International Geology Review

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Mantle-hosted ophiolitic chromitites from

Colombia: implications for petrogenesis and
geodynamic evolution

Carlos A. Ramírez-Cárdenas, Núria Pujol-Solà, Joaquín A. Proenza, Marion

Weber, Montgarri Castillo-Oliver, Mónica Tobón & Antonio Garcia-Casco

To cite this article: Carlos A. Ramírez-Cárdenas, Núria Pujol-Solà, Joaquín A. Proenza, Marion
Weber, Montgarri Castillo-Oliver, Mónica Tobón & Antonio Garcia-Casco (2023): Mantle-hosted
ophiolitic chromitites from Colombia: implications for petrogenesis and geodynamic evolution,
International Geology Review, DOI: 10.1080/00206814.2023.2228361

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2023.2228361

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INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2023.2228361

Mantle-hosted ophiolitic chromitites from Colombia: implications for

petrogenesis and geodynamic evolution
Carlos A. Ramírez-Cárdenas a,b, Núria Pujol-Solà b,c, Joaquín A. Proenza b
, Marion Weber d
,
Montgarri Castillo-Oliver b,e, Mónica Tobón f and Antonio Garcia-Casco c,g

a
Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Medellín, Colombia; bDepartament de Mineralogia, Petrologia I Geologia Aplicada, Facultat de Ciències de la
Terra, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; cDepartamento de mineralogía Y Petrología, Universidad de Granada, Facultad de Ciencias,
Granada, Spain; dDepartamento de Geociencias Y Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Minas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín,
Colombia; eARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Systems and GEMOC, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie
University, Sydney, Australia; fCerro Matoso S.A, Montelíbano, Colombia; gInstituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (CSIC-UGR), Armilla, Spain

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Chromitite bodies can be found within ophiolitic mantle sections in three locations in Colombia: Received 31 January 2023
Medellín, Planeta Rica, and La Guajira. These chromitites are typically massive pods that are often Accepted 19 June 2023
surrounded by lateritic soil in Medellín and Planeta Rica, or small discoidal bodies in La Guajira. KEYWORDS
Inclusions in chromite are preserved to varying degrees in the three localities: olivine and pargasite Ophiolite; mantle; silicate
are partially preserved in Medellín and Planeta Rica, whereas inclusions in La Guajira chromitites inclusions; PGE; back-arc
are completely altered to chlorite. Compositionally, chromite from the chromitites is high-Al in basin; subduction-initiation
Medellín (Cr#[Cr/(Cr+Al) atomic ratio] = 0.41–0.51) and Planeta Rica (Cr# = 0.49–0.57), and high-Cr
in La Guajira (Cr# = 0.75–0.76), whereas TiO2 contents are low in the three localities (0.12–0.43 wt
%). Regarding trace elements composition, the chromitites are similar to others formed in supra-
subduction zone settings; the chromite from the high-Al chromitites is similar to that in MORB/
BABB, whereas chromite from the high-Cr chromitites has a strong boninitic affinity. Chromitites
from Planeta Rica are richer in Ti, possibly due to the presence of nearby gabbroic bodies and
impregnated peridotites. The alteration in chromite rims and silicate matrix is related to meta­
morphic processes. Bulk-rock platinum-group element (PGE) contents range from 30 to 487 ppb,
and chondrite-normalized PGE patterns show the typical enrichment in IPGE relative to PPGE
observed in most ophiolitic chromitites. The estimated melts in equilibrium with the different
chromitites correspond to MORB-like melts for the Medellín and Planeta Rica chromitites and to
boninites for La Guajira chromitites. However, the estimated TiO2 content in the melt is too low for
a typical MORB, indicating back-arc basin basalts and a back-arc setting for the formation of the
Medellín and Planeta Rica chromitites during the Late Triassic and the Late Jurassic, respectively. La
Guajira chromitites are interpreted to have formed in a fore-arc basin related to subduction-
initiation during Cretaceous times.

1. Introduction
Chromitites are rocks formed mainly by Cr-spinel and are
a common lithology in the mantle section of ophiolites,
having significance for both their economic value as
a source of refractory and metallurgical-grade chromite
and for their petrologic implications. For instance, these
rocks evidence mantle-melt interaction in supra-subduc­
tion zones (e.g. Arai and Yurimoto 1994; Zhou et al. 1994;
Melcher et al. 1997; Proenza et al. 1999; Gervilla et al.
2005). Based on their chemistry, chromitites are classi­
fied as high-Cr (Cr# [Cr/(Cr+Al) atomic ratio] > 0.6) or
high-Al (Cr# < 0.6) (Leblanc and Nicolas 1992; González-
Jiménez et al. 2014b; Arai and Miura 2016). High-Cr
chromitites have low TiO2 contents (<0.25 wt%) and
are rich in PGEs (platinum-group elements) compared
to high-Al chromitites, which have higher TiO2 contents
(~0.5 wt%) and a strong PGEs depletion (González-Jimé­
nez et al. 2014 and references therein). The primary
composition of chromite from the chromitites can be
used to infer the composition of the melts from which
they crystallized (Kamenetsky et al. 2001; Rollinson 2008;
Zaccarini et al. 2011).
Ophiolitic chromitites are typically found in the man­
tle section of supra-subduction zone (SSZ) ophiolites
and, within them, high-Cr chromitites are located far
from the Moho and interpreted to originate from boni­
nitic melts, whereas high-Al chromitites are located close
to the mantle-crust transition zone and are associated to

CONTACT Núria Pujol-Solà npujolsola@ub.edu Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Av.
Fuentenueva s/n, Granada 18071, Spain
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2023.2228361
© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.
MORB(−like) melts. In the fore-arc region, both high-Al
and high-Cr chromitites can be found, but the latter are
dominant, whereas in the back-arc region, only high-Al
chromitites are reported. Therefore, the mineral compo­
sition of the chromitite helps deciphering the geodyna­
mic setting of the host ophiolites (e.g. Zhou et al. 1994,
1998; Robinson et al. 1997; Ballhaus 1998; Ahmed and
Arai 2002; Miura et al. 2012; Pujol-Solà et al. 2021; Yao
et al. 2023). In situ minor and trace elements (V, Sc, Ga, Ti,
Ni, Zn, Co, Mn) on chromite are also key when decryp­
ting the magmatic processes, such as fractionation (e.g.
Pagé and Barnes 2009; Farré-de-Pablo et al. 2020), and
the post-magmatic processes, such as reequilibration or
serpentinization, registered in the chromitites (e.g. Pagé
and Barnes 2009; Colás et al. 2019).
The study of the mineralogy of chromitites has gained
popularity in recent years after findings of unusual (‘exo­
tic’) mineral assemblages in chromitites worldwide (e.g.
Robinson et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2015; Griffin et al. 2016).
These assemblages are typical of continental rocks (e.g.
Robinson et al. 2015; Proenza et al. 2018) or formed at
super-reduced conditions, either at ultra-high pressure
(Yang et al. 2015; Griffin et al. 2016) or low-pressure
conditions (Pujol-Solà et al. 2018, 2020; Farré-de-Pablo
et al. 2019). After these findings, far-reaching geodyna­
mic models were proposed for the origin and evolution
of the chromitites; for example, for the Luobusa ophio­
lite in Tibet (McGowan et al. 2015) or the Ray-Iz ophiolite
in the Polar Urals (Yang et al. 2015), which involved
recycling or formation of chromitites in the Mantle Tran­
sition Zone (410–660 km depth). However, other works
show that these unusual minerals, such as diamond or
others indicating super-reduced conditions, could form
at shallow pressures during serpentinization processes
(Pujol-Solà et al. 2018, 2020; Farré-de-Pablo et al. 2019).
Thus, detailed mineralogical studies of chromitites can
give further insights into the geodynamic setting of
formation and the conditions of alteration of chromiti­
tes, allowing the distinction between their formation in
high- or low-pressure conditions.
Ophiolitic chromitites in Colombia have been descri­
bed in three ultramafic units: in the Medellín Metaha­
rzburgitic Unit (MMU) in the Central Cordillera (Álvarez
1987; Proenza et al. 2004; Correa-Martínez 2007; Hernán­
dez-González et al. 2020), in the Planeta Rica Peridotites
in the San Jacinto Fold Belt (Ramírez et al. 2019), and in
the serpentinites related to the Etpana Formation in La
Guajira peninsula (Lockwood 1965). These chromitites
are hosted in ophiolitic-related peridotites that form
a discontinuous N-S belt along Colombia that extends
to the neighbouring countries of Ecuador and Vene­
zuela, whereby in the latter it follows an E-W trend follo­
wing the continental margin. These ophiolites are
interpreted as remnants of oceanic basins and island
arcs formed after the break-up of Pangaea starting in
the late Triassic (Ibañez-Mejía et al. 2020), which gave
birth to the north-western corner of Gondwana (and
later South America), causing the opening of marginal
oceanic basins and the drift of continental blocks (Spi­
kings and Paul 2019). During the Mesozoic and Ceno­
zoic, a series of terrane accretion events, with both
continental and oceanic affinities, contributed to the
formation of the present-day geological framework of
the South American continental margin (Restrepo and
Toussaint 1988).
From the three ultramafic units containing chromiti­
tes in Colombia, only the chromitites from the MMU
have been studied in previous works (Álvarez 1987;
Correa-Martínez 2007; Hernández-González et al. 2020).
In this contribution, we present new petrographic, mine­
ralogical, and geochemical data from the chromitites
hosted in the Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit, the Pla­
neta Rica Peridotites, and the serpentinites spatially
associated with the Etpana Formation in La Guajira
peninsula. We provide the first-ever trace element data
for chromite forming the three studied chromitites and
the first detailed studies for the chromitites from Planeta
Rica and La Guajira. The obtained results reveal the
composition of the parental magmas from which chro­
mite crystallized and the post-magmatic evolution of the
chromitites, allowing the reconstruction of their tectonic
setting of formation. This, in turn, allows developing the
tectonic models of evolution, which help constraining
the geodynamic evolution of the South American mar­
gin during the Mesozoic. In particular, we suggest epi­
sodes of Triassic and Jurassic back-arc formation in the
western margin of Gondwana (high-Al chromitites of
Medellín and Planeta Rica) and the potential generation
of a fore-arc – arc system in the Late Cretaceous due to
plume-induced subduction-initiation (high-Cr chromiti­
tes of La Guajira).
2. Geological setting
Ultramafic rocks related to oceanic terranes in Colombia
are located mainly in the western part of the country, in
the Central and Western cordilleras, and are related to
first-order crustal structures such as the Romeral fault
(Restrepo and Toussaint 1974), which prolongs to the
north as the ‘Romeral lineament’ (Figure 1). Fragments of
oceanic lithosphere can also be found in the Caribbean
basin, such as the basement of the San Jacinto Fold Belt,
the Santa Marta range, and La Guajira peninsula (Weber
et al. 2009; Cardona et al. 2010; Silva-Arias et al. 2016).
These ultramafic complexes represent the mantellic por­
tion of the oceanic lithosphere and are scattered following
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 3

