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6. Global Positing System (GPS)
6.1 Introduction to GPS
6.2 System Overview
6.2.1 Space Segment
6.2.2 Control Segment
6.2.3 User Segment
6.3 Basic GPS Concept
6.3.1 Intersection of Two Circles
6.4 GPS Observables
6.4.1 Measurement Of Pseudo range
6.4.2 Carrier-phase
phase measurements
6.5 GPS Positioning Modes
6.5.1 Autonomous Positioning (Point Positioning)
6.5.2 Differential Positioning
6.5.3 Kinematic Positioning
6.5.4 Static Positioning
6.6 GPS Method
6.7 GPS Applications
6.8 Accuracy and Precision in GPS
6.9 Accuracy and Precision
recision affects in GPS

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6.1 Introduction to GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite
satellite-based
based navigation system that
was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense ((DoD)) in the early 1970s. Initially,
GPS was developed as a military system to fulfill U.S. military needs. However, it
was later made available
lable to civilians, and is now a dual-use
dual use system that can be
accessed by both military and civilian users. GPS provides continuous positioning and
timing information, anywhere in the world under any weather conditions. Because it
serves an unlimited number of users as well as being used for security reasons, GPS is
a one-way-ranging
ranging (passive) system. That is, users can only receive the satellite
signals.
6.2 System Overview
The Global Positioning System (GPS) comprises three segments as shown in
figure. (6-1):
- The space segment (all functional satellites).
- The control segment (all ground stations involved in the monitoring of the
system: master control station, monitor stations, and ground control stations).
- The user segment (all civil and military GPS users).
user

Fig. ((6-1) The Three GPS Segments

6.2.1 Space Segment

The GPS Space Segment consists of 24 satellites in semi-synchronous synchronous
(approximately 12- hour) orbits. The satellites are arranged in six orbital planes with
four satellites in each plane. The orbital planes have an inclination angle of 55 degrees
satellitess have an average orbit altitude of 20,200
relative to the earth's equator. The satellite
km above the surface of the earth as shown in figure (6-2). 2). The satellites complete

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one orbit in approximately 11 hours and 58 minutes minutes.. Since the earth is rotating under
the satellites, the satellites trace a trac
trackk over the earth surface which repeats every 23
hours and 56 minutes.. A user at a fixed location on the ground will observe the same
satellite each day passing through the same track in the sky, but the satellite will rise
and set four minutes earlier each day, due to the 4 minute difference between the
rotational period of the earth and two orbital periods of a satellite. The satellites are
positioned in the orbital planes so that four or more satellites, with a good geometric
relationship for positioning, will normally be observable at every location on earth.
The satellites transmit ranging signals on two band frequencies: Link 1 ((L1 L1) Link 2
(L2).
). The satellite signals are transmitted using spread spread-spectrum
spectrum techniques,
employing two different ranging codes co as spreading fictions, a 1.023 MHz
coarse/acquisition code (C/A C/A-code) on L1 and a 10.23 MHz precision code ((P-code)
on both L1 and L2.. Either the C/A-code
C/A or the P-code
code can be used to determine the
range between the satellite and the user, however, the P-code code is normally encrypted
and available only to authorized users. When encrypted, the P P-code
code is known as the
Y-code.
code. A navigation message is superimposed on both the P(Y) -code code and the C/AC/A-
code. The navigation message includes:
1. Satellite clock-bias
bias data,
dat
2. Satellite
atellite ephemeris (precise orbital) data for the transmitting satellite,
3. Ionospheric signal-propagation
propagation correction data, and
4. Satellite almanac (coarse orbital) data for the entire constellation.

(a) GPS Satellite Constellation (b) GPS Constellation Planar Projection

Fig. (6-2)
2) GPS Satellite Constellation and Planar Projection

6.2.2 Control Segment

The Control Segment primarily consists of a Master Control Station (MCS),
( at
Falcon Air Force Base (AFB) in Colorado Springs, USA, plus monitor stations (MS)
(
and ground antennas (GA)) at various locations around the world. The monitor stations
are located at Falcon AFB, Hawaii, Kwajalein, Diego Garcia, and Ascension. All
monitor stations except Hawaii and Falcon AFB are also equipped with ground
antennas as shown in figures ((6-3) & (6-4). 4). The Control Segment includes a

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Prelaunch Compatibility Station (PCS) located at Cape Canaveral, USA, and a back-
back
up MCS capability.

Fig. (6-3)
3) GPS Control Segment Locations

Fig. (6-4) Monitor Station and Ground Antenna

6.2.3 User Segment

The User Segment consists of receivers specifically designed to receive, decode,
and process the GPS satellite signals. Receivers can be stand
stand-alone,
alone, integrated with or
embedded into other systems. GPS receivers can vary significantly in design and
function, depending on their application for navigation, accurate positioning, time
transfer, surveying and attitude reference.

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6.3 Basic GPS Concept

The position of a certain point in space can be found from distances measured from
this point to some known positions in space.
space In figure (6-5),5), the user position is on
the x-axis;
axis; this is a one dimensional case (1D). If the satellite position S1 S and the
distance to the satellite x1 1 are both known, the user position can be at two places,
either to the left or right of SS1.
1. In order to determine the user position, the distance to
another satellite with known position must be measured. In this figure, the positions
p
of S2 and x22 uniquely determine the user position U.

Fig. (6--5) One-dimensional user position.

Figure (6-6) shows a two-dimensional

dimensional case (2D).. In order to determine the user
position, three satellites and three distances are required. The trace of a point with
constant distance to a fixed point is a circle in the two two-dimensional
dimensional case. Two
satellites and two distances give two possible solutions because two circles intersect at
two points. A third circle is needed to uniquely determine the user position.
For similar reasons one might decide that in a three-dimensional
three case (3D) four
satellites and four distances are needed. The equal-distance
equal distance trace to a fixed point is a
sphere in a three-dimensional
dimensional case. Two spheres intersect to make a circle. This circle
intersects another sphere to produce two points. In order to determine which point is
the user position, one more satellite is needed.

Fig. (66-6) Two-dimensional user position.

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6.3.1 Intersection of Two Circles
In figure (6-7),
7), the intersection of two circles is illustrated. Note that the circles are
obtained by simply radiating two distances (their radius values RA and RB) about their
radius points A and B.As .As shown, this geometry again results in two intersection
points, P1 and P2 As with the two previous cases, these intersection points can again
be located by solving for the parts of oblique triangle ABP.. In this situation, two sides
of the triangle are the known radii, and thus the problem is often called the distance-
distance problem. The third side of the triangle, AB,, can be computed from known
coordinates of A and B,, or the distance can be observed.
The first step in solving this problem is to compute the length and azimuth of line AB.
Then angle A can be determined
rmined using the law of cosines. As shown in Figure (6-7), (
the two solutions for P at either or are derived by either adding or subtracting angle A
from the azimuth of line AB to obtain the direction of AP. Angle A is

Fig. (6-7)
7) Intersection of two circles.

≺
× ×
Thus, the azimuth of line AP is either
≺
≺
The possible coordinates of P are
,
,

Example:
7), assume the following data (in meters) are available:
In Figure (10-7),
. . .
. . .
Compute the X and Y coordinates of point P.

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Solution:
The length and azimuth of AB are
. . ′ "
.
. .
. . . . .
And A is
. . . ′ "
.
× . × .
The possible solutions for P are
′ " ′ "
. . . . .
′ " ′ "
. . . . .
Or
′ " ′ "
. . . . .
′ " ′ "
. . . . .

Example:
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of sides AC and BC
given the information shown.

Solution:
. . ′ "
. .
. . . . .
. . .
× × × . × .
′ "
′ "
′ "
. . . × .
′ "
. . . × .

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6.4 GPS Observables
The basic GPS observables are code Pseudo ranges and carrier phases
6.4.1 Measurement of Pseudo range
Every satellite sends a signal at a certain time tsi. The receiver will receive the
signal at a later time tu. The distance between the user and the satellite i is

Where:
C= 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light,
= is often referred to as the true value of Pseudo range from user to satellite i,
= is referred to as the true time of transmission from satellite i,
= is the true time of reception.

