an upper energy level can be triggered (or (
stimulated) in phase by an incoming photon of a specific energy. The emitted photons all
possess the same wavelength and vibrate in phase with the incident photons (the light is
said to be COHERENT).

The emitted light is said to be INCOHERENT in time and space if

 The light is composed of many different wavelengths
wavelengths.
 The light is emitted in random directions.
 The
he light is emitted with different amplitudes
amplitudes.
 There
here is no phase correspondence between any of the emitted photons

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Year 2016-2017
Properties of laser light:
 Mono-chromaticity.
 Coherence.
 Beam divergence: All photons travel in the same direction; the light is contained
in a very narrow pencil (almost COLLIMATED), laser light is low in divergence
(usually).
 High irradiance.
The basis of LiDAR mapping to a) precisely locate the position of the sensor, and b)
measure the time it takes an emitted pulse of light to travel to an object, be reflected off
the object, and travel back to the sensor. Each emitted laser pulse is a defined “Column
“
of Light," a coherent waveform of electromagnetic energy. When that column of light
encounters an object, a reflected pulse may be detected by the sensor. If the laser pulse
strikes a "Solid"
olid" object (such as a building, vehicle, pavement, a rock, or bare soil) the
incident
dent energy is all reflected and only one "return" is recorded. Very dense vegetation
may also reflect all of the incoming energy at the same time, so that only one return will
be recorded. But, if the vegetation canopy allows for any of the laser light to continue
traveling forward between individual leaves, stems, and trunks, additional returns may be
recorded from within the canopy, and possibly even from ground beneath the canopy.
The processed LiDAR data, before classification, is essentially a cloud ooff 3D points
composed of "single returns" or "multiple returns" from laser pulses. This type of
LiDAR data is often termed as "Discrete
" Return" LiDAR.
The essential measurement made by a LiDAR sensor is of time, the time that elapses
from the moment the pulse se is emitted until it returns after being reflected by the target
surface. Because the laser pulse travels at the speed of light, a known constant, time can
be directly converted to distance, by the following equation:
Distance from the sensor to the targtarget and back = (Elapsed time) × (Speed peed of light)
We must divide this result by two to get the distance from the sensor to the target; this
distance is often referred to as the range.
With knowledge about the absolute position and “pointing angle” of the laser system,
the X-Y-Z Z coordinates of the reflecting object can be calculated. For topographic
mapping applications, we need LiDAR-derived derived elevation points to be distributed over a
large swath on either side of the flight track on the ground. In order to achieve this, some
sort of scanning capability must be added to the sensor to deflect the pulses being
emitted by the laser over a broad area on the target surface. Figure 4.2

.2: Aerial Laser Scanning

Figure 4.2:

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Figure below is a graphic depicting the operating ranges for common remote sensing
technologies (black and white or color film, electro
electro-optical
optical sensors, thermal infrared
sensors, passive microwave radiometers, active radar systems, and typical LiDAR lasers)
across the electromagnetic spectrum. Passive sensors, such as film, record the amount of
ambient energy reflected or emitted from features of interest; active sensors, such as
LiDAR and radar, generate and transmit energy in specific wavelengths and measure
meas the
amount of that energy reflected back from target surfaces. Since active sensors do not
require sunlight, they can be used either during the day or at night. Longer wavelengths,
such as microwaves, can travel uninterrupted through clouds and haze, w while
hile shorter
wavelengths cannot.

Figure 4.3: EM

4.3 Laser Radar Performance

4.3.1 The Laser Radar Range Equation
Referring to the geometry shown below, the signal power received by the laser range
finder at range R is as follows:
4 1
= . . . . . . . °
4 4 2
4 .
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Where:
S – Target signal power at the laser radar (W)
P – Transmitted pulse power (W)
R – Range to the target (m)
θBW – laser beam width (rad)
ρ- Target backscattering coefficient
A – Lens aperture area (m2)
τo – Optical efficiency

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Year 2016-2017

Figure 4.4: Laser radar target area

1. Point source power over a spherical area 44πR2. The power of a point source
without the benefit of a lens that focuses the power in a given direction.
2. Measure of the focussing effect of the lens where it is used to direct the
radiated power in a given direction. The gain is the ratio of the spread of the
power over a sphere of 4π4 sr and the laser beamwidth in sr.
3. The area of the target. In this case, the laser spot is smaller than the target area.
4. The backscatter coefficient of the target. This depends on the material
reflectivity and the surface roughness.
5. The power from the target is scattered equally over the forward hemisphere of
2π sr. The resulting power density back at the laser will be 1/2 1/2πR2.An
alternative is to use the Lambertian scattering assumption which is that the
reflected flux per solid angle is proportional to the cosine of the angle between
the normal to the surface and the reflection angle. In this case the spread is π.
6. The target return power that is intercepted by a lens with area A.
7. The optical efficiency of the laser radar transmission chain from the front
aperture of the lens.
The formula can an be simplified to the following for a spherical target power
distribution.
°
=
If the laser beam is larger than the targe
target size, then term (3) should be substituted for
by the laser radar cross-section
section σ and the equation becomes.
2
= ,

