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Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier under Combined Global and
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 Proceedings of the PRADS2013, pp. 1173~1180
20-25 October, 2013
CECO, Changwon City, Korea

Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier

under Combined Global and Local Loads
Ionel Darie1), Joerg Roerup1), Viktor Wolf1)
1)
Germanischer Lloyd SE, Hamburg, Germany

Abstract distribution of cargo masses. In these situations acting

The ultimate hull girder capacity is a fundamental as-
pect of ship strength. GL’s common practice to assess
ultimate hull girder strength consists of using an incre-
mental-iterative approach based on the Smith method
considering only the vertical bending moment. The
Smith method is a simplified and practical approach to
predict longitudinal ultimate strength of the ship. A
complex nonlinear finite element analysis is thereby
avoided. For a bulk carrier under alternate loading con-
dition, local loads, namely, external sea pressure and
internal cargo loads will induce large double bottom
bending in the empty cargo holds. The double bottom
bending directly affects the reduction of ultimate struc-
tural capacity of the ship girder. The main focus of this
study was to investigate effects of combined global and
local loads, under alternate loading condition, on ulti-
mate hogging capacity of the ship’s hull girder. Using
the nonlinear finite element (FE) method, we obtained a
most reliable and accurate evaluation of the ultimate
hull girder strength. A three cargo hold finite element
model, representing as far as possible the structural
layout of the ship, was created. Using GL-ShipLoad, a
standard seakeeping analysis determined loads, which
were then transferred to the cargo hold FE model. Ulti-
mate hull girder capacities obtained from the Smith
method and the nonlinear FE method were compared.
Under alternate loading condition using nonlinear finite
element analysis, the ultimate capacity of the hull girder
is reduced by about twenty percent due to bending of
double bottom structure.
Keywords
Ultimate hull girder strength; nonlinear FE analysis;
bulk carrier; alternate loading condition
Introduction
A ship is designed such that the hull girder strength is
capable of withstanding the extreme wave load for op-
eration in a specified seaway within a defined time
frame, e.g., in twenty-five years of operation in the
North Atlantic. However, loads acting on the hull girder
are sometimes uncertain due to rough seas or wrong
loads on the hull girder may exceed design loads; thus
the ship in subject to an increased risk of total failure.
Furthermore, an aged ship may suffer structural damage
due to corrosion and fatigue, thereby weakening the
ship’s strength and, finally, the hull girder may collapse
even at a lower level than design loads.
To assess the ultimate bending capacity of the hull gird-
er, Germanischer Lloyd GL (2013) developed an as-
sessment method using an incremental iterative ap-
proach based on the method of Smith (1977). Using this
method, the moment curvature response of the hull
girder at a given cross section may be calculated by
integrating load contributions from individual structural
elements (plate-stiffener combination and hard corners)
from the cross section.
The most accurate approach available to assess hull
girder ultimate strength is the nonlinear finite element
method. Main disadvantage of the nonlinear FE method
for ultimate strength analysis is related to the large costs
associated with model building, computational times for
solution convergence, and evaluation of results. Thus,
nonlinear finite element methods are not suitable in the
design phase of a ship.
In compliance with the hull girder ultimate strength
approach specified by Germanischer Lloyd GL (2013),
only the pure vertical bending moment is taken into
account. For a cape size bulk carrier under alternate
loading conditions, local loads, namely, external sea
pressure and internal cargo loads will induce large dou-
ble bottom bending in the empty cargo holds. The dou-
ble bottom bending may directly affect the reduction of
ultimate structural capacity of the ship girder. Some
publications showed that the vertical bending moment
capacity is reduced due to double bottom bending in
empty cargo holds (Amlashi and Moan (2008),
Kippenes et al. (2010), Pei et al. (2012), Shu and Moan
(2012)).
The main focus of this study was to investigate effects
of combined global and local loads on ultimate hogging
capacity of a cape size bulk carrier. Using the nonlinear
FE method, we obtained a most reliable and accurate
evaluation of the hull girder ultimate strength. A three
cargo hold finite element model, representing as far as
possible the structural layout of the ship, was created.

- 1173 -
Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier under Combined Global and Local Loads

Using GL-ShipLoad (Roerup et al. (2008)), a standard

seakeeping analysis determined loads, which were then
transferred to the cargo hold FE model. Ultimate hull
girder capacities obtained from the Smith method and
the nonlinear FE method were compared.

Analyzed ship

For this investigation a cape size 175,000 tdw bulk

carrier was chosen. The ship is a double side bulk carri-
er with nine cargo holds.
The geometry of the midship cross section of the cargo
hold 6 is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 2: FE model
The model ends are influenced by the applied boundary
conditions. To avoid plastic deformations at these ideal-
ized areas, two material behaviors were used for the
numerical analysis. All structure components between
0.30 L – 0.32 L and between 0.56 L – 0.58 L were as-
sumed to be made of elastic material. The parameter L
represents length of the ship.

Fig. 3: Geometry and material definition

For structural components between 0.32 L and 0.56 L a

Fig. 1: Midship cross section of cargo hold 6 linear elastic-plastic material including strain hardening
was applied (see Fig. 3). The parameters specific for
Finite element model material behavior are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Material properties
To consider the combination of global and local loads
on ultimate strength in hogging, a three cargo hold FE Material
Material
model (see Fig. 2) was generated. Using Ansys Work- elastic-
elastic
bench program, the geometry of cargo holds number plastic
five, six and seven was modeled with a high detail level. Young’s modulus, E
2.06E+05 2.06E+05
Using symmetry conditions about the centre line, only [N/mm²]
half of the ship was modeled. Thus, computer time was Poisson’s ration, n 0.3 0.3
saved. Yield stress, sy [N/mm²] - 315 (355)
Structural components of the cargo holds were modeled Tangent modulus, ET
using four node shell elements. - 1000
[N/mm²]
The scope of the investigation was to investigate effects
of combined global and local loads on ultimate hogging Mesh convergence
capacity of hull girder in way of cargo hold 6.
In hogging, the failure is expected in the double bottom To determine the ultimate capacity of the hull girder
structure of the empty cargo hold. using nonlinear finite element method we need a fine
In areas where collapse occurs, a mesh with a higher mesh model. The accuracy of numerical analyses car-
level of accuracy is required. To save computation time, ried out here typically increases using smaller element
a coarse mesh involving only one element between size. The structure of the cargo holds of bulk carriers is
longitudinal stiffeners was employed outside of the fine complex, and the FE model represents, as far as possible,
mesh area. the real structural layout of the ship.
The region of cargo hold 6 below the neutral axis is
modeled using a fine mesh size. In this region a suffi-

- 1174 -

ciently fine mesh must be used to describe accurately
the local deformations and stress patterns which occur
during buckling and post-buckling.
Typically, a FE model with a mesh size of 140 mm
contains about five or six elements for plates between
longitudinal stiffeners, about three elements for stiffen-
ers across the web height, and one element across the
flange. Five or six elements for the plates are needed to
accurately reflect the large deflection behavior of the
plate under compression loading. The aspect ratio of
each plate shell element is almost 1.0.
The quality of shell elements and the mesh size can
affect the results of an ultimate strength analysis signifi-
cantly. Therefore, convergence evaluation with a finer
mesh size of 70 mm was performed to quantify the
effect of mesh size on the ultimate strength under pure
vertical bending moment.
The three cargo hold FE model with a mesh size of 70
mm in the fine mesh area contains about 3,450,000
degrees of freedom and, numerical results are presented
in this paper later.
Imperfection
The structural behavior of plates exposed to compres-
sion depends on imperfections, such as initial geomet-
rical deflections and welding induced residual stresses.
For buckling and ultimate strength analysis using a
nonlinear FE method, the initial imperfections play an
important role. Therefore, initial geometric imperfec-
tions were included in the FE model in the fine mesh
area. To simplify this investigation, the residual stresses
caused by welding were ignored.
In general, it is required to prescribe an initial geomet-
rical imperfection shape similar to the critical collapse
mode of the plate that means, a shape which needs min-
imum internal strain energy to achieve the collapse. The
initial deflections used in this investigation are in the
shape of sinusoidal waves as shown in Fig.4.
The initial imperfection was applied only in the fine
mesh area in cargo hold 6, on bottom plating, inner
bottom plating, longitudinal girders, hopper plating and
suitable stiffeners.
Fig. 4: Geometric imperfection
- 1175 -
Ionel Darie, Joerg Roerup, Viktor Wolf
Boundary condition
To investigate the effect of combined global and local
loads on ultimate strength of a bulk carrier, two loading
scenarios were used:
- pure vertical bending
- alternate loading condition
In each loading scenario different boundary conditions
on FE model were applied.
The ultimate strength assessments using the Smith
method as well as nonlinear FE analysis were carried
with gross thickness of structure elements and all safety
factors set equal to unit 1.0.
Pure vertical bending
To perform progressive collapse analysis under a pure
vertical bending moment, the FE model is treated as a
beam clamped at one end. On the other free end, a mo-
ment was applied in terms of rotation about the trans-
verse axis. The end cross sections (0.3 L and 0.58 L) of
the FE model were coupled to pilot nodes (pilot node 1
and pilot node 2). The pilot nodes were located at the
intersection of the centre line and the elastic neutral
axes of the mid hold cross section. Between pilot node
and nodes located at end cross sections, constrain equa-
tion were defined.
The clamped pilot node 2 located at 0.58 L (dx, dy, dz,
rx, ry, rz =0) constrained the entire forward end cross
section. At the centre line, transverse symmetry condi-
tions were applied (dy, rx, rz = 0). On the pilot node 1
located at 0.30 L, a rotation was imposed obtaining a
constant hogging moment over the entire cargo hold
model.
Fig. 5: Boundary conditions (pure vertical bending)
Rotation of the pilot node was incrementally applied to
simulate the collapse und post collapse behavior of the
bulk carrier. Coupling of the aft end cross section with
pilot node 1 remains here a plane end cross section.
Refer to Fig. 5 for the applied boundary condition.
Alternate loading condition
In alternate loading condition, the cargo hold 6 is empty
and the adjacent cargo holds are loaded with heavy
cargo. Under extreme hogging the large external water
pressure a midships induces bending in the double bot-
tom structure of the empty hold. This bending behavior
Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier under Combined Global and Local Loads

induces in the outer bottom side significant compression

stresses, resulting in buckling of outer bottom plates
before the ultimate capacity limit is reached. As a result,
the ultimate capacity of the empty hold may be reduced
significantly in combination with hull girder stresses
due to hogging.
Using this loading scenario, the end cross sections of the
three cargo hold FE model are coupled with a pilot node
to ensure plane end cross sections, similar to pure verti-
cal bending condition. The pilot node 1 located at aft
end was supported in the vertical direction (dz = 0), and
the pilot node 2 at forward end was supported in vertical
and longitudinal direction (dx, dz =0). For this investi-
gation, cargo and sea pressure is symmetric with refer- Fig. 7: Section forces and moments for wave amplitude
of 15 m
ence to the center line, accordingly symmetry boundary
condition at center line (dy, rx, rz =0) were applied.
Numerical Results
To simulate a realistic loading scenario for the three
cargo hold FE model under alternate loading, the GL
ShipLoad program was used. GL ShipLoad is a FE-software code
seakeeping software tool for load generation to enable a The FE code LS-DYNA, a general purpose FE code for
reliable global FE analysis of ships (Roerup, (2008)). analyzing the nonlinear response of three-dimensional
By performing first-principle hydrodynamic computa- inelastic structures, was used to simulate the collapse
tions for regular waves, GL ShipLoad determines wave behavior. All the numerical analyses were run using an
induced pressure and ship acceleration values. GL Ship- implicit solver implemented in LS-DYNA.
load models the mass distribution of a ship and its cargo,
computes hydrostatic and hydrodynamic wave-induced Results under pure vertical bending
pressure and generates balanced, quasi-static load cases.
Under pure hogging condition, a convergence evalua-
The light ship weights and cargo masses under alternate tion with varying mesh size was performed to quantify
loading condition were applied on the entire model of the effect of mesh size on ultimate strength. A mesh size
the bulk carrier using GL ShipLoad program. Under of 140 mm and 70 mm in cargo hold 6 below the neutral
head sea conditions and using a wave length equal to axis was used to calculate hull girder bending capacity
ship length, a hydrodynamic analysis with different exposed to pure vertical bending.
wave amplitudes was performed. The resulting pres-
sures and inertial forces corresponding to the alternate Results obtained from the pure hogging investigations
load case were transferred to the cargo hold model, are shown in Fig. 8 in as a moment curvature response
ready as input to perform a progressive collapse analysis. curve. The curves are based on small increments in
curvature to insure a smooth and accurate representation.

Fig. 6: Boundary conditions (alternate loading condition)

The resulting bending moments, M1 and M2, obtained
from hydrodynamic analysis were applied on the pilot
nodes (Fig. 6) to achieve the outer bending moments in
the cargo hold model. The applied hogging moment,
including still water and wave part, were plotted in
Fig. 7 and represent wave amplitude of 15 m.
Starting with 10 m, the wave amplitude in hydrody-
namic analysis was increased in 1.0 m steps up to 20 m,
which agrees with the limit capacity of the bulk carrier.
Fig. 8: Hogging moment – curvature relations (FE model
without imperfection, pure vertical bending condi-
tion)
Increasing the rotation applied on pilot node 1, the main
deck goes into the plastic range under tension. This
point is marked with 1 in Fig. 8. At that point no plastic
deformations occur in double bottom structure. At point
2 marked in Fig.8, the longitudinal girders suffer high
stresses and their plate fields start to buckle. Further
increase of rotation at pilot node 1 leads to successive
failure of all structural elements in the double bottom.

- 1176 -
 Ionel Darie, Joerg Roerup, Viktor Wolf

Finally, at point 3 the whole double bottom structure In Fig. 9 the FE results are compared with the Smith
collapses and the ultimate strength of the hull girder is method results. The ultimate capacity of the structure in
reached. the empty hold 6 calculated with Smith method is about
The ultimate capacities for pure hogging moment found 2 % less than by nonlinear finite element method using
by the present investigation are listed in the Table 2. the FE model with mesh size of 140 mm and the imper-
The ultimate hull girder strength decreases approximate- fection. Smith method agreed favourably with nonlinear
ly 1.5 % due to the use of a mesh size of 70 mm instead finite element method.
of 140 mm. Figures 10 and 11 present the plastic deformations when
reaching the ultimate capacity load under pure hogging
Table 2: Ultimate capacities under pure vertical bending moment.
moment without imperfection
Hull girder Difference to
FE model without
capacity mesh size
imperfection
[MNm] 140 mm
Mesh size 140 mm 21836 -
Mesh size 70 mm 21496 -1.55 %

Judging from these results, the mesh size doesn’t affect

ultimate strength capacity significantly. Therefore, in
the following analysis the FE model with mesh size of
140 mm is used.
Appling the geometric imperfection on the FE model
with the mesh size of 140 mm, the capacity strength of
hull girder is reduced by 3 % compared to the analysis
Fig. 11: Close view of plastic deformations at structural ele-
without imperfection.
ments of double bottom (mesh size 140mm with
The failure scenario of the hull girder for the model with imperfection, pure vertical bending condition)
imperfection is similar to the model without imperfec-
tion. Table 3: Ultimate capacities under pure vertical bending
moment
Hull girder Difference to
capacity mesh size 140
[MNm] mm with im-
perfection
Mesh size 140 mm
21180 -
with imperfection
Smith method 20729 -2.17 %
Mesh size 140 mm
21836 +3.09 %
without imperfection

Results under alternate loading condition

Fig. 9: Hogging moment – curvature relations (pure verti-
cal bending condition)
Fig. 10: Plastic deformations in double bottom structure of
cargo hold 6 (mesh size 140mm with imperfec-
tion, pure vertical bending condition)
In alternate loading condition the cargo hold 6 is empty,
and the adjacent cargo holds are loaded with heavy
cargo. For this loading scenario the three cargo hold FE
model with 140 mm mesh size and imperfection is used.
Based on the wave scenario with 20 m wave amplitude,
the corresponding wave and cargo pressures and the
resulting outer bending moments are applied stepwise
on the cargo hold model. The FE code LS-DYNA ad-
justed the steps to fulfill convergence criteria. In total
about 2000 steps were used for this analysis.
In hold 6, the excessive bending is due to the fact that
the hold is empty and only the sea pressure is acting on
the outer bottom.
In Fig. 7 the shear force curve indicates this effect. In-
side hold 6 the slope is much higher than in the adjacent
cargo holds. With increased wave amplitude, the sea
pressure is higher and amplifies the double bottom

- 1177 -
Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier under Combined Global and Local Loads

bending and results in higher compressive stresses in the For a wave amplitude of 20 m under alternate loading
outer bottom. condition, the outer bottom including stiffeners failed
together with longitudinal girders, and the ultimate
capacity of the ship is achieved (Fig. 15 to 17).

Fig. 12: Deformations of three hold FE model under alter-

nate loading condition
For a sea pressure corresponding to a wave amplitude of
about 10 m, the double bottom bends significantly, but
Fig. 15: Plastic deformations in outer bottom by ultimate
no plastic deformations occur. For a wave amplitude of bending capacity of 16442 MNm (alternate
about 15 m, the outer bottom plating in the middle of loading condition)
hold 6 suffers high compressive stresses and starts to
buckle from centre line. The stress in inner bottom plat-
ing is uncritical and lower than the yield stress. With
further increase of the wave amplitude, the plastic zone
in outer bottom plates extends over the complete ship
breath, but the double bottom structure is still capable of
storing energy, and the capacity strength is not achieved
(Fig. 13 and Fig. 14).

Fig. 16: Plastic deformations in double bottom structure

by ultimate bending capacity of 16442 MNm
(alternate loading condition)

Fig. 13: Plastic deformations in outer bottom by a bending

moment of 14000 MNm (alternate loading con-
dition)

Fig. 14: Plastic deformations in outer bottom by bending Fig. 17: Plastic deformations in double bottom structure
moment of 15000 MNm (alternate loading con- by ultimate bending capacity of 16442 MNm
dition) (alternate loading condition)

- 1178 -

Fig. 18: Hogging moment – curvature relations
Judging from these results, the ultimate capacity of the
hull girder in hogging is reduced by 22 % due to bend-
ing of double bottom structure in the empty cargo hold
for the ship in an alternate loading condition.
Under pure bending moment the failure sequence start
with yielding in the main deck. Buckling of double
bottom structure occurs later. In consequence the mo-
ment curvature curve has a large plateau typical for
yielding (see the green dashed curve in Fig. 18). In case
of alternate loading condition failure starts with buck-
ling in outer bottom resulting in a total collapse of the
double bottom. The corresponding moment curvature
curve drops down suddenly (see magenta continues
curve in Fig. 18).
Table 4: Ultimate capacities of hull girder
Hull girder Difference to
capacity pure hogging
[MNm] moment - FE
Pure hogging moment
21180 - like bending of the double structure in empty cargo
– FE
Alternate loading con-
dition – FE (wave
amplitude: 20 m intact 16442 -22.37 %
condition and 14 m
flooded condition)
Pure sagging moment
16100 -24.00 %
– Smith method
The wave amplitude of 20 m is equivalent to 21.5 m
significant wave height and according to the scatter dia-
gram IACS Rec. 34, such wave heights can appear during
a lifetime of 25 years and are, therefore reasonable.
Bending of the double bottom in empty cargo holds may
be critical for the safety of the ship if holds are flooded
in the forward or aft ship region. For this damage sce-
nario, the still water bending moment is increased, and
the double bottom in empty hold can fail for a wave
amplitude of 14 m.
However, in Fig. 18 it can be seen that the ultimate
capacity of the vessel in the alternate loading condition
is about 50 % higher than the total (static + dynamic)
design bending moment.
In sagging, the main deck is in compression and the
bottom structure in tension. The main deck can carry
- 1179 -
Ionel Darie, Joerg Roerup, Viktor Wolf
significantly less load in compression than in tension
due to the slenderness of the deck stiffeners with about
5 m web frame spacing. The FE model used in this
investigation is not able to simulate the sagging condi-
tion. Accordingly, the ultimate capacity is calculated
using Smith method only. The results shown in Table 4
indicate that the hold 6 of the bulk carrier has lower
capacity reserve in sagging, even compared with the
alternate loading condition in hogging.
This shows, once more that, for ultimate strength of
bulk carriers, the sagging moment is more critical and,
therefore, more reasonable for design purposes.
Conclusions
A nonlinear analysis accounting for both material and
geometric nonlinearities has been performed with a
developed three cargo hold FE model of a cape size
bulk carrier. Two conditions of ultimate failure under
pure hogging moment and under combined global hog-
ging moment and local lateral pressure have been con-
sidered. Pressure loads were determined by seakeeping
analysis and transferred to the three cargo hold FE
model. The main focus of the presented study was to
investigate effects of double bottom bending on ultimate
hogging capacity. Applied geometric imperfection on
double bottom structure of cargo hold 6 reduces the hull
girder capacity under pure vertical bending moment by
about 2%.Ultimate hull girder capacities obtained from
the Smith method and the nonlinear FE method were
compared. The evaluation of ultimate strength using
Smith method is slightly non-conservative compared
with nonlinear FE method for pure hogging. Unfortu-
nately, the Smith method is not able to cover the effects
holds. This is detrimental for the ultimate hull girder
strength. To simulate the failure of double bottom in
alternate loading condition, a wave amplitude of 20 m in
intact condition or of 14 m in flooded condition was
necessary. Under alternate loading condition using
nonlinear FE analysis, the ultimate capacity of the hull
girder is reduced by 22% due to bending of double bot-
tom structure. However, the studied bulk carrier has a
robust design and a reserve of about 50% compared to
the design moment. According to Harmonized Common
Structural Rules for Bulk Carriers and Oil Tankers
(working draft edition 2013) a partial safety factor equal
to 1.25 is to be applied for the vertical hull girder ulti-
mate bending capacity of bulk carriers. This covers the
effect of double bottom bending in hogging and is in
accordance with the FE results of this study. According
to Smith method, the ultimate capacity of the bulk car-
rier for pure sagging condition is lower than capacity
calculated in alternate loading condition under hogging.
For typical bulk carriers the collapse is most likely to
occur in sagging.
Acknowledgement
This study was developed in the frame work of the
EMSHIP program, and the authors express their thanks
to Patrick Stykuc for his support.
 Ultimate Strength of a Cape Size Bulk Carrier under Combined Global and Local Loads
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