Example:
Find the distance between the satellite and the receiver if the true time of transmission
from satellite is (0.00s) and the time of reception is (0.0673799).
Solution:

=299,792,458 × (0.0673799)
20199985.840 m

phase measurements
6.4.2 Carrier-phase
Another way of measuring the ranges to the satellites can be obtained through the
carrier phases. The range would simply be the sum of the total number of full carrier
cycles plus fractional cycles at the receiver and the satellite, multiplied by the carri
carrier
wavelength.
The ranges determined with the carriers are far more accurate than those obtained
with the codes (i.e., the Pseudorange
Pseudorange).). This is due to the fact that the wavelength (or
resolution) of the carrier phase, 19 cm in the case of L1 frequency, iiss much smaller
than those of the codes.
Signals from GPS satellites are continuously transmitted on two carrier
frequencies, 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz, and are referred to as L1 and L2
respectively. Since radio waves propagate through space at the speed of light, the
wavelengths of the GPS carrier signals are computed as :

Where:
is the wavelength (i.e. the length of one cycle) in meters,
c is the speed of light and is the carrier frequency in Hz (i.e. cycles per
second). A snapshot of one section of carrier transmission which illustrates the
definition of wavelength and cycles is shown in Figure ((10-8)

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8) carrier phases measurement

Fig. (6-8)

The frequency and wavelength of the L1 and L2 carriers are given in Table (10-1).
(
Table 6.1
.1 Carrier Frequencies and Wavelengths
Carrier Frequency ( ) Wavelength (l)
L1 1575.42 MHz 19 cm
L2 1227.60 MHz 24 cm
GPS receivers which record carrier phase, measure the fraction of one wavelength
(i.e. fraction of 19 cm for the L1 carrier) when the receiver first locks onto a satellite
and continuously measure the carrier phase from that time. The number of cycles
een the satellite and receiver at initial start up (referred to as the Ambiguity
between mbiguity) and
the measured carrier phase together represent the satellite-receiver
satellite receiver range (i.e. the
distance between a satellite and a receiver). In other words,
Measured carrier phase = difference in phase + (ambiguity × wavelength)
Φ ∆Φ
Where:
Φ = is the measured carrier phase in meters,
∆Φ = is the difference in phase,
= is the ambiguity (i.e. number of cycles) and
is the carrier wavelength in meters.

6.5 GPS Positioning Modes

Positioning with GPS receiver can be performed by either of two ways in order of
precision: Point Differential,
oint positioning (Autonomous) or Relative positioning (Differential,
Kinematic, and Static).
GPS point positioning employs one GPS receiver that measures the code Pseudo
ranges to determine the user’s position instantaneously, as long as four or more
satellites are visible at the receiver.
GPS relative positioning, however, employs two GPS receiver
receiverss simultaneously
tracking the same satellites

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6.5.1 Autonomous Positioning
Autonomous positioning is a mode of operation of a GPS receiver where the
receiver calculates position in real
real-time
time from satellite data alone without reference to
data supplied from another receiver that is located at a fixed, known, location (i.e.,
base station). This is the least precise mode of operation. Point coordinate accuracy of
±100 m RMS is obtainable when selective availability is in effect and ±10 m when it
is not.

Fig. (6-9)) Principle of GPS point positioning.

6.5.2 Differential Positioning

Differential positioning is a mode of GPS surveying that uses two or more
receivers with one receiver acting as a base station that is located at a known, fixed
location and the other receiver roving to unknown points. The base station computes
corrections based on the differences between its known location and its location as
computed from the satellite C/A code. These corrections are applied to positions
collected by the roving unit. This correction can be done in real-time
time via a radio link
or during post processing back in the office. Point coordinate accuracy of ±30 m RMS
is obtainable when selective availability is in effect and ±1 m when it is not.