Where:
θBW = λ/D,
λ - Wavelength (m),
D – Lens diameter (m),

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The footprint diameter d is dependent on the ranging distance and laser beam
divergence which is itself a function of the size of the transmitting aperture and the
transmitted wavelength
A good estimate for the minimal possible footprint is obtained by calculating a
diffraction-limited
limited beam. For spatially coherent light at the wavelength , the beam
divergence is:
λ
ω = 2.44 . Typical laser beam divergences 0.3 ω 2.7
7
D
Where: D is the aperture diameter. Therefore, the diameter d of the illumination spot
on ground is:
λ
d=D . R = D ω. R
D
Where: R is the slant range. As D is small compared to the second term a good
approximation for the footprint d is
d = ω .R
At nadir
adir it corresponds with the flying
fl altitude, because R equals the flying
ying height H.
The final equation is

= .
Example: Compute the area of footprint for Aerial laser scanning system operating at
4.807×10-4 m. if
a Green wavelength 532 nm, if you known the diameter of the lens is 4.807×
you known the
he flying altitude about 500 meters.
532 × 10
ω = 2.44 × = 2.7
4.807 × 10
d diameter of Footprint = R × ω
2.7
= 500 × = 1.35
35
1000

= ⁄4 = 1.431
4.3.2 Laser Receivers
Direct detection laser receivers convert the echo directly into a voltage or current
Positive, Intrinsic, Negative
using PIN (Positive, Negative) or APD (Avalanche photodiodes).
photodiodes
Heterodyne receivers down--convert
convert the received signal to a lower frequency by
mixing with the output of a stable local oscillator. The signal can then be amplified
and filtered to enhance the detection process. Because phase information is
maintained, such receivers can be use
used
d to measure speed by Doppler processing.

4.4 Basic Principles of Laser Ranging, Profiling, and Scanning

Brief
rief introduction to the basic pri
principles of laser ranging, profiling,
ling, and scanning will
be provided here:

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4.4.1 Laser Ranging
All laser ranging, profiling, and scanning operations are based on the use of some type
of laser-based
based ranging instrument—usually
instrument usually described as a laser ranger or laser
rangefinder—that
that can measure distance to a high degree of accuracy. This
measurement of distance or range, which is always
ways based on the precise measurement
of time, can be carried out using one of the two main methods.
1. The first of these involves the accurate measurement of the Time-Of-Fllight TOF
of a very short but intense pulse of laser radiation to travel from the laser ranger to
the object being measured and to return to the instrument after having been
reflected from the object
object—hence
hence the use of the term “pulse echo” mentioned
above. Thus, the laser ranging instrument measures the precise time interval that
has elapsed between the pulse being emitted by the laser ranger located at point A
and its return after reflection from a ground object located at point B (Figure 4.5).
= . ⁄2
Where:
is the slant distance or range
is the speed of electromagnetic radiation, which is a known value
is the measured time interval

4.5

From this, the following simple relationship can be derived:

∆ = ∆ . ⁄2 . ∆ ⁄2
Where:
∆ is the range precision
∆ is the velocity precision
∆ is the corresponding precision value of the time measurement
Since the speed of light is very accurately known, in practice, the range precision or
resolution is determined by the precision of the time measurement.
2. In the second (alternative) method, the laser transmits a continuous beam of laser
radiation instead of a pulse. In this case, the range value is derived by comparing
the transmitted and received versions of the sinusoidal wave pattern of this emitted
beam and measuring the phase difference between them. Since the wavelength ( )
of the carrier signal of the emitted beam of laser radiation is quite short—
—typically
around 1 μm, and there is no need for such a measuring accuracy in topographic

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mapping
pping applications, a modulation signal in the form of a measuring wave pattern
is superimposed on the carrier signal and its phase difference can be measured
more precisely. Thus, the amplitude (or intensity) of the laser radiation will be
modulated by a sinusoidal signal, which has a period T and wavelength λ . The
measurement of the slant distance R is then carried out through the accurate
measurement of the phase difference (or the phase angle, Φ ) between the emitted
signal at point A and the signal received at the instrument after its reflection
ection either
from the ground itself or from an object that is present on the ground at point B.
This phase measurement is usually carried out using a digital pulse counting
Figure 4.6). By
technique. This gives the fractional part of the total distance (∆ ) (Figure
changing the modulation pattern, the integer number of wavelengths (M M) can be
determined and added to the fractional values to give the final
nal slant range (R).
(

4.6

= Δ ⁄2
Where
is the integer number of wavelengths
is the known value of the wavelength
is the fractional part of the wavelength = (φ/2π).
(φ/2π λ, where φ is the phase angle
4.4.2 Laser Profiling
The use of a reflectorless
ectorless laser ranger to measure the distances to a series of closely
spaced points located adjacent to one another along a line on the terrain results in a
two-dimensional (vertical) profi le or vertical cross section of the ground showing the
profile
elevations of the ground along that line.
1. In the case of a terrestrial
strial or ground
ground-based
based laser ranger, the measurement of the
terrain profile is executed in a series of steps with the successive measured
distances (slant ranges) and vertical angles ((V)) to each sampled point being

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recorded and stored digitally (Figure 4.7a). ). The profile of the terrain along the
measured line can then be derived from this measured data by computation using
the following quite simple relationships (Figure 4.7b): = cos
Where:
D is the horizontal distance
R is the measured slant range
V is the measured vertical angle
Δ = sin
Where: ΔH is the difference in height between the laser ranger and the ground point
being measured.

4.7

2. In the
he case of a simple laser profi
profiler
ler that has been mounted on an airborne or
spaceborne platform, the laser ranger, which, in this context, is often called a laser
altimeter, is pointed vertically toward the ground to allow a rapid series of
measurements of the distances to the ground from the successive positions of the
moving platform. The measurements of the vertical distances from the platform to
a series of adjacent points along the ground track are made possible through the
forward motion of the airborne or spaceborne platform. If the positions and
altitudes of the platform at these successive
successive positions in the air or in space are
known or can be determined, for example using a GPS/IMU system (or a star- star
tracker in the spaceborne case), then the corresponding ranges measured at these
points will allow their ground elevation values to be det determined.
ermined. Consequently,
these allow the terrain profile along the flight
fl line to be constructed (Figure 4.8).

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4.8

4.4.3 Laser Scanning

With the addition of a scanning mechanism, for example, utilizing a rotating mirror or
prism, the laser ranging instrument is upgraded from being a profiler ler to becoming a
scanner that can measure and map the topographic features of an area in detail instead
of simply determining elevation values along a line in the terrain
terrain—as as is done with a
laser profiler.
1. With regard to a terrestrial or ground-based
ground based laser scanner instrument, the position
of the platform is fixed; therefore, motion in two directions is needed to scan an
area of the terrain. Thus, besides the vertical motion given by the rotating mirror or
prism, the addition of a controlled (and measured) motion in the azimuth
direction—usually
usually implemented through the use of a motor drive—allows
drive allows the
measurement of a series of profiles around the vertical axis of the laser ranger. This
provides the position and elevation data that will allow a 3D model of the terrain
and the objects present on it to be formed for the area around the position occupied
by the laser scanner (Figure 4.9a).
2. In the case of airborne and spaceborne instruments, the area scanning is achieved
by a series of profile
le measurements in the di
direction
rection perpendicular to the flight
fl line
while the forward motion of the platform provides the second dimension. The
addition of a scanning mechanism employing a reflective mirror or prism, whose
angular rotation values can be continuously and precisely measured using an
angular encoder, enables the additional profiles of the terrain to be measured by the
laser ranger in the lateral or cross-track
cross track direction, so supplementing the
longitudinal profile being measured in the along-tracktrack direction of the flight line.
Through a series of these profiles measured in the cross cross-track
track direction, the
positions and elevations of a mesh of points, also called a LiDAR point cloud, is
generated covering a swath or area of the terrain inst instead
ead of the set of elevation
values along the ground track of the flight line that is produced by the airborne or
spaceborne profiler (Figure 4.9b).

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4.9

4.5 Laser Scanning Flight Planning

The flight
ight planning stands at the beginning of an airborn
airborne surveying project. Several
flight planning programs are available on the market. These products are normally
sold with flight
ight guidance software,
softwar which tells the pilot the flight
ight course and elevation
elev
during flight and when he has to start and to stop LiDAR surveying along a flightfl line.
Therefore flight
ight planning for airborne LiDAR surveys needs additional working steps.
Furthermore, the GPS reference station and calibration areas must be selected.
On the basis of the costumer
costumer's requirements, which are the surveying
urveying area size, the
density of laser points on ground, and the elevation accuracy, the proper LiDAR
system must be chosen first. rst. This means selecting the appropriate LiDAR, Position
and Orientation System (POS POS) and the carrier either an airplane or hel helicopter
platform. Helicopters are used if high laser point densities are necessary and detailed
surveys of small areas are essential. For extended surveys airplanes are preferred. The
performance characteristics of the LiDAR and POS determine the point density across
the flight
ight direction, the elevation accuracy,
acc the elevation resolution and the pointing
accuracy.
c
Δ = .T
2
T is the pulse length
Δ The
he minimum resolvable distance between targets
Let be T = 10 ns, then Δ = 1.5 m. This means targets must be more than 1.5 m
apart in slant range to be identif
identified
ied as separate targets. Today also shorter laser pulses
are possible. 10 ps are state of the art, which theoretically allows a target resolution of
1.5 mm.
The point density in the flight
ight direction ∆ is given by the speed of the platform
and the scanning speed which is described by the scanning rate :
∆ =

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If the airplane is not known, a speed of 75 m/s is a good choice to start planning.
Helicopters can flyy more or less with arbitrary speeds.
The point density across flight
ight direction ∆ can be approximated by

∆ =
where: θ is the SW (either expressed in meters or angular degrees)
Ν is the number of points per scan line and assuming a flat at terrain and that the
distances between points along the scan line are equal Ν is calculated by

Where: is the laser pulse rate. Figure 4.10 depicts a dependence of the spacing
between adjacent points on the instantaneous scanning angle . The surveying
parameters have to be dimensioned for the worst case within the scan line. This means
for the maximum scanning angle which is half the angular SW . Therefore, a more
precise formula for point density across flight direction ∆ is derived from
Figure 4.10:

4.10

∆ = .
2
Where: H is the flying altitude above ground. In case that terrain features a slope with
angle along the scanning line (Figure 4.11)) the maximum spacing across the flight
line becomes
. , 0
. cos . 1 tan . tan
∆ = 2 2
. , 0
. cos . tan . tan 1
2 2

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4.11

The values ∆ and ∆ are used to determine the minimum point density
which is given in number of laser spots per square meter.
1
=
∆ .∆
The parameters calculated with Equations ∆ and are not only dependent
on LiDAR parameters. Rathe
Rather they are a function of the flying altitude . The fl
flying
height or the resulting maximum slant range which are related by

=
cos 2
As the accuracy is set by the customer, is limited. According to Equation ∆
across track spacing of the laser points limits also . This means, both limitations
must be fulfilled
lled and the most stringent one determines the Swath width (SW
SW):
= 2. . tan
2
Now, the key parameters for fl flight planning are available which are flight
ight altitude
and . In addition the overlapping factor for neighboring paths has to be set.
According to Figure 4.12 it is defined by
=1
Where is the distance between the centerlines of adjacent paths.
The overlapping is dependent on the pilots flying precision. Planning surveys without
any overlap is critical, because one has to face the problem that surveyed areas are not
completely covered due to rolling of the aiaircraft and improper straight flight
ight lines. At
least a 20% overlap is advisable.

4.12

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For highly resolved surveys an overlapping of at least 50% may also be applied if
high point densities are essential which cannot be achieved with the scanning
parameters of LiDAR and the forward speed of the surveying carrier.
Table 4.1 compiles the relevant
levant parameters
para eters for flight planning. In addition the flight
planning result can be used to estimate the expenditure of the project. The length and
number of flying lines determines the flight
fl duration. One has
as to keep in mind that
long flight lines are preferable,
referable, because after each
each line the airplane has to fly
fl turns
into the next line where the survey is interrupted. On the other hand too long lines
degrade the accuracy of POS caused by IMU drifts. Flying a straight line for ca. 15
15–
20 min., some turns are required.
Based on the flight
ight planning results the mission planning can be completed by
positioning the GPS reference stations which should not be more than 20 km away
from each surveying position of the airplane. Therefore, the number of reference
stations is determined by the size of surveying area and the possibility to deploy a
reference. In inaccessible areas are e.g., primeval forests, summit of glaciers, etc.
Today in many countries networks of GPS reference stations exist. Paid GPS
reference data are available to everybody. In all other cases the surveyor has to see
that enough stations are available.
Table 4.1: Complication of Key Parameters for Flight Planning

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Q4.1: A laser Scanning spaceborne operating at altitude 2500 m with speed 75 m/sec,
the pulse duration of the scanning system is 10 ns and the peak power is 15 kW,
which emits its pulses with a pulse repetition rate of 83 kHz, and the very high scan
rate of 630 Hz at the wavelength (λ) of 1540 nm. If you know the scan angle is 30°,
compute the following: 1) The minimum resolvable distance between targets 2)
Maximum slant range. 3)) Swath width. 4) Point spacing in both direction,, if you know
the scan rate up to 50,000 point/ line
line. 5) Point density. 6) Overlapping factor, if you
the flight line separation is 400 m.
Solution:
1540 × 10
ω = 2.44 × = 7.817
4.807 × 10
d diameter of Footprint = R × ω
7.817
= 2500 × = 19.542
19
1000

= ⁄4 = 300
c 3 × 10
Δ = .T = .10 × 10 = 1.5
2 2
30°
= / = 2500 × = 2588.190
2 2
30
=2 × × tan = 2 × 2500 × tan = 1339.75
2 2
75 /
∆ = = = 0.119
630

30 ×
∆ = . = 180 × 2500 = 0.028
50000 30
2 cos 2

1 1
= = = 300.12 /
∆ .∆ 0.119 × 0.028

400
=1 =1 = 0.7014
1339.75
75

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Q4.2: An earth bound CO2 laser operating at a wavelength of 10.6 10.6μm
m radiates
through a collimating lens with a diameter of 500mm. If it produces 500W pulses
each of duration 0.1s answer the following questions.
Mean distance to the moon is 384400km
The power is PdB = 10log10 (500) = 27.0 dBW
The 1/e beamwidth is:
1.05 × 1.05 × 10.6 × 10
= = = 22.3
0.5
The Antenna Aperture is = 4 = 0.196

a) What would the diameter of the footprint be on the moon

d = R × θBW = (3.844×10 108) m ×22.3×10-6 = 8556m
The area of the footprint on the moon is
Afoot = πd2/4 =57.5 × 10 m2= [10log10 (57.5 × 10 ) =77.6 dBm2]
b) Ignoring atmospheric effects what would the power density on the moon be in
W/m2
SI = P/Afoot = 500/57.5×106 = 8.7 μW/m2
c) A retro-reflector
reflector with a diameter of (10 cm) and a reflectivity of (0.99
0.99) reflects
some of the power back to earth. What is the received power density. The effective
cross section of the retro-reflector
reflector is
4 4 × 0.1
= 0.99 = 0.99 = 3.7 × 10 = 65.7
3 3 × 10.6 × 10
The power density back on the earth is given by the following formula
2 2 × 500 × 3.7 × 10
= = = 3.45 × 10 ⁄
× 33.844 × 10 22.3 × 10
d) Is the reflected power density from the moons surface back on the earth
(Backscatter
ackscatter coefficient 0.2) larger or smaller than that returned by the
retroreflector. The power density back on earth is just
500 × 0.2
= = = 2.15 × 10 ⁄
3.844 × 10
This is 10× higher than that received from the corner reflector

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Q4.3: CO2 laser scanning operating at a wavelength of 10.610.6μmm radiates through a
collimating lens with a diameter of 750mm. If it produces 750 W pulses each of
duration 0.1s answer the following
a) What would the diameter of the footprint be on the target.
b) What is the received power density
Mean distance to the target is 750 km
The power is PdB = 10log10 (750) = 28.75 dBW
The 1/e beamwidth is:
1.05 × 1.05 × 10.6 × 10
= = = 14.84
0.75
The Antenna Aperture is
× 0.75
= 4= 4 = 0.44178

a) What would the diameter of the footprint be on the target

-6
d = R × θBW = (750×1000)
1000) m ×14.84×10
×14.84 = 11.13 m
The area of the footprint on the target is
9729 × 10 m2= [10log10 (0.9729 × 10 ) =89.88 dBm2]
Afoot = πd2/4 =0.9729

b) What is the received power density? If you known the retro retro-reflector
reflector with a
diameter of (12 cm) and a reflectivity of (0.95) reflects some of the power
back to laser scanning. The effective cross section of the retro
retro-reflector
reflector is
4 4 × 0.12
= 0.95 = 0.95 = 7.34 × 10 = 68.659
659
3 3 × 10.6 × 10
The power density back
2 2 × 750 × 7.34 × 10
= = = 1.6 × 10 ⁄
× 750 × 1000 14.84 × 10
Assumed the value of Area (A) is ignore

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