Figure 1. Topographic and tectonic map of north-western South America and the southern Caribbean showing the location of
ophiolite-related ultramafic complexes (green diamonds). Chromitite bearing ultramafic complexes are highlighted as red diamonds.
Modified from Kellogg et al. (1995) and Gómez et al. (2015). Abbreviations: BR – Baudó Range, CC – Central Cordillera, EC – Eastern
Cordillera, LGP – La Guajira Peninsula, MA – Mérida Andes, PP – Paraguaná Peninsula, PR – Perijá Range, RL – Romeral Lineament,
SJFB – San Jacinto Fold Belt, SMR – Santa Marta Range, and WC – Western Cordillera.

a N-S trend, with an approximate length of 1500 km. They
extend from the south, near the border with Ecuador
(Villares et al. 2021), to the northernmost point of South
America, La Guajira peninsula (Weber et al. 2009; Figure 1),
following the E-W trend of the continental margin. They
have been classically interpreted as the suture between
continental terranes and allochthonous oceanic terranes
(Restrepo and Toussaint 1974; González 1980; Villagómez
2010; Spikings et al. 2015).
2.1. Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit
The Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit (MMU) is an ultra­
mafic body located in the northern part of the Central
Cordillera of Colombia (Figure 1) and is one of the largest
peridotite outcrops, with a length of 36 km and
a maximum width of 5 km of ultramafic rocks (Garcia-
Casco et al. 2019). The Rodas fault represents the eastern
limit of the unit, separating it from the Santa Elena
Amphibolites and the Sajonia Mylonitic Gneiss (Figure 2­
(a)). Late Cretaceous granitoids such as the Ovejas, San
Diego, and Media Luna stocks intrude the ultramafic
body, locally producing contact metamorphism (Res­
trepo 2008). Metaharzburgites are the main lithology of
the MMU (Garcia-Casco et al. 2019). In addition, subordi­
nated metadunites, serpentinites, and amphibolite and
hornblendite dykes and sills are found within the unit
(Figure 2(d)). The metamorphic mineral assemblage of
the metaharzbugites, which comprises recrystallized oli­
vine + tremolite + talc + serpentine + chlorite, is conside­
red a result of prograde metamorphism that reached
amphibolite facies (Correa-Martínez 2007; Restrepo
2008; Garcia-Casco et al. 2019) in two possible scenarios:
ocean floor (Correa-Martínez 2007) and subduction-ini­
tiation metamorphism (Garcia-Casco et al. 2019). The
MMU is considered the mantellic portion of a SSZ ophio­
lite (Correa-Martínez et al. 2004; Correa-Martínez 2007;
Restrepo 2008), called the ‘Aburrá ophiolite’. The crustal
section of the ophiolite may be represented by metaba­
sites, such as the El Picacho Metagabbro and the Espa­
dera-Chupadero Amphibolites (Restrepo 2008). TIMS
and LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating on the El Picacho
Metagabbro yielded crystallization ages of ca. 217 Ma
(Correa-Martínez 2007) and ca. 221 Ma (Ibañez-Mejía
et al. 2020), suggesting a Triassic age for the construction
of the crustal section of the Aburrá ophiolite.
2.2. Planeta Rica peridotites
The Planeta Rica Peridotites form an elongated body of
10 × 2 km following the N-S trend of the Romeral align­
ment (Figure 1), a basement structure that divides the
4 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

Figure 2. Geological maps of the ultramafic complexes in Colombia hosting chromitite deposits and schematic sections of the sections (not to
scale). a. Geological map of the Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit. Modified from Garcia-Casco et al. (2019). b. Geological map of the Planeta Rica
Peridotites. Modified from Ramírez et al. (2019). c. Geological map of the La Guajira area. Modified from Lockwood (1965). Abbreviations: as –
albite-epidote-biotite schist, cs – chlorite schist, p – phyllite, and q – quartzite d. Schematic geological section of the ophiolite hosting the
chromitite bodies in the Medellín area. e. Schematic geological section of the ophiolite hosting the chromitite bodies in the Planeta Rica area.
f. Schematic geological section of the location of the chromitite bodies in the La Guajira area.

San Jacinto Fold Belt to the west and the Lower Mag­
dalena Valley to the east (Silva-Arias et al. 2016). This
unit and other ultramafic bodies (Cerro Matoso and San
José de Uré) represent the core of the San Jacinto Fold
Belt, a 500 km long thrust-fold belt located in the NW of
Colombia (Dueñas and Duque-Caro 1981). The Porvenir
Gabbro, a Late Jurassic mafic-ultramafic body, intrudes
the Planeta Rica Peridotites (Figure 2(b)) defining the
mantle transition zone (MTZ) of a SSZ ophiolite (Ramí­
rez et al. 2019). Both units are overlain by a Late Creta­
ceous fore-arc volcano-sedimentary sequence formed
by the Nuevo Paraíso Basalts and the Cansona Forma­
tion. The Ciénaga de Oro Formation (Oligocene-Mio­
cene) is deposited at an angular unconformity above
the Cansona Formation (Naciones Unidas 1975; Dueñas
and Duque-Caro 1981) and rests discordantly above the
other Jurassic-Cretaceous units. The peridotites are
highly serpentinized and sheared, and serpentinites
are the main lithotype. The protolith is mainly harzbur­
gitic, with minor dunites (Naciones Unidas 1975), howe­
ver, impregnated peridotites are common, especially
near the contact with the Porvenir Gabbro (gabbros,
clinopyroxenites, hornblende gabbros, and hornblendi­
tes) (Figure 2(e)). The degree of impregnation, defined
by the plagioclase content to a mesoscale, ranges from
5 to 35 vol.%. Dykes of rodingitised and pegmatitic
gabbros are also found crosscutting the peridotites
(Figure 2(e)). The main deformation event recorded in
this unit occurred at brittle-ductile conditions, forming
shear zones with mylonites, foliated cataclasites,

cataclasites, and pseudotachylytes (Ramírez et al. 2019).
Hydrous silicate-type Ni-laterites are found in certain
areas with favourable topography, as noted by Tobón
et al. (2020), and the mining of these laterite deposits is
currently ongoing.
2.3. Etpana formation
The Etpana Formation is located in the Jarara range, in La
Guajira peninsula (Figure 1). It comprises a low-grade
meta-volcano-sedimentary unit composed of finely lami­
nated phyllites, coarsely laminated quartzitic phyllites,
coarsely bedded quartzites, albite – epidote–chlorite
schists, albite – epidote–biotite schists, and ‘complex’
zones of mixed phyllites and serpentinites (Lockwood
1965). This unit is interpreted as parts of an intra-oceanic
arc and a subduction – accretion complex related to the
evolution of the Caribbean plate, probably accreted
during the Late Cretaceous (Weber et al. 2007, 2009;
Zuluaga et al. 2008). The age of metamorphism of this
unit is constrained by the maximum depositional age of
the sedimentary protoliths (71 Ma; Weber et al. 2010)
and the crystallization age of the Parashi granitoid (47–
50 Ma), a quartz diorite pluton that intrudes the Etpana
Formation (Cardona et al. 2014).
The serpentinites are described as exotic blocks
(Figure 2(c)) hosted within a metapelitic matrix (Zuluaga
et al. 2008), containing blocks of serpentinites, rodingi­
tes, epidosites, mica-schists, chlorite-schists, and blues­
chists (Weber et al. 2010). Serpentinites have massive
textures and are composed of antigorite and magnetite
with scarce chrysotile veins. A harzburgitic protolith is
suggested based on the presence of bastites (Lockwood
1965; Arredondo et al. 2005). Zoned rodingites are also
found within the serpentinites (Arredondo et al. 2005).
The intrusion of the Parashi granitoid (Figure 2f) caused
contact metamorphism on the serpentinites and the
metapelitic rocks (Lockwood 1965; Arredondo et al.
2005).
3. Chromite deposits
Within the Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit, the chromite
deposits are found in two localities: San Pedro and Patio
Bonito (Figure 2(a)). The ore bodies occur mainly as
centimetric to metric pods with massive to semi-massive
textures (Figure 3(a–b)), but also as highly chloritised
dykes (Figure 3(c–d)), lenses, and disseminated schlieren
(Álvarez 1987; Hernández-González et al. 2020) that are
concordant to sub-concordant with the host peridotite
(Correa-Martínez 2007). Patio Bonito is the largest of the
two deposits, measuring 30 × 7 m (Álvarez 1987; Proenza
et al. 2004), and was mined during the 1970–1980s. The
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 5
deposits are found outcropping or buried a few metres
under the surface. When the chromitites are surrounded
by lateritic soil (Figure 3(b)) they are referred to as ‘floa­
ting chromitites’, because silicates were more affected
by the weathering processes than chromite, leaving
a porous chromitite with no silicates.
In the Planeta Rica Peridotites, chromitites are found
in an isolated ‘floating’ outcrop in the central part of the
unit (Figure 2(b)). The outcrop has a lenticular shape
following a N30ºW orientation and measures 4.5 × 1.5
m (Figure 3(e)). Chromitites show massive textures (80 to
90 vol.% chromite), with interstitial chlorite and pull-
apart veins filled with serpentine (Figure 3(f)). Locally,
a chlorite crust made up of book-like crystals is preser­
ved (Figure 3(g)). The host peridotite is weathered to
lateritic soil and the closest unaltered outcrop (located
170 m to the west) is a shear zone with foliated serpen­
tinites and decimetric to metric blocks of serpentinized
harzburgite. Chromitite cobbles are found in the foot­
hills and drainages of the Sabana’s Hill, in the central part
of the peridotitic body, 1.5 km north of the chromitite
outcrop, suggesting the presence of other unidentified
chromitite bodies in the area.
In the serpentinites related to the Etpana Formation
(La Guajira Peninsula), massive chromitites (Figure 3(h))
are found as small discoidal-shaped bodies with sizes
ranging from less than ten centimetres to one metre, the
contacts with the host serpentinite are sheared (Lock­
wood 1965).
4. Studied samples and analytical techniques
We studied representative samples of massive, semi-
massive, and cataclastic chromitites sampled from pods
and dykes from the three known locations of chromitites
in Colombia: Medellín (n = 8), Planeta Rica (n = 4), and La
Guajira (n = 2) (Figures 1, 2). The coordinates, textures,
and mineralogy of the studied samples are summarized
in Supp. Table S1.
Petrographic observations were performed with
a Nikon Eclipse LV100POL petrographic microscope
with transmitted and reflected light equipped with
a Nikon DS-Ri2 camera and a JEOL JSM-7100 field-emis­
sion scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) equipped
with an energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS) at the
Centres Científics i Tecnològics de la Universitat de Barce­
lona (CCiTUB), Spain. The operating conditions were 15
kV accelerating voltage and 5 nA in backscattered elec­
tron (BSE) mode.
Quantitative electron probe microanalyses (EPMA)
were conducted at the CCiTUB using a JEOL JXA-8230
in wavelength dispersive spectroscopy mode (WDS).
Analytical conditions were 20 kV accelerating voltage,
6 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

Figure 3. Field and hand sample photos of the chromite deposits. a. Chromitite body (grey-fractured) embedded in lateritic soil,
hammer for scale. San Pedro deposit, Medellín area. b. Chromitite body (dark grey) embedded in lateritic soil. Patio Bonito deposit,
Medellín area. c. Chromitite dyke within a partially weathered metaharzburgite. San Pedro deposit, Medellín area. d. Highly chloritised
chromitite hand specimen from the dyke shown in C. e. Outcropping chromitite pod in Planeta Rica. f. Massive chromitite sample from
Planeta Rica, white spots are interstitial chlorite. g. Coarse chlorite crystals forming a crust around the chromitite in Planeta Rica.
h. Cataclastic chromitite (massive in appearance) from La Guajira.

10–20 nA beam current, 1–5 μm beam diameter, and 10
s counting time per element. Natural and synthetic stan­
dards used were diopside (Si; TAP), kyanite (Al; TAP),
wollastonite (Ca; PETJ), orthoclase (K; PETJ), periclase
(Mg; TAPH), albite (Na; TAPH), Fe2O3 (Fe; LIFH), CoO
(Co; LIFH), NiO (Ni; LIFH), sphalerite (Zn; LIFH), rhodonite
(Mn; LIFL), Cr2O3 (Cr; LIFL), V (V; LIFL), and rutile (Ti; LIFL).
The correction procedure PAP (Pouchou and Pichoir
1991) was used to convert specimen intensity ratios
into concentrations. The chemical data for Cr-spinel
(chromite) was stoichiometrically recalculated to distin­
guish FeO from Fe2O3 according to the procedure des­
cribed by Carmichael (1966). Analyses of chromite,
olivine, chlorite, pargasite, and garnet in the studied
chromitites are presented in Supp. Table S2.
Trace-element composition on chromite was obtai­
ned following the procedure of Colás et al. (2014). LA-
ICP-MS analyses on chromite were carried out with
a Photon-Machines Excite 193 nm excimer laser system
coupled to an Agilent 7700× ICP-MS mass spectrometer
at Macquarie University Geochemical Analysis Unit
(GAU) (Australia). Laser analytical conditions include an
energy density of 4 J/cm2, with a repetition rate of 5 Hz.
The spot size was 30 micrometres, and all analyses were
done on areas free of inclusions, without fractures or
evidence of alteration. The elements analysed by LA-
ICP-MS are listed next: 24Mg, 45Sc, 46Ti, 47Ti, 51V, 55Mn,
59
Co, 60Ni, 66Zn, 69Ga, and 71Ga. Additionally, 29Si, 39K and
43
Ca were also included to monitor unwanted ablation
of silicate inclusions. Each analysis was normalized using
the Al values obtained from previous EPMA data. Cali­
bration of the instrument was done using the standard
NIST610 silicate glass (Norman et al. 1996), whereas the
BCR-1 standard (Jochum et al. 2016), and the in-house
LCR-1 chromite standard (Lace mine, South Africa; Loc­
melis et al. 2011) were analysed as unknowns in order to
assess the accuracy and precision of the analyses. Our
results are consistent with previously published values
for the same standards (see Supp. Table S3; Locmelis
et al. 2011; Mukherjee et al. 2015; Jochum et al. 2016).
A typical run of LA-ICP-MS would consist of 20 analyses,
comprising 12 analyses of samples, bracketed by 2

analyses of the NIST610 at the beginning and at the end
of each run. After the first 2 analyses of NIST610, two
analyses of BCR-1 and LCR-1 standards were included.
The acquisition time for each sample was 180 s (60
s background and 120 s signal). Data reduction was
carried out online by using the GLITTER software (Van
Achterbergh et al. 2001; Griffin et al. 2008). Results of
minor- and trace-element analyses for chromite are pro­
vided in Supp. Table S3.
Whole-rock PGEs analyses were performed on 7 chro­
mitite samples at Intertek Genalysis (Perth, Western Aus­
tralia) using fire assay nickel sulphide collection and
analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectro­
metry, following the method described by Chan and
Finch (2001). For the analytical procedure, 25 g of sam­
ple was fused at 1200°C with a flux containing borax,
soda ash, silica, nickel oxide, and sulphur. The nickel
sulphide button was dissolved with hydrochloric acid
at ~ 100°C. The undissolved PGE sulphides and gold
were collected on a cellulose nitrate membrane filter
and digested with aqua regia in sealed borosilicate test
tubes. The solution was diluted with 10% v/v nitric acid
and thoroughly mixed. The final solution was analysed
using a Perkin-Elmer Sciex ELAN 6000 ICP-MS. Six cali­
brating standard solutions were used as standards and
samples were spiked with two internal standards for drift
monitoring. A certified reference material (South African
Reference Material, SARM-7) and in-house standards
(AMIS0516) were included in every analysis batch. The
measured PGE isotopes were 99Ru, 101Ru, 102Ru, 103Rh,
105
Pd, 106Pd, 108Pd, 189Os, 193Ir, 195Pt, and 196Pt. The
results were corrected for interferences produced by Ni
and Cu argides. Detection limits are 1 ppb for Rh and 2
ppb for all other PGEs. Results for the analysed samples
are presented in Supp. Table S4.
5. Results
5.1. Petrography
5.1.1. Medellín chromitites
Chromitites from Medellín (i.e. Patio Bonito and San
Pedro deposits) have massive to semi-massive textures
(90–50 vol.% chromite) (Figure 4(a)), which consists
mainly of partially altered (Figure 4(b)) anhedral to
subhedral reddish chromite grains (up to 1 cm), with
irregular fractures. Chromite is partial to fully embed­
ded in a matrix (Figure 4(a)) composed of bladed-
tabular chlorite crystals with minor olivine (Figure 4(c)),
rutile, ilmenite (Figure 4(d)), magnetite, titanite, pen­
tlandite, and millerite. The chlorite abundance is posi­
tively correlated with the degree of alteration of
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 7
chromite and is also related to the general texture,
ranging from massive (low chlorite) to semi-massive
(high chlorite) chromitite textures. Brecciated textures
defined by non-rotational fragments of chromite in
a chlorite matrix are observed in some samples (e.g.
sample ME17-10A).
The chromite alteration rims in the Patio Bonito depo­
sit are thin and transitional to unaltered cores (Figure 5­
(a)). They are characterized by patchy development of
chromite with slightly higher reflectivity (Figure 5(a)), as
well as the presence of irregular to octahedral inclusions
filled with chlorite and minor rutile and pentlandite
(Figure 5(a)). In the San Pedro deposit, the altered chro­
mite rims show sharp irregular contacts with the unalte­
red cores (Figure 5(b)). The altered rims are highly
heterogeneous, composed of high-reflectivity chromite
enclosing Fe-rich spinel crystals and rounded to acicular
inclusions of chlorite and minor rutile and pentlandite
(Figure 5(b)).
Primary silicate mineral inclusions in chromite from
both San Pedro and Patio Bonito are altered to chlorite,
often leaving only relict textural evidence. The unaltered
silicate inclusions preserved in those chromitites are
rounded olivine crystals up to 300 μm long (Figure 6(a–
b)) and pargasite crystals up to 200 μm long (Figure 6(c–
b)), the latter occurring as irregular and elongated inclu­
sion clusters. Some chromitite samples are characterized
by the abundance of fine acicular to rounded inclusions
of rutile and ilmenite (<1–50 μm) (Figure 6(e)). Less
abundant are pentlandite, chalcopyrite and cuprite
inclusions, located in both core and rims.
5.1.2 Planeta Rica chromitites
Chromitites within the Planeta Rica peridotites show
massive to semi-massive textures (>60 vol.% chromite)
(Figure 4(e)) and preserve primary igneous textures
(phaneritic-globular), with local grain-size banding
(Figure 4(f)). Chromite crystals are subhedral to anhedral
with rounded borders, varying in size between 1 and 6
mm. They are dark red in colour and are generally unal­
tered or slightly altered towards the rims to high-reflec­
tivity chromite (Figure 5(c)) or patchy magnetite.
However, this alteration is minimal compared to the
Medellín chromitites. The chromite grains also show
irregular and ubiquitous pull-apart fractures (Figure 4(e)).
The intergranular minerals are mainly anhedral chlorite
(Figure 4e) filling globular spaces, green-brownish gar­
net (Figure 4h), with pentlandite crystals scattered bet­
ween the silicates. Serpentine is found in veins
crosscutting the chromitite. Centimetric shear zones
with cataclastic textures are found in some chromitite
samples (Figure 4g).
8 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

Figure 4. Photomicrographs of the chromitite samples (a-d) Medellín, (e-h) Planeta Rica, (i-l) La Guajira. TL= transmitted light,
RL= reflected light, CP= crossed polarizers, BSE= back-scattered electrons. a. Semi-massive chromitite with subangular chromite
crystals embedded in a chlorite matrix (TL). b. Chromite crystals with laminar chlorite inclusions in an octahedral arrangement (RL).
c. Rounded olivine crystal embedded in chlorite, filling the interstitial space between chromite crystals (TL). d. Ilmenite-rutile
aggregate embedded in chlorite in a highly altered chromitite (RL). e. Semi-massive chromitite with subhedral-anhedral chromite
crystals (some pull-apart fractures are highlighted with pink arrows) and globular interstitial spaces filled with chlorite (TL). f. Grain-
size banding in a chromitite sample, the upper left area shows coarser chromite crystals and less interstitial space compared to the
lower right area (RL). g. Cataclastic domain formed by angular chromite fragments that become smaller at the centre of the domain
(RL). h. Interstitial space between chromite crystals filled with chlorite and garnet (TL). i. Cataclastic chromitite composed of chromite
fragments cemented by garnet with some interstitial chlorite and talc (TL). j. Chromite porphyroclasts in a fragmental matrix cemented
by garnet, fractures are filled with chlorite and talc (RL). k. Cataclastic chromitite composed of chromite fragments cemented by garnet
with some interstitial chlorite and talc (RL). l. Uvarovite garnet, chlorite, and talc filling the interstitial space between chromite crystals
(TL). Abbreviations: Chl – chlorite, Chr – chromite, Grt – garnet, Ilm – ilmenite, Ol – olivine, Rt – rutile, and Tlc – talc.

In the chromitites from Planeta Rica, silicate inclusions crystals; Figure 6g) with minor amounts of orthopyroxene,
(20–500 μm) are common, consisting of olivine (rounded phlogopite, and pentlandite, as well as alteration minerals
crystals; Figure 6f) and pargasite (clusters of irregular such as chlorite and tremolite located in both core and rims.

Figure 5. Back-scattered electron photomicrographs of alteration rims in chromite crystals (a. Medellín – Patio Bonito deposit.
b. Medellín – San Pedro deposit. c. Planeta Rica. d. La Guajira) and Fe3+-Cr-Al ternary diagram for unaltered and altered chromite
(e. Medellín. f. Planeta Rica. g. La Guajira). Metamorphic facies fields are after Barnes and Roeder (2001), Evans and Frost (1975), Freitas
and Strieder (1996), and Purvis et al. (1972).
5.1.3. La Guajira chromitites
Chromitites from La Guajira show cataclastic textures
(Figure 4(i–k)) and are composed of chromite porphyro­
clasts (up to 6 mm) and crystal fragments (80 vol.%) in
a fine-grained cemented matrix formed by euhedral to
massive green garnet, chlorite, and talc (Figure 4(k)). This
silicate assemblage also fills the interstitial spaces bet­
ween chromite crystals (Figure 4(l)). Chromite crystals
are mainly unaltered (Figure 4j) showing a dark-red colour
and an irregular fracture pattern. Some chromite grains
are slightly altered showing porous rims (Figure 5(d)). Due
to their fractured nature, inclusions in chromite grains are
totally altered to chlorite (Figure 6(h)) and, to a lesser
extent, to tremolite.
5.2. Mineral chemistry
5.2.1. Chromite
The composition of unaltered primary chromite cores in
the chromitites from Medellín is high-Al, with Cr# ran­
ging from 0.41 to 0.51 (Figures 5(e), 7(a); Supp. Table S2),
and Mg# [(Mg/Mg+Fe2+) atomic ratio] between 0.68 and
0.82. The Al2O3 content ranges from 26.5 to 34.5 wt%
(Figure 7(b)), Cr2O3 from 35.6 to 42.7 wt% (Figure 7(b,c)),
and the TiO2 content is low (0.12–0.41 wt%; Figure 7(c)),
FeO ranges from 4.32 to 13.65 wt%, Fe2O3 from 0.97 to
4.92 wt%, and Fe3+# [Fe3+/(Fe3++Cr+Al) atomic ratio] up
to 0.05. Primary chromite in the chromitites from Planeta
Rica also has high-Al composition, with Cr# from 0.49 to
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 9
0.57 (Figure 7(a)), Mg# between 0.62 and 0.67, Al2O3
from 22.5 to 28.4 wt% (Figure 7(b)), Cr2O3 from 40.1 to
44.9 wt% (Figure 7(b)), low TiO2 (0.27–0.43 wt%), FeO
from 11.01 to 13.00 wt%, Fe2O3 from 3.40 to 5.30 wt%,
and Fe3+# up to 0.06. Primary chromite in the La Guajira
chromitites has high-Cr composition, with Cr# ranging
from 0.75 to 0.76 (Figure 7(a)), Mg# between 0.63 and
0.68, Al2O3 from 12.1 to 12.6 wt% (Figure 7(b)), Cr2O3
from 55.6 to 57.8 wt% (Figure 7(b)), low TiO2 (0.15–0.33
wt%), FeO from 8.94 to 12.52 wt%, Fe2O3 from 3.59 to
5.40 wt%, and Fe3+# up to 0.07.
Altered chromite rims (Figure 5(e-g)) show higher Cr,
Fe2+ and Fe3+, and lower Al and Mg, than unaltered
chromite cores, generally progressing towards Cr-rich
chromite, which is the typical alteration path in chromite
(e.g. Gervilla et al. 2012). Altered chromite has maximum
Cr2O3 contents of 60.39 wt% for the high-Al chromitites
and of 67.87 wt% for the high-Cr chromitites (Supp. Table
S2). The Medellín altered chromite rims show Cr# bet­
ween 0.52 and 0.89, Mg# between 0.36 and 0.92, Al2O3
from 2.61 to 27.6 wt%, Cr2O3 from 17.7 to 63.2 wt%, TiO2
from 0.04 to 1.05 wt%, FeO from 3.55 to 21.42 wt%, Fe2O3
up to 48.8 wt%, and Fe3+# up to 0.69. The altered chro­
mite in Planeta Rica shows Cr# up to 0.92, Mg# between
0.11 and 0.57, Al2O3 contents from 2.67 to 12.4 wt%,
Cr2O3 from 41.0 to 55.2 wt%, TiO2 from 0.22 to 0.68 wt
%, FeO from 8.80 to 26.3 wt%, Fe2O3 from 2.78 to 18.6 wt
%, and Fe3+# up to 0.25. Whereas La Guajira altered
chromite has Cr# up to 0.95, 0.49–0.75 Mg#, Al2O3
10 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

Figure 6. Photomicrographs of inclusions in chromite crystals (a-e) Medellín, (f – g) Planeta Rica, (h) La Guajira. TL= transmitted light,
RL= reflected light, CP= crossed polarizers, BSE= back-scattered electrons. a. Rounded olivine inclusion (CP). b. Elongated olivine
inclusion (BSE). c. Pargasite inclusions with concave margins (TL). d. Elongated irregular pargasite inclusions (BSE). e. Complex rutile-
ilmenite inclusion and scattered fine rutile inclusions in chromite (RL). f. Rounded olivine inclusion (left) and inclusion crosscut by
fractures and altered to chlorite (right) (BSE). g. Globular and irregular pargasite inclusions. Phlogopite inclusions are also present but
texturally indistinguishable (BSE). h. Rounded inclusions altered to chlorite in a fragmented chromite crystal (BSE). Abbreviations: Chl –
chlorite, Chr – chromite, Ilm – ilmenite, Ol – olivine, Prg – pargasite, and Rt – rutile.

Figure 7. Compositional diagrams for chromite. a. Mg# vs. Cr# diagram. Mg# [Mg/(Mg+fe)], Cr# [Cr/(Cr + Al)]. b. Cr2O3 (wt%) vs. Al2O3
(wt%) diagram. Fields from Leblanc and Nicolas (1992). c. TiO2 (wt%) vs. Cr2O3 (wt%). Data for Cr-spinel from different tectonic settings
are compiled from Bonavia et al. (1993), Kamenetsky et al. (2001), Proenza et al. (2007), and González-Jiménez et al. (2015).
contents from 2.42 to 12.5 wt%, Cr2O3 from 57.7 to 67.9
wt%, TiO2 from 0.18 to 0.33 wt%, FeO ranges from 9.54 to
17.74 wt%, Fe2O3 from 1.31 to 5.20 wt%, and Fe3+# up to
0.07. Two clear alteration trends can be observed from
core to rim in the studied chromite grains (Figure 5(e–
g)): 1) an increase in Cr, especially observed in La Guajira
chromitites (Figures 5(g)), and 2) an increase in Fe3+
(Figure 5(e,f)). Magnetite or other oxides, such as haema­
tite, which would represent the final product of alteration
of chromite have not been analysed in the studied rocks.
The content of minor and trace elements of unaltered
chromite cores from Medellín (n = 46) are (Figure 8;
Supp. Table S3): 1–3 ppm Sc, 1000–1700 ppm Ti, 730–
1000 ppm V, 900–1330 ppm Mn, 195–240 ppm Co,
1140–1580 ppm Ni, 390–560 ppm Zn, and 37–49 ppm
Ga; whereas those of Planeta Rica (n = 24) are: 1–3 ppm
Sc, 1880–2135 ppm Ti, 650–1070 ppm V, 1120–1520
ppm Mn, 195–245 ppm Co, 1340–1650 ppm Ni, 470–
535 ppm Zn, and 37–46 ppm Ga. Chromite from La
Guajira (n = 11) yielded contents of 4–5 ppm Sc, 1130–
1220 ppm Ti, 570–610 ppm V, 1100–1180 ppm Mn, 190–
210 ppm Co, 1660–1770 ppm Ni, 330–350 ppm Zn, and
22–24 ppm Ga.
The minor and trace element contents of the
Medellín and Planeta Rica chromitites are very similar
and generally within the field of high-Al chromitites
(Figure 8) except for Ti, which is higher in the Planeta
Rica chromitites (Figure 8(a)) and plots outside the
field for typical high-Al chromitites (Farré-de-Pablo
et al. 2020 and references therein). Minor and trace
elements from chromitites from La Guajira plot syste­
matically in the field for high-Cr chromitites of
Figure 8. La Guajira high-Cr chromitite shows lower
Ga and higher Sc compared to the high-Al chromiti­
tes of Medellín and Planeta Rica, a pattern that has
also been observed in other chromitites from the
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 11
Caribbean, such as in Cuba, Dominican Republic,
and Venezuela (Proenza et al. 2011; Colás et al.
2014; Mendi et al. 2020).
5.2.2. Olivine
Olivine inclusions in chromite from Medellín have
high forsterite content (Fo96–97) (Figure 9(a)), with
MgO ranging from 53.6 to 55.1 wt%, FeO from 3.21
to 4.35 wt%, and NiO ranging from 0.57 to 0.75 wt%.
Interstitial olivine in the chromitites matrix has higher
forsterite content (Fo98–99) (Figure 9(a)) due to high
MgO (56.2–57.3 wt%), low FeOtot (1.43–1.54 wt%), and
abnormally low NiO contents (0.08–0.14 wt%) (Supp.
Table S2). Olivine inclusions in chromite from the
Planeta Rica chromitites have high forsterite content
(Fo95–96) (Figure 9(a)), with MgO ranging from 53.2 to
53.9 wt%, FeO from 4.4 to 4.8 wt%, and NiO from 0.66
to 0.76 wt%.
5.2.3. Pargasite
Amphibole inclusions in chromitites from Medellín
and Planeta Rica have calcic compositions (CaB
= 1.744–1.944 apfu) and are classified as pargasite
according to the classification of Hawthorne et al.
(2012) (Figure 9(b)). As a whole, they show limited
variation in Si (6.004–6.587 apfu), Mg (4.025–4.396
apfu), slight variations in AlT (1.455–2.448 apfu), Fetot
(0.087–0.578 apfu), Ca (1.744–1.944 apfu), and Na
(0.579–1.179), and low contents of Ti (0.079–0.273
apfu), Cr (0.214–0.389 apfu), Mn (up to 0.064 apfu),
and K (up to 0.040 apfu) (Supp. Table S2). Pargasite
from Medellín has higher Na (0.751–1.179 apfu) than
pargasite from Planeta Rica (0.582–0.795 apfu) and
higher Al (1.594–2.448 apfu and 1.496–1.811 apfu,
respectively), whereas Mg, Ca, FeT, and Cr are similar
in amphiboles from both localities.
12 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

5000 4000
a
A li b Medellín

4000
Planeta Rica
3000 La Guajira

3000 k

Ni (ppm)
Ti (ppm)
2000
2000 li HA-oc
li
1000
1000
HA-oc HC-oc k HC-oc

2500 700
c
C d
li 600
2000
500 k

Co (ppm)
1500
V (ppm)

400

k
1000 HA-oc 300 li
li
200
500 HC-oc HA-oc
100 HC-oc

2000 7000
e
E f
6000
1600
5000
Mn (ppm)
Zn (ppm)

1200
4000

k 3000
800 li HC-oc
2000 li k
HA-oc
400
HA-oc 1000
HC-oc

16 80
g
G h

12 60 li
HA-oc
Ga (ppm)
Sc (ppm)

8 li 40
k
HA-oc HC-oc
k
4 20
HC-oc

0 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
#Cr #Cr

Figure 8. Variations in terms of Ti, Ni, V, Co, Zn, Mn, Sc, and Ga vs. Cr# [Cr/(Cr + Al)] in the studied Colombian chromitites. Fields are
from González-Jiménez et al. (2017) and references therein. Fields abbreviations: HA-oc – high aluminium ophiolitic chromitite,
HC-oc – high chromium ophiolitic chromitite, k – kimberlite, and li – layered intrusion.
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 13

Figure 9. Compositional diagrams for olivine, amphibole, and chlorite. a. Forsterite (Fo) vs. NiO (wt%) for the analysed olivine.
b. Classification diagram for Ca-amphiboles. Modified from Hawthorne et al. (2012). c. Classification diagram for chlorite (Hey 1954).
14 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.
5.2.4. Chlorite
Chlorite from the Medellín chromitites corresponds
mainly to clinochlore according to the classification of
Hey (1954) (Figure 9(c)), with MgO ranging from 30.8 to
35.7 wt%, Al2O3 from 8.3 to 24.1 wt%, FeOtot from 0.8 to
2.2 wt% (Supp. Table S2), Si between 5.296 and 7.993
apfu, and up to 0.444 Cr apfu. Chlorite from the Planeta
Rica chromitites has more variable composition and is
richer in Fe than chlorite from Medellín. It corresponds to
clinochlore, pennantite and talc-chlorite (Figure 9(c)),
with MgO ranging from 31.3 to 36.2 wt%, Al2O3 from
2.0 to 16.6 wt%, FeOtot from 1.2 to 3.9 wt%, Si between
4.464 and 7.984 apfu, and up to 1.459 Cr apfu. Chlorite
from the La Guajira chromitites corresponds to clinoch­
lore and pennantite (Figure 9(c)), with MgO from 32.7 to
34.7 wt%, Al2O3 from (12.0 to 15.7 wt%, FeOtot from 0.4
to 1.1 wt%, Si between 5.754 and 6.460 apfu, and up to
1.597 Cr apfu.
5.2.5. Garnet
Two types of garnet are found in the Planeta Rica chro­
mitites (Supp. Table S2). The first one has a main andra­
dite component with a secondary uvarovite component
(Adr72–76Grs19–13Uv9–11) with Al2O3 from 3.45 to 3.79 wt
%, CaO from 33.24 to 34.39 wt%, Cr2O3 from 2.42 to 2.72
wt%, and FeOtot from 17.89 to 20.05 wt% (Supp. Table
S2). The low totals (90.39 to 92.28 wt%) observed in the
analyses may indicate the presence of hydroxyl groups
in the garnet structure (Melcher et al. 1997). The second
type of garnet has a main uvarovite component (Uv53–
58Adr28–21Grs19–20), with Al2O3 from 3.59 to 4.08 wt%,
CaO from 30.85 to 33.03 wt%, Cr2O3 from 15.86 to
17.41 wt%, and FeOtot from 6.57 to 7.99 wt% (Supp.
Table S2), with totals between 87.66 to 90.56, also inclu­
ding an important hydrous content.
The garnet in La Guajira chromitites is similar in com­
position to the second type in Planeta Rica with a main
uvarovite component (Uv87–90Adr12–9Grs1), Al2O3 from
1.78 to 2.36 wt%, CaO from 31.93 to 33.61 wt%, Cr2O3
from 26.42 to 28.72 wt%, and FeOtot from 0.18 to 0.43 wt
% (Supp. Table S2). However, totals of these analyses are
between 97.76 to 98.68, indicating that the hydrous
component is less significative than those from Planeta
Rica.
5.3. Bulk-rock contents of platinum-group
elements
Bulk-rock platinum group elements (PGEs) contents
(Supp. Table S4) in the Medellín chromitites are very
low (30–54 ppb) and the chondrite-normalized pattern
(Figure 10) shows a slight enrichment in IPGEs (Os, Ir, and
Ru) relative to PPGEs (Rh, Pt, and Pd) defining a negative
slope from Ru to Pd, which is typical for ophiolitic chro­
mitites (e.g. González-Jiménez et al. 2014). The chromi­
tites from Planeta Rica are the most enriched in PGEs
(268–487 ppb) and the chondrite-normalized pattern
(Figure 10) shows a marked negative slope from Ru to
Pt. The chromitite sample from La Guajira has a bulk-rock
PGE content of 235 ppb, and the chondrite-normalized
pattern shows strong enrichment in IPGEs relative to
PPGEs. The chromitites from the three studied areas
have PGE contents in the range of typical values for
ophiolitic chromitites (<1000 ppb total PGE; Leblanc
1991; Gervilla et al. 2005; Ismail et al. 2010). However,
there is an order of magnitude of difference between the
PGE content in the Medellín chromitites and the higher
PGE content of chromitites from Planeta Rica and La
Guajira (Figure 10).
6. Discussion
6.1. Alteration of chromitites
Textural and chemical alteration of chromite and silica­
tes in the chromitites reflects the post-magmatic proces­
ses undergone by these rocks. In the Medellín
chromitites, two stages of alteration are recognized in
the alteration rims (Figure 5(e)): 1) a first stage characte­
rized by Al-loss and relative enrichment of Cr, which
occurs under water-saturated conditions accompanied
by volume reduction and formation of chlorite inclu­
sions, followed by b) a second stage that involves the
formation of a Fe3+-rich spinel phase that accompanies
chlorite (Gervilla et al. 2012 and references therein; Her­
nández-González et al. 2020). As shown in Figure 5(e),
the compositions of altered chromite rims plot mainly in
the compositional fields of Cr-spinel from greenschist to
amphibolite facies. Amphibolite facies conditions are
recorded within the whole MMU (Correa-Martínez
2007; Restrepo 2008; Garcia-Casco et al. 2019; Hernán­
dez-González et al. 2020). According to Garcia-Casco
et al. (2019), the metamorphic mineral associations in
the host metaperidotites indicate temperatures of 550–
700°C at medium to low pressures (<6 kbar) during
cooling. Hence, the alteration of the Medellín chromiti­
tes can be directly related to the metamorphism at
amphibolite facies conditions.
In the Planeta Rica and La Guajira chromitites, com­
positions of altered chromite rims are similar and cha­
racterized by a Cr-rich spinel phase (Figures. 5(f–g))
corresponding to ferrian-chromite, which developed
during an alteration stage comparable to the first
event underwent in the Medellín chromitites. However,
the compositions of altered chromite rims of Planeta
Rica and La Guajira chromitites lie outside the

Figure 10. C1 Chondrite-normalized PGE patterns for the analy­
sed chromitites. Normalization values are from Naldrett and
Duke (1980). Additional data from Medellín is from Hernández-
González et al. (2020) and data from Cerro Colorado is from
Mendi et al. (2020). Fields from SSZ chromitites are from Farré-
de-Pablo et al. (2020) with data from Economou (1983), Peder­
sen et al. (1993), Melcher et al. (1997), Economou-Eliopoulos
(2010), and Arai (2013), and references therein. Pt detection limit
is below the represented vertical scale.
compositional fields of Cr-spinel from the amphibolite
facies (Figure 5(f–g)). Texturally, the chlorite inclusions in
the rims are coarser in the chromitites from La Guajira in
comparison with Planeta Rica (Figure 5(c–d)). This diffe­
rence may be related to the different metamorphic gra­
des in both areas, as the host serpentinites within the
Etpana Formation underwent regional greenschist facies
metamorphism (Lockwood 1965), whereas the Planeta
Rica Peridotites experienced low-temperature ocean
floor metamorphism (Ramírez et al. 2019).
Regarding the trace elements, the studied chromitites
overlap the field typical for ophiolitic chromitites
(Figure 11(a–c)) and the chromitites from the three
areas show very similar patterns. The Ti content for the
Planeta Rica chromitites (Figure 11(b)) is slightly higher,
plotting outside the field for SSZ mantle-hosted chromi­
tites (Farré-de-Pablo et al. 2020). This higher content in Ti
could be related to the addition of this element during
metamorphism, which has been reported in other
greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphosed
ophiolitic chromitites (e.g. Colás et al. 2014, 2020;
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 15
González-Jiménez et al. 2015, 2016). However, the Pla­
neta Rica chromitites only experienced low-temperature
ocean floor metamorphism and are associated with gab­
broic bodies and impregnated peridotites (Figure 2(e)),
which has been related to this higher Ti content in high-
Al chromitites (Proenza et al. 1999, 2001; Pujol-Solà et al.
2020, 2021). Hence, trace elements in chromite suggest
that the primary chromite composition is preserved,
allowing petrogenetic interpretations (see next section).
Metamorphic processes are not only recorded in the
chromite grains but also in the matrix. In the chromitites
from Medellín, high forsterite/low Ni olivine (Figure 9(a))
recrystallized from the precursory primary olivine (see
Garcia-Casco et al. 2019) and ilmenite + rutile inclusions
were leached from the chromite (where they appear as
inclusions) and reprecipitated within the matrix (Figure 4­
(d)). The presence of garnet in the chromitites from Pla­
neta Rica and La Guajira (Figure 4(h–l)) is related to the
activity of hydrothermal fluids that leached Al and Cr from
chromite and Ca from nearby gabbros, similar to the
interpretations for garnet in chromitites from the Moa-
Baracoa ophiolitic massif in Cuba (Proenza et al. 1999).
6.2. Petrogenesis and parental magmas
MORB-normalized trace element patterns of chromite
cores from the three sites generally overlap those of
podiform chromitites from the oceanic SSZ mantle
(Figure 11). The range of compositions in the chromitites
from Medellín and Planeta Rica (high-Al; Figures 7 and 8)
and from La Guajira (high-Cr; Figures 7 and 8) is linked to
the composition of the parental melts from which they
crystallized (Kamenetsky et al. 2001). In the TiO2 versus
#Cr diagram (Figure 12(a)), the composition of the high-
Al chromite from Medellín and Planeta Rica falls within
the field defined for accessory Cr-spinel in MORB and
between the fields defined for accessory Cr-spinel in
boninites and MORB, whereas high-Cr chromite from
La Guajira plots within the field defined by accessory
Cr-spinel in boninites. The Medellín and Planeta Rica
chromitites plot in the field for Cr-spinel precipitated
from MORB and/or BABB (back-arc basin basalts), whe­
reas chromite from La Guajira plots in the field for Cr-
spinel in magmatic rocks from arc settings (Figure 12(b)).
The composition of the melts in equilibrium with the
chromitites has been estimated using the composition of
unaltered chromite grains and the equations by Zaccarini
et al. (2011) for high-Cr and high-Al chromite, based on
data from chromite-melt inclusion pairs in arc lavas and
MORB reported by Kamenetsky et al. (2001) and Rollinson
(2008). For Cr# <0.6 (Medellín and Planeta Rica), Al2O3
contents have been estimated with the equation (Al2O3)­
melt = 4.1386·ln(Al2O3)spinel − 2.2828 and TiO2 contents
16 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

10.0
a
Medellín

Chromite/Chromite in MORB

1.0

SSZ mantle-hosted
“podiform” array (n=253)

n = 47
0.1
V Sc Ga Ti Ni Zn Co Mn
10.0
b
Planeta Rica
Chromite/Chromite in MORB

1.0

SSZ mantle-hosted
“podiform” array (n=253)

n = 24
0.1
V Sc Ga Ti Ni Zn Co Mn
10.0
c
La Guajira
Chromite/Chromite in MORB

1.0

SSZ mantle-hosted
“podiform” array (n=253)

n = 12
0.1
V Sc Ga Ti Ni Zn Co Mn
Figure 11. Spider diagrams showing the composition of minor and trace elements of chromite from a. Medellín, b. Planeta Rica, and
c. La Guajira. Data normalized to MORB (Pagé and Barnes 2009) and compared with SSZ mantle-hosted chromitites (compilation from
Farré-de-Pablo et al. 2020).

were estimated with the equation (TiO2)melt = 0.708·ln the equation (TiO2)melt = 1.0897·(TiO2)spinel +0.0892. The
(TiO2)spinel +1.6436. For Cr# >0.6 (La Guajira), Al2O3 con­ FeO/MgO ratios have been estimated with the equation
tents were estimated with the equation (Al2O3)melt = of Maurel and Maurel (1982): ln (FeO/MgO)spinel = 0.47–
5.2253·ln(Al2O3)spinel − 1.1232 and TiO2 contents with 1.07·Al#spinel +0.64·Fe3+#spinel + ln(FeO/MgO)melt, with FeO

Figure 12. Tectonic discrimination diagrams for chromite and accessory Cr-spinel in peridotites. a. Cr# vs. TiO2 (wt%). Boninitic and
MORB fields were defined by Arai (1992). b. Al2O3 (wt%) vs. TiO2 (wt%). Compositional fields of accessory Cr-spinel in different types of
basalts and peridotites in SSZ and MOR settings are from Kamenetsky et al. (2001).
and MgO in wt%, Al# = Al/(Cr + Al + Fe3+) and Fe3+# = Fe3
+
/(Cr + Al + Fe3+).
The parental melt in equilibrium with the Medellín
chromitites has a composition of 15.85–16.93 wt%
Al2O3 (Figure 13(a)), 0.12–1.04 wt% TiO2 (Figure 13(b)),
and shows variable FeO/MgO between 0.41 and 1.06,
consistent with a MORB parental melt (15–16 wt%
Al2O3; Gale et al. 2013) (Figure 13(c)). Similar values
were previously reported by Hernández-González
et al. (2020). The parental melt in equilibrium with
the Planeta Rica chromitites has a composition of
15.17–16.13 Al2O3 (Figure 13a), 0.72–1.04 wt% TiO2
(Figure 13(b)), and 0.89–1.05 FeO/MgO, also consis­
tent with a MORB parental melt (Figure 13(c)) but
with lower TiO2 content, since typical MORB melts
have 1.20–1.68 wt% TiO2 and 1.38 FeO/MgO ratios
(Gale et al. 2013). The parental melt estimated in
equilibrium with La Guajira chromitites shows
a composition of 11.91–12.12 wt% Al2O3 (Figure 13(a)),
0.26–0.45 wt% TiO2 (Figure 13(b)), and 0.64–0.91 FeO/
MgO, consistent with a boninitic parental melt (0.1–
0.5 wt% TiO2; Hickey and Frey 1982; Mg-rich, low
FeO/MgO ratios; Dick and Bullen 1984; Kelemen
et al. 2004) (Figure 13(c)).
However, the presence of hydrated phases (parga­
site) as primary inclusions in the chromite from Mede­
llín and Planeta Rica chromitites indicates the
hydrated character of the parental magma, in which
pargasite crystallized from volatile and H2O-rich
liquids segregated/differentiated from the melt
(Johan et al. 1983). The hydrated character of the
magma favours a back-arc basin basalt (BABB) for the
parental melt similar to what has been interpreted in
Medellín (Garcia-Casco et al. 2019; Hernández-
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 17
González et al. 2020; Ibañez-Mejía et al. 2020 and
references therein).
As stated before, calculations on the composition
of parental melts are based on the composition of
unaltered chromite grains. However, the exsolution
of solid phases can modify the composition of the
chromite during the crystallization and cooling pro­
cesses. The presence of rutile and ilmenite inclu­
sions, probably formed by exsolution, in some of
the chromite samples from Medellín implies that
the TiO2 contents in the parental melt should be
higher than the mean calculated (~0.63 wt%)
because some of the TiO2 was exsolved from the
chromite as rutile and ilmenite.
From the point of view of their composition, chro­
mite from high-Al chromitites (Medellín and Planeta
Rica) is similar to chromite in MORB/BABB, whereas
chromite from high-Cr chromitites (La Guajira) has
a strong boninitic affinity (Figure 12(a)) (see González-
Jiménez et al. 2014 and references therein). This is
consistent with the parental melt compositions just
described for the chromitites. Moreover, the trace ele­
ment compositions of the chromite from the different
chromitites fall within the typical fields for ophiolitic
chromitites (Figure 7(b–c)). In general, minor and trace
elements are in agreement with the results obtained
using major elements.
The studied samples show a negative correlation
between Cr# and Ga contents (Figure 8(h)). Indeed,
Ga contents clearly discriminate between high-Al
and high-Cr chromitites (Figure 14(a-d)) (see Farré-
de-Pablo et al. 2020: Figure 5). The trace element
composition of the studied chromitites from the
three areas show typical high-Al and high-Cr
18 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.

Figure 13. Calculated composition of melts in equilibrium with the studied Colombian chromitites compared with spinel-melt
relationship for MORB and arc lavas (Kamenetsky et al. 2001). The regression lines are from Zaccarini et al. (2011) using data on
chromite-melt inclusions in MORB and arc lavas reported by Kamenetsky et al. (2001) and Rollinson (2008). a. Al2O3melt vs.
Al2O3chromite. b. TiO2melt vs. TiO2chromite. c. FeO/MgOmelt ratio vs. Al2O3melt. Tectonic compositional fields are from Barnes and Roeder
(2001).
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 19

3000
a 1600
b
2500

Zn (ppm)
2000 1200

V (ppm)
1500 BON
800
1000
400
500 MORB
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Ga (ppm) Ga (ppm)
700 4000
c d
600
500 3000

Mn (ppm)
Co (ppm)

400
2000
300
200 1000
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Ga (ppm) Ga (ppm)

Medellín Plume-influenced ophiolitic chromitites

Planeta Rica Stratiform chromitites
La Guajira Chromite from komatiite
High-Cr ophiolitic chromitites High-Al ophiolitic chromitites

Figure 14. a-d Variations in terms of Ga vs. V, Zn, Co, and Mn of chromite from chromitites. Values of chromite from boninite (BON)
lavas (red cross) and mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB; blue cross) are from Pagé and Barnes (2009). Diagram modified from Farré-de-
Pablo et al. (2020), data sources for the other fields are high-Al ophiolitic chromitites: Mercedita, Cuba (Colás et al. 2014), Sagua de
Tánamo, Cuba (González-Jiménez et al. 2015), Coto, Philippines (Yao 1999; Zhou et al. 2014), and Islahiya and Dogansehir, SE Turkey
(Akmaz et al. 2014); high-Cr ophiolitic chromitites: Thetford Mines, Canada (Pagé and Barnes 2009), Acoje, Philippines (Zhou et al.
2014), Luobusa, Tibet (Zhou et al. 2014; McGowan et al. 2015), Dyne, New Caledonia (Colás et al. 2014), Afsin, SE Turkey (Akmaz et al.
2014), Antalya, SW Turkey (Akbulut et al. 2016; Uysal et al. 2016), and Pozanti-Karsanti, S Turkey (Avci et al. 2017); stratiform
chromitites: Bushveld, South Africa, and Great Dyke, Zimbabwe (Yao 1999); komatiites: Western Australia (Yao 1999); and plume-
influenced ophiolitic chromitites: Loma Caribe, Dominican Republic (Farré-de-Pablo et al. 2020).

compositions (Figure 14(a–d)), with high-Al chromi­
tites exhibiting relatively low Ga contents and
slightly higher Zn contents than those expected for
typical high-Al chromitites (Figure 14(b)). The high-
Cr chromitites from La Guajira show major elements
compositions in the range of the plume-influenced
ophiolitic chromitites from Loma Caribe chromitites
(Dominican Republic) (Figure 7(b–c)). However, trace
elements show clear differences between the La
Guajira chromitites (which plot in the fields for typi­
cal high-Cr chromitites) and the plume-influenced
Loma Caribe ophiolitic chromitites, which have hig­
her Ga, Zn, Co, and Mn (Figure 14(a–d)).
6.3. PGE concentration and mobilization
The distribution of PGEs in mantle rocks is accepted to
be controlled by the presence of accessory base-metal
sulphides and platinum-group minerals (PGMs) (O’Dris­
coll and González-Jiménez 2016 and references therein).
The typical enrichment in IPGEs (Ir-Os-Ru) in ophiolitic
chromitites relative to PPGEs (Pt-Pd-Rh) is related to the
20 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.
difference in the compatibility of both PGEs subgroups
during partial melting of mantle peridotites. The budget
of precious metals in basaltic melts is related to the
magmatic processes that promote the destabilization
of PGMs, and it is in these conditions that the most
refractory IPGEs remain in the sulphides or PGMs beha­
ving as compatible elements, whereas the less refractory
PPGEs together with Au, S, Se, Te, and Cu behave as
incompatible elements and are transferred to the silicate
melt (Bockrath et al. 2004; Helmy et al. 2010; González-
Jiménez et al. 2014; Saunders et al. 2015; Luguet and
Reisberg 2016). However, the moderate to high degrees
of partial melting in supra-subduction zones (20–25%)
favour the extraction of IPGEs by the dissolution of
sulphides and PGMs of the mantle residue (Bockrath
et al. 2004; Lorand and Grégoire 2006; Prichard et al.
2008), hence, explaining the IPGEs enrichment relative
to PPGEs in ophiolitic chromitites (González-Jiménez
et al. 2014 and references therein). The chondrite-nor­
malized PGEs patterns of the studied chromitites show
this clear enrichment in IPGEs, similar to most ophiolitic
chromitites elsewhere (Figure 10; see González-Jiménez
et al. 2014, b and references therein). The samples from
Planeta Rica and La Guajira overlap both the fields for
fore-arc and back-arc ophiolitic chromitites, whereas
chromitites from Medellín (lowest overall PGEs contents)
overlap only the field for back-arc ophiolitic chromitites,
having similar concentrations to the chromitites from
Cerro Colorado, in Venezuela (Mendi et al. 2020) but
with lower PGEs concentrations.
The low concentrations of PGEs in the chromitites
from Medellín (30–54 ppb) were previously interpreted
as an expression of the tholeiitic nature (MORB/BABB) of
the parental magmas (Hernández-González et al. 2020).
Nonetheless, similar parental magmas are proposed for
the chromitites from Planeta Rica, which have higher
PGEs concentrations (268–487 ppb). Alternative expla­
nations for the low PGEs concentrations in Medellín
include post-magmatic processes such as metamorp­
hism, serpentinization, and hydrothermal alteration,
which may be capable of modifying the PGE/PGM
assemblage of the chromitites (Pujol-Solà et al. 2021).
Future studies focused on characterizing PGMs phases in
the studied chromitites are required to further clarify the
low PGEs content in the Medellín ophiolitic chromitites.
6.4. Geodynamic implications
The temporal distribution of the studied ultramafic com­
plexes along the three periods of the Mesozoic, i.e.
Triassic for the Medellín Metaharzburgitic Unit (Correa-
Martínez 2007; Ibañez-Mejía et al. 2020), Jurassic for the
Planeta Rica Peridotites (Ramírez et al. 2019), and
Cretaceous for the serpentinites from La Guajira (Weber
et al. 2010), records a long history of construction of
oceanic lithosphere, starting from geodynamic proces­
ses related to the break-up of Pangaea (Spikings and
Paul 2019) and ending before the collision of the Carib­
bean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) and oceanic volcanic
arcs of the Caribbean realm with the South American
margin (Figure 15) (Cardona et al. 2010, 2012; Weber
et al. 2010).
As stated before, the Triassic chromitites from Mede­
llín (high-Al) formed due to the interaction of hydrated
MORB-like melts with a metasomatised harzburgitic
mantle in the mantle transition zone (MTZ), which sug­
gests that they formed in a back-arc environment (Figu­
res 10, 12, 13). Recent models propose extension of
continental back-arc basins and drifting away of Mexican
and Central American terranes (Acatlán, Chortis, and
Oaxaquia blocks) from the NW margin of Gondwana
(Spikings and Paul 2019 and references therein) during
Triassic times, which led to the formation of oceanic
lithosphere. In this scenario, the Medellín Metaharzbur­
gitic Unit (Correa-Martínez 2007; Garcia-Casco et al.
2019) and further south the Peltetec ophiolitic belt in
Ecuador (Villares et al. 2021) represent these extensional
systems (Figure 15(a–b)). During the Late Jurassic, the
break-up of Pangaea continued (Figure 15(c)) and the
Proto-Caribbean opened, separating Gondwana and
Laurentia (Pindell and Kennan 2009). To the south, the
Ecuadorian-Colombian back-arc was formed (Figure 15­
(c)), and decompression melting mixed with fluids sour­
ced from the dehydrating slab (Farallon Plate) produced
MORB-like melts that interacted with the depleted harz­
burgitic mantle to form the high-Al chromitites of Pla­
neta Rica.
During the Early Cretaceous, a westward-dipping sub­
duction zone evolved to form the long-lasting Great
Caribbean Arc, also Great Antillean Arc (Figure 15(d–e))
(Burke 1988; Pindell et al. 2012; Hu et al. 2022). Frag­
ments of the oceanic arc are found on the Caribbean
coast of Colombia (Weber et al. 2009; Cardona et al.
2012) and the serpentinites from La Guajira may repre­
sent the fore-arc region of this oceanic arc (Figure 15(d–
e)). The age of these rocks related to the Etpana forma­
tion is not well constrained, and therefore, an alternative
possibility is that these rocks are part of the arcs propo­
sed to have formed due to plume-induced subduction-
initiation on the northern (Lázaro et al. 2015), southern,
and western margins of the CLIP at around the mid-
Cretaceous (Whattam and Stern 2015) (Figure 15(f)).
Nevertheless, no CLIP-related rocks have been recorded
in the Etpana formation, and chemically the mafic rocks
from this unit have been associated with the oceanic
Aptian-Albian Washikemba Group of Bonaire (Weber
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 21

Figure 15. Triassic-Cretaceous model geodynamic evolution for the Caribbean-Northern Andes region, inspired by Pindell and Kennan
(2009), Pindell et al. (2012), Spikings et al. (2015) and Whattam and Stern (2015), with the potential formation locations of the Medellín
(Triassic) and Planeta Rica (Jurassic) back-arc chromitites and the La Guajira (Cretaceous) fore-arc chromitites. Note the two potential
locations of the latter, in the early Cretaceous Caribbean fore-arc or a late Cretaceous fore-arc related to plume-induced subduction-
initiation in the Caribbean back-arc. See text for details.
22 C. A. RAMÍREZ-CÁRDENAS ET AL.
et al. 2011), considered to represent the Great Arc of the
Caribbean (Beets et al. 1984; Thompson et al. 2004;
Wright and Wyld 2011). Besides, the composition of the
studied chromitites shows no influence of mantle plume
(Figure 14), but it should be noted that plume-related
chromitite chemistry is not a condition in the context of
plume-induced subduction-initiation and extension in
the fore-arc. However, recent studies suggest that the
impact of the Galapagos plume at the base of the Fara­
llon lithosphere may have occurred at least, during
Jurassic times (ca. 170 Ma; Rojas‐Agramonte et al.
2022). If this holds true, the model proposed by What­
tam and Stern (2015) would imply that non-steady
plume rise along the tail was active and episodic
plume heads evolved with time. Further investigations
are needed to resolve this issue. In either model, boni­
nitic melts formed in the late stages of subduction-ini­
tiation (Ishizuka et al. 2011), after partial melting of
highly refractory mantle, which later interacted with
the overlying harzburgitic mantle to form high-Cr
chromitites.
The textural and compositional alteration patterns of
the chromitites reveal the post-magmatic histories of the
Medellín, Planeta Rica, and La Guajira chromite bodies
adding some clues to the tectonic evolution of the host
ophiolitic complexes. For the Medellín ophiolite, two
contrasting scenarios have been proposed to explain
the amphibolite facies conditions and associated defor­
mation recorded in the ophiolite (ultramafic and mafic
sections) and chromitites from the ultramafic section: a)
ocean floor metamorphism and b) subduction-initiation
(Garcia-Casco et al. 2019). While cooling recorded in the
alteration products of chromitite is consistent with both
scenarios, Ibañez-Mejía et al. (2020) favour a subduction-
initiation scenario based on age constraints (ca. 221 Ma)
and the tectonic location of the mafic section below the
ultramafic section. The chromitites from Planeta Rica
only show mild alteration at low temperatures (greens­
chist facies or lower) and the host serpentinites are
highly serpentinized with no evidence of neoformation
of metamorphic olivine (Unidas 1975; Ramírez et al.
2019), which is compatible with ocean floor metamorp­
hism during the post-magmatic stage. The greenschist
facies alteration assemblage and the intense cataclasis
present in the chromitites from La Guajira could be
linked to the collision of the CLIP with the South Ameri­
can margin, a process recorded in the host serpentinites
and the Etpana Formation (Weber et al. 2010).
7. Conclusions
Ophiolitic chromitites in Colombia have been descri­
bed in three areas: high-Al chromitites in Medellín
(Cr# = 0.41–0.51), high-Al chromitites in Planeta Rica
(Cr# = 0.49–0.57), and high-Cr chromitites in the La
Guajira (Cr# = 0.75–0.76). Primary magmatic composi­
tions of these chromitites indicate equilibrium with
MORB-like melts for the high-Al chromitites and boni­
nitic melts for the high-Cr chromitites, indicating their
formation in back-arc and fore-arc settings, respecti­
vely. Trace elements show enrichment in Ti in chromi­
tites from Planeta Rica, probably related to the
presence of nearby gabbroic bodies and impregnated
peridotites. Alteration of chromite grains occurred at
amphibolite facies conditions in the case of Medellín,
and at greenschist facies conditions in the case of
Planeta Rica and La Guajira without modifying the
primary composition of chromite. In these last two
bodies, alteration of associated gabbroic bodies libe­
rated Ca and Al to form garnet (andradite and uvaro­
vite). Primary mineral inclusions within the chromite
formed during crystallization of chromite via melt trap­
ping and exsolution and record the involvement of
hydrated melts (pargasite inclusions) in the formation
of the Medellín and Planeta Rica chromitites. These
inclusions were partial to totally altered during post-
magmatic processes. However, unaltered Fo-rich oli­
vine related to the metamorphism is also observed in
the Medellín chromitites. PGE contents are within the
range of typical ophiolitic chromitites (30–487 ppb)
but especially depleted in the Medellín chromitites
(30–54 ppb), probably related to post-magmatic pro­
cesses such as metamorphism. The proposed geody­
namic models for the studied chromitites and
associated mantle sections of the ophiolitic bodies
involve Triassic and Jurassic back-arc formation in the
western margin of Gondwana and South America
(high-Al chromitites of Medellín and Planeta Rica, res­
pectively), and Cretaceous fore-arc formation in the
Caribbean arc system or a new plume-induced subduc­
tion zone during the mid-Cretaceous in the back-arc of
the Caribbean arc (high-Cr chromitites of La Guajira).
After the formation of the corresponding oceanic lit­
hospheres, subduction-initiation at the Triassic back-
arc, Jurassic ocean floor metamorphism and late Cre­
taceous volcanic arc-continent collision, respectively,
triggered transformations in the composition and tex­
ture of the chromitite bodies.
Acknowledgments
This paper has been produced within the framework of the
MinResET (Mineral Resources for the Energy Transition)
research group (2021-SGR-00239, Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts
Universitaris i de Recerca de Catalunya). NPS thanks the
Margarita Salas grant given by the Universitat de Barcelona

with funds from the Ministerio de Universidades/Next Gene­
ration EU/PRTR/Plan de recuperación, transformación
y resiliencia. We thank the two anonymous reviewers for
their comments and corrections, which have helped improve
the manuscript as well as the editors for the editorial han­
dling. We are indebted to Xavier Llovet for his support
during the EMPA sessions and Luis Fernando Arredondo for
providing the chromitite sample from La Guajira. This is
contribution XXX from the ARC Centre of Excellence for
Core to Crust Fluid Systems (http://www.ccfs.mq.edu.au)
and XXX in the ARC National Key Centre for Geochemical
Evolution and Metallogeny of Continents (http://www.
gemoc.mq.edu.au).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
The work was supported by the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo
Regional (FEDER) funds with the Spanish project [CGL2015-
65824]. Additional funding has been provided by the Ministe­
rio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades [PID2019-105625RB-
C21], and the Universidad Nacional de Colombia [project
35671].
ORCID
Carlos A. Ramírez-Cárdenas http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
8745-9791
Núria Pujol-Solà http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6378-6811
Joaquín A. Proenza http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8738-7305
Marion Weber http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4071-6877
Montgarri Castillo-Oliver http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6694-
0343
Mónica Tobón http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4788-1031
Antonio Garcia-Casco http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8814-
402X
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