Fig. (6-10) Principle of GPS relative positioning

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6.5.3 Kinematic Positioning
Kinematic positioning is a mode of GPS surveying that uses two or more receivers
with one receiver acting as a base station that is located at a known, fixed location and
the other receiver roving to unknown points. The receivers use the L1/L2 carrier- carrier
phasee observation (including both the C/A code and P-code)P code) and requires short (1
second to 10 minute) occupation times at the locations being visited by the roving
GPS receiver. This method uses baselines to calculate position and has the potential to
obtain greater
reater accuracy than is possible with differential positioning methods. Point
coordinate accuracy of ±1 m RMS is obtainable when selective availability is in effect
and ±0.02 m when it is not.

Fig. (6-11) Kinematic Positioning surveying

6.5.4 Static Positioning

Static positioning (geodetic survey) is a mode of GPS surveying that uses two or
more receivers. The receivers monitor the L1/L2 carrier
carrier-phase
phase observations (including
both the C/A code and P-code)code) and use long occupation times (> 20 minutes).
minutes). This
method uses baselines to calculate position and has the potential to obtain greater
accuracy than is possible with differential and kinematic positioning methods.
Location is determination when the receiver's antenna is stationary on the earth. Point
coordinate accuracy of ±0.05 m RMS is obtainable when selective availability is in
effect and better than ±0.01 m when it is not. At least three of the points visited during
the survey should have known horizontal and vertical position. These known points
are held fixed when calculating the baselines and insure that the newly surveyed
points are tied into the local geodetic control network.

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Fig. ((6-12) Static GPS surveying.

6.6 GPS Method

The three methods used by GPS receivers to obtain position information are
Autonomous, Post processed
processed, and Real-Time.
1) The autonomous method occurs when the GPS receiver is used as a stand- stand
alone data collector and no further processing of the data will be done on
return to the office. The location information collected is transcribed onto
paper in the field or stored in the GPS unit for later transfer in the office to a
database for mapping purposes. This method is the simplest and the least
accurate of the three methods.
2) The real-time
time method occurs when the GPS receiver is used as a data collector
and the positions obtained are corrected on-the-fly
on fly based on information
received via radio signal received from a base station (located at a known,
fixed, position).
on). Based on the types of receivers and antennas used during the
survey either the differential or kinematic mode may be used.
3) The Post Processing method is used when the GPS receiver is used as a data
collector and further processing of the position data will be completed after
down loading the data at the office. This method assumes that a base station
receiver (located at a known, fixed, position) was collecting data
simultaneously with the roving unit. Based on the types of receivers and
antennas used during the survey and the positioning data collected either the
differential, kinematic, or static processing mode may be used.
There are, however, some advantages in the post processing mode as well.
1. The first of these is that more accurate results are generally obtained with
the post processing mode.
2. One reason for this is more flexibility in editing and cleaning of the
collected GPS data.
3. As well, there is no accuracy degradation due to data latenc
latency.

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4. The communication link problems, such as the relatively unobstructed line-
line
of-sight
sight requirement, are avoided.
5. In some cases, the input parameters, such as the base station coordinates or
the antenna height, may contain some errors, which lead to errors in the
computed rover coordinates. These errors can be corrected in the post
processing mode, while they cannot be completely corrected in the real real-
time mode.

Table (6-2):: Summary of Carrier-Phase

Carrier Phase GPS Positioning Methods

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6.7 GPS Applications
GPS has been available for civil and military use for more than two decades.
That period of time has witnessed the creation of numerous new GPS
applications. Because it provides high-accuracy
high accuracy positioning in a cost effective
manner
1) GPS for the utilities industry
Accurate and up-to-date
date maps of utilities are essential for utility companies. The
availability of such maps helps electric, gas, and water utility companies to plan,
build, and maintain their assets.
2) GPS for forestry and natural resources
GPS has been applied
lied successfully in many areas of the forest industry. Typical
applications include fire prevention and control, harvesting operations, insect
infestation, boundary determination, and aerial spraying.
3) GPS for precision farming
The ability of DGPS to provi
provide real-time sub-meter or even decimeter level
accuracy has revolutionized the agricultural industry GPS applications in
precision farming include soil sample collection, chemical applications control,
and harvest yield monitors.
4) GPS for monitoring struct
structural deformations
Since its early development, GPS has been used successfully in monitoring the
stability of structures, an application that requires the highest possible accuracy.
5) GPS for civil engineering application
In road construction and Earth moving,
moving, GPS, combined with wireless
communication and computer systems, is installed onboard the Earthmoving
machine.
6) GPS for open-pit
pit mining
Until recently, conventional surveying was the only method available for
staking drill patterns and other mining surveying. As a result of the harsh
mining environment, however, stakes were often buried or displaced. In
addition, drill operators had no precise
precise way of determining the actual bit depth.
7) GPS for airborne mapping
GPS alone has been successfully used for topographic mapping of small size
areas. Using either conventional GPS kinematic surveying or GPS RTK, a user
takes positions of the points on the ground where the topography changes,
which can be used at a later, time to produce the topographic map of that area.
Even in rough areas, GPS can be mounted on all-terrain
all terrain vehicles (ATVs) to
precisely map those areas.

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8) GPS for vehicle navigation
When traveling
raveling through unfamiliar areas, vehicle drivers often use paper road
maps for route guidance. However, besides being inefficient, searching for a
destination using a paper map is unsafe, especially in busy areas
areas.
6.8 Accuracy and Precision in GPS
Accuracy: The nearness of a measurement to the standard or true value.
Precision: The degree to which several measurements provide answers very close to
each other.
.e., a highly accurate measuring device will provide measurements very close to the
i.e.,
standard, true or known values. Example: in target shooting a high score indicates the
nearness to the bull's eye and is a measure of the shooter's accuracy. Figure (6-13)
(
It is an indicator of the scatter in the data. The lesser the scatter, higher the precision.
The pictures
ctures given below clearly describe Accuracy and Precision.
Precision is not the same as accuracy. Accuracy is a measure of departure from the
true value of a quantity. Precision, on the other hand, is a measure of the
difference between accuracy and precision is known as
"repeatability" of the data. The difference
"bias" or "systematic error". Taking large amounts of data will improve the precision
of a sample mean, but will not remove systematic error.
Accuracy is a very desirable measure. However, it is generally quite difficult to
obtain. It requires strict control over sources of systematic error
error.

b. Accuracy with precision a. precision without Accuracy

c. Accuracy without precision d. No Accuracy& no precision

Fig. (6-13)
13) Accuracy & Precision
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6.9 Accuracy and precision affects in GPS

Precision depends on good satellite geometry, open sky view, and no user induced
errors.

6.9.1 Selective Availability (SA)

(SA) is the intentional degradation of the signals by a time varying bias. SA is
controlled to limit accuracy for non
non-U.S.
U.S. military and government users. The SA
bias on each satellite signal is different, and so the resulting position solution is a
function of the combined SA bias from each Space Vehicle (SV) used in the
navigation solution. SA therefore affects the precision of all measurements, code
and carrier phase.

– Intentional degradation of GPS accuracy

– 100m in horizontal and 160m in vertical
– Accounted foror most error in standard GPS
– Turned off May 2, 2000
6.9.2 Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
Describes sensitivity of receiver to changes in the geometric positioning of the
SVs. The higher the DOP value, the poorer the measurement as shown in the
Table (6-3), figures (6-14
14).

Fig. (6.14):
14): Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)

Table (10-3):
( Quality of DOP values
QUALITY DOP
Very Good 1-3
Good 4-5
Fair 6
Suspect >6

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Example:
At the offset location, you acquired the GPS reading of N 38.8760 and W
94.7990. You took the reading 77 meters north of the Study Site.
1) 77meters / (11m/.0001degrees) = .0007 degrees
2) Your corrected latitude is N 38.8760 - .0007 = N 38.8753 degrees
3) Your GPS measurement of the Study Site would then be recorded as N
38.8753 and W 94.7990.
(Remember to reverse the addition or subtraction if you are in the southern
hemisphere.)
At this point give the participants the field guides and data collection
sheets, go outside, and let them practice the measureme
measurements.
If your receiver records to five decimal places, please record the degrees to the
nearest 0.00001.

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