Unit VII.

THE SEARCH FOR GLOBAL ORDER

Realist and Neorealist Interpretations

1 The most persuasive case for realism is that of Kenneth Waltz, although his interpretation
has been described as structural realism or neorealism, in that Waltz has sought
systematically to adapt the realism of Morgenthau and Herz to a rigorous theroy of
international relations.
2 For Waltz, international relations take place in an anarchic system that shapes state
behavior. States are unitary actors, who at a minimum seek their own survival and may aspire
to greater power. For Waltz, military power continues to be both important and useful. Waltz
holds that interdependence is relatively low in the present bipolar system, and rejects the
notion that states are no longer the most important of actors. In his view, real interdependence
requires that states experience mutual vulnerability. Waltz, however, finds an immense
discrepancy between the homogeneity implied by "interdependence" and the actual
heterogeneity among states in the contemporary world. As he puts it, "A world composed of
greatly unequal units is scarcely an interdependent one. A world in which the Soviet Union
and China pursue exclusionary policies is scarcely an interdependent one. A world of
bristling nationalisms is scarcely an interdependent one.

The Neorealist Imperative

3 Realism is an elusive concept. It is variously identified as a means of understanding and

explaining international relations, as a prescription for how to conduct policy, and as a
specific mode of analysis identified with Hans Morgenthau and others and subsequently
modified in a number of divergent approaches loosely termed neorealist.
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4 Few observers or practitioners would care to categorize themselves as "unrealistic" in

their approach to world affairs. But if realism has become pervasive, it is important to be
reminded of what it is and is not. Understood in any of its above variations, realism implies
rejection of modes of thought that are utopian or narrowly legalistic. However, realism's
dismissal of international idealism (particularly of the kind that failed in the years prior to
World War II) is also accompanied by opposition to an opposite tendency. The latter involves
a zealous or ideological mindset in approaching foreign policy and has been periodically
evident in the decades since the late 1940s.
5 The neorealist concern with power and national interest should not be confused with a
simple and unqualified emphasis on anarchy and force as both the overriding explanatory
tools and the chief criteria by which foreign policy is conducted. Although the anarchy
problem indelibly shapes the international environment, neorealism also takes into account
order and constraint as intrinsic to international relations. No mode of analysis, nor any
guidelines for policy that overlook these realities is worthy of being labeled "realist." In short,
it remains vital to appreciate the distinction between "Rambo" and reality.
6 In practical terms, both the understanding of world affairs and precepts for the conduct of
foreign policy must be conditioned on an appreciation of prevailing power realities and of the
need for prudence. For example, Morgenthau was critical of American policy in Vietnam, not
because he entertained any illusions about Ho Chi Minh and the North Vietnamese, but
because the policy established goals unattainable at a price that the United States could afford,
and because it imposed costs that were damaging to more fundamental American interests.
Realism also cautions against strategies that assume benign invincibility (the notion that one's
own intentions are self-evidently pure and that it is possible to prevail in any task, no matter
how unlimited the objective, provided only that the effort is made).

Moral Imperatives and Universal Declaration of Human Rights Moral

Imperatives

7 To an important degree, state behavior is shaped by the conditions of the international

environment and the tenacious constraints these impose. This does not mean, however, that
all political systems should be regarded as somehow comparable, or that we can or should
turn a blind eye to matters of human rights, morality, and common decency.
8 Profound differences remain between societies in which governments operate with the
consent of the governed and where minority rights are protected, and those that oppress their
people-regardless of whether the rationale is ideological, ethnic, or merely to protect the
privileges of a narrowly based ruling junta. Societies that respect political liberties and human
rights are much more likely to remain viable over the long run than those that do not. Other
things being equal, democratic societies-however imperfect-are often more prudent in their
behavior than dictatorships. Democracies are not

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necessarily more likely to avoid war, but war between democracies has rarely if ever taken
place. Moreover, international agreements, for example, in the form of international law, the
United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Helsinki Accords
of 1975, have typically included specific undertakings in regard to human rights and
acceptable norms of international behavior.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

9 Editor's Note: On December 10, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations
adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the full text of which
appears in the following pages. Following this historic act, the Assembly called upon all
member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be disseminated,
displayed, read and expounded principully in schools and other educational institutions,
without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories."
10 Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which
have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings
shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed
as the highest aspiration of the common people.
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to
rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of
law.
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations.
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal
rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards
of life in larger freedom.
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the
United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedoms.
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest
importance for the full realization of this pledge. Now, Therefore,

11 The General Assembly

proclaims
This Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all
peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping
this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to

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promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and
international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among
the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their
jurisdiction.

Article 1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be
made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or
territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or
under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Article 3.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article

4.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude: slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5.
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.

Article 6.

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article

7.
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in
violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such dicrimination.

Article 8.
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

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Article 9.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 10.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal
charge against him.

Article 11.
1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved
guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary
for his defence.
2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which
did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it
was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable
at the time the penal offence was committed.

Article 12.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each
state.
2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his
country.

Article 14.
1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-
political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United
Nations.

Article 15.
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his
nationality.

Article 16.
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, 92

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have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.

Article 17.
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18.
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship
and observance.

Article 19.
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21.
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through
freely chosen representatives.
2. Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government: this will shall be
expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal
suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Article 22.
Everyone as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to
realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the
organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights
indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

Article 23.
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.

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2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

Article 24.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25.
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and wellbeing of
himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.
2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,
whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

Article 26.
1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and
shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.

Article 27.
1. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy
the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from
any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Article 28.
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms
set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

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Article 29.
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible.
2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such
limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and
respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality,
public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.

Article 30.
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person
any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the
rights and freedoms set forth herein.