Professional Documents
Culture Documents
→ ERS MISSIONS
20 Years of Observing Earth
Cover: Synthetic Aperture Radar multitemporal colour composite image
showing Naples and its bay. Naples, the largest city in southern Italy and
capital of the Campania Region, can be seen as the large bright area on the
northern tip of the Bay of Naples. The bay lies within an important volcanic
province, with the volcano Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegrean Fields (Campi
Flegrei) area being its active and ancient primary testimonies. The different
colours shown by the sea in the bay indicate sea surface roughness caused by
the winds which occurred during the dates of acquisition. The colour patches
to the north of Naples represent crop fields. The image is made from three ERS-2
SAR Precision Radar Image images acquired on different dates. A different RGB
colour is assigned to each date of acquisition: Red: 11 February 2004, Green:
21 April 2004, Blue: 30 June 2004. (ESA)
ISBN 978-92-9221-424-1
ISSN 0379-6566
Foreword
Scientific and commercial remote sensing was still in its early stage when the
first European Remote Sensing satellite, ERS‑1, was launched in 1991, leading
to the outstanding achievements described in this book.
ERS‑1 was the most advanced and complex satellite of its day, carrying
three instruments (ERS‑2 had four instruments) and delivering what was at
the time an enormous volume of data to Earth. Ensuring the timely delivery of
products was a great challenge because of the low computing capacities and
the weak performance of telephone lines featuring ‘modern ISDN’ technology.
It should be considered that at the time, information technology for digital data
processing was very expensive and the majority of products were disseminated
using postal services. Consequently, the ERS programme was built with
exploitation goals based on the available ‘ground’ technology of the late 1980s
targeting specific user communities.
Concomitant with the development and launch of ERS‑1 a revolution took
place in computer and information technology. Computers and workstations
doubled in speed and capacity every year, and the World Wide Web took off,
boosting internet utilisation, supporting easy access to ERS data and bringing
computing costs down to a mass market level. The mission operations benefited
strongly from this technological revolution, removing processing limitations
and bottlenecks in accessing data and making them freely available online.
Earth observation applications based on space data also profited from these
developments as they could suddenly be processed on the desks of users
instead of only in computer centres.
Throughout the 20 years of ERS, special emphasis has been given to
the calibration of instruments, validation of products, cross-calibration of
instrumentation, information retrieval evolution, and to the documentation
of these processes. This has been a joint effort with specialised labs, user
communities and partner space agencies, keeping the mission an innovative
asset for research and services.
By enabling the dissemination of high-quality data and building on
continuous technological progress driven by the computer and internet
revolution, the ‘free and open’ data policy has been the ultimate accelerator
in ensuring the full exploitation of ERS data. Allowing an ever-growing
community to have easy and free access to satellite data enormously facilitated
the transformation of these unique data into valuable information, far beyond
the original scope of the programme.
The outstanding robustness of both satellites and instrumentation has
facilitated long time series of data overlapping with successor instrumentation
flown on ERS‑2, Envisat and MetOp, enabling the creation of ‘one mission’
across several platforms.
The environment of high-quality data being available easily to all users has
been the essence of an outstanding return on investment for ESA stakeholders, and
has also led to new national satellites and the Global Monitoring for Environment
and Security (GMES) programme, recently renamed Copernicus. ERS has served
as a precursor mission in Europe for acquiring key industrial expertise in areas
like radar technology and scientific application fields like interferometry. There are
thousands of projects throughout the world relying on ERS data.
This book describes the exceptional success of a pioneering satellite,
starting in a different technological era and founding communities that have
significantly advanced our knowledge of planet Earth, while bringing research
to operational services and business. The Sentinels will carry on this heritage,
making remote sensing a commodity for all citizens.
Volker Liebig
Director of Earth Observation Programmes
iii
Contents
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ERS and Atmospheric Composition Measurements: GOME and the SCIAMACHY Project . . 63
J.P. Burrows
The ERS SAR Wave Mode: A Breakthrough in Global Ocean Wave Observations . . . . . 165
K. Hasselmann, B. Chapron, L. Aouf, F. Ardhuin, F. Collard, G. Engen, S. Hasselmann,
P. Heimbach, P. Janssen, H. Johnsen, H. Krogstad, S. Lehner, J.-G. Li, X.-M. Li,
W. Rosenthal & J. Schulz-Stellenfleth
Satellite Oceanography from the ERS Synthetic Aperture Radar and Radar Altimeter: . . 199
A Brief Review
J.A. Johannessen, B. Chapron, W. Alpers, F. Collard, P. Cipollini, A. Liu, J. Horstmann,
J. da Silva, M. Portabella, I.S. Robinson, B. Holt, C. Wackerman & P. Vachon
v
→→ Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
The first European Remote Sensing (ERS‑1) satellite was launched in July 1991
and was followed by ERS‑2 in April 1995. Carrying suites of sophisticated
instruments to study the complexities of the atmosphere, land, oceans and
polar caps, these two missions were the most advanced of their time. Over 20
years the two satellites delivered a continuous stream of data and information
that changed our view of the world and placed Europe firmly at the forefront of
Earth observation.
In September 2011 ESA organised a scientific workshop to celebrate the
outstanding achievements of the ERS mission after 20 years of successful
operations. The main themes of the discussions are captured in each of the
chapters of this publication. Comprising contributions from key scientists
and their colleagues involved in the mission exploitation, this publication
highlights the outstanding scientific achievements unique to the ERS
mission. The authors also provide their personal perspectives on the mission,
addressing the human angle of the mission preparation and of its scientific
exploitation, as well as recalling successes and wider impacts resulting from
the unique achievements of the ERS mission and its exploitation.
The first chapter deals with the history of ERS from its conception in the
1970s, through the hectic days of the launches, the experiments that paved the
way for new research, the adaptations of ESA data policy and the deorbiting
phase. In particular it recalls the proactive role of ESA mission management for
the provision of data to the science community, the deployment of a worldwide
network of ground stations and early steps in international cooperation, as
well as the support to campaigns like the first ever ERS‑1/2 tandem campaign
and pilot projects for precursor applications demonstration.
The second chapter focuses on the Along-Track Scanning Radiometer
instruments, ATSR and ATSR-2, which were capable of measuring land and
sea surface temperatures with unprecedented accuracy. The first Sea Surface
Temperature measurements from ATSR proved to be better than actual buoy
measurements. The scientific exploitation results extended to global land
surface temperatures and cloud or aerosol measurements. ESA initiated an
innovative exploitation of the ATSR infrared channel properties to produce a
regularly updated world fire atlas. Thanks to the ERS ATSR/ATSR-2 instrument
data, we have a unique and continuous set of Sea Surface Temperature
measurements going back to 1991, which is used today in climate research.
The third chapter discusses the history of the development of the Global
Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME), including exploitation results. GOME
was the only new instrument on ERS‑2 as compared to the ERS‑1 payload,
adding atmospheric chemistry monitoring capabilities. Having a high spectral
resolution and broad-wavelength coverage, GOME measured ozone, but also
known ozone-depleting substances such as chlorine and bromine, clouds and
aerosols, and chemically reactive factors of air quality such as nitrogen and
sulphur dioxide. Based on the success of GOME, follow-on instruments such
as GOME-2 on MetOp and the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on the Earth
Observing System satellite Aura have been realised, which are extending the
provision of long-term ozone data for the World Meteorological Organization’s
Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion. In addition, GOME has enabled the
development of air-quality applications based on satellite data.
The fourth chapter illustrates the contribution to science and operations
over land, sea and ice by observations made with the ERS Active Microwave
Instrument (AMI) scatterometer mode. The ERS scatterometer measures the
speed and direction of winds over the surface of the ocean. This information
is used for operational weather and wave forecasting, as well as climate
research. Other applications of ERS scatterometer backscatter measurements
include sea ice age, extent and melt. Over land the scatterometer is being used
3
SP-1326
operationally to retrieve soil moisture and soil water index globally. Follow-on
instruments are now carried on the European operational meteorology MetOp
satellites operated by Eumetsat.
The impact of the information provided by the ERS AMI wave mode on
oceanography, meteorology and climate research is discussed in the fifth
chapter. This chapter describes the motivation for incorporating the Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) wave mode in the ERS‑1 instrument, in particular
thanks to its capability to image globally ocean waves and to the development
of numerical two-dimensional wave spectral models. The SAR wave mode
has become an established component of operational wave prediction and
has been continued on follow-on satellites such as Envisat and Sentinel-1.
Finally, the recent cross-spectral analysis of SAR wave data has allowed major
improvements in wave product inversion and subsequently a new application
on swell tracking has been demonstrated for operational use.
The sixth chapter reports some of the advances in studies of the upper
ocean, its monitoring and understanding with the use of ERS AMI Image Mode
and Radar Altimeter. SAR imaging over the ocean has enabled significant
advances in physical oceanography such as the observation of mesoscale
fronts and eddies, monitoring and understanding of internal waves, the
detection of oil spills and the measuring of wind speed. This period saw the
development of the first operational services in near-realtime, such as oil spill
monitoring and ship detection in the Norwegian Sea.
The ERS altimetric mission objective was to map global ocean wave heights,
roughness, ocean circulation and associated transfers of energy including
ocean–atmosphere interactions. With its 35-day repeat orbit and therefore
denser ground tracks, the ERS mission was an indispensable complement to
the NASA–CNES Topex–Poseidon altimetric mission, bringing high-resolution
mesoscale variability into the picture.
The seventh chapter illustrates the contribution of the Radar Altimeter to
geodetic research, ice and sea-ice studies, improvements in Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs), coastal oceanography, and river and lake hydrology. While ERS‑2
was in the final stage of development, the scientific community requested that
ERS‑1 be flown in a very dense orbit. The so-called geodetic phase, which lasted
from April 1994 to March 1995, made it possible to map the mean sea surface and
derive the marine geoid and seafloor bathymetry at unprecedented resolution
and accuracy. The ERS‑1 geodetic phase data acquired over land were used to
correct existing DEMs and led to the release of a new global and accurate DEM
called Altimetry Corrected Elevation (ACE). A new application emerged, based on
the capability to extract river and lake levels globally and in particular in regions
that are difficult access and poorly monitored. Ice sheet topography was a key
target of the ERS mission and was mapped with unprecedented coverage and
accuracy. Finally, the level of the sea ice above the water level could be estimated
and sea surface topography measurements extended in the coastal zone.
The eighth chapter explains the steps that have led to the birth of modern
SAR interferometry. Although not known at the time, and therefore not
specified in the ERS‑1 imaging radar development, scientists discovered that
it was possible to exploit the phase difference in radar pixels from consecutive
overpasses, which could be directly related to terrain height. ESA teams
developed a new processor to generate a new phase-preserved product,
organised a fringe group of science users, distributed new products widely and
set up proof-of-concept validation campaigns.
Today, SAR interferometry is used in most imaging radar applications
such as land cover classification, DEMs, surface deformation, earthquake
and volcano monitoring and ice flow velocity measurements. In addition,
the property of the radar over specific point targets to preserve the phase
information allowed measurements of local subsidence of a few millimetres.
Value-adding companies processed entire datasets from the ERS archive and
generated subsidence maps at regional and national scales.
4
Introduction
In the ninth chapter the authors highlight the value of the ERS SAR
compared with optical imaging. SAR can image in all weather conditions,
irrespective of day or night, and is particularly useful for agriculture/forest
monitoring and snow and ice studies in the polar regions. In addition, the
ERS SAR demonstrated particular sensitivity to surface roughness, allowing
geological or topography mapping. Also sensitive to dielectric properties,
it allowed for soil moisture or biomass mapping. New applications such as
rice crop mapping and tropical forest monitoring were also developed using
multitemporal ERS imagery. Finally, combining radar interferometry and the
measurement of radar reflectivity allowed for biomass retrieval at regional
scales, such as the boreal forest Siberia project or the Chinese forest under the
Dragon cooperation.
In conclusion, we invite readers to evaluate whether ERS has fulfilled the
objective set at the origin of the mission: ‘ERS‑1 will be the European Space
Agency's first satellite devoted entirely to remote sensing from a polar orbit.
It will be a forerunner of a new generation of space missions planned for the
1990s which will make a substantial contribution to the scientific study of our
environment.’
Our opinion is a clear YES!
The contributions of the ERS missions to science, applications and
operational services is well illustrated by the more than 2000 scientific papers
exploiting the ERS data that have been published so far. The ERS archive is
freely and openly available for further exploitation – from science to climate
research – thus ensuring that the success story will continue.
We wish you all pleasant reading and look forward to the opportunity to
meet you at the next ESA Living Planet Symposium.
5
→→ History of the ERS Programme
History of ERS
On the basis of the results of these consultations and industry studies, bodies
such as the Remote Sensing Ad Hoc Group (RSAHG) and its successor, the
9
SP-1326
—— In the short term (mid-1970s), the creation of a European network for the
acquisition, preprocessing, archiving and distribution of data from US/NASA
satellites such as Landsat, the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM),
Nimbus-G and Seasat, based on existing national capacities. To this end, the
EarthNet programme was approved in 1977 and implemented based on the
use and upgrading of several European receiving stations (Fucino, Kiruna,
Oakhanger, Maspalomas, Lannion, etc.) and of the ESRIN centre for the
management of the programme. The creation of the European Association of
Remote Sensing Laboratories (EARSeL) in 1976 (chaired by Professor Preben
Gudmandsen of the Technical University of Denmark at Lyngby), under the
auspices of the European Commission, ESA and the Council of Europe, was
also a major step in the development of the community of scientific users in
Europe. Today, EARSeL members include more than 200 research institutes,
laboratories and universities in Western and Eastern Europe, the Middle East
and North Africa.
—— In the medium term (early 1980s), the use of Spacelab for the testing and
demonstration, as a priority, of high-resolution optical imaging sensors and of
all-weather remote sensing techniques. Germany proposed two experiments
for the First Spacelab Flight Payload (FSLP): the Metric Camera, a modified
Zeiss RMK A30/23 airborne camera, for cartographic applications and the
production of maps at scales down to 1/50 000, and the Microwave Remote
Sensing Experiment (MRSE) combining several modes of operation (SAR,
Wind Scatterometer and passive radiometer modes). The FSLP was flown on
28 November 1983; the Metric Camera was a full success but unfortunately
the MRSE SAR and Scatterometer modes failed.
10
History of ERS
An important element in the decision process for the ESA Remote Sensing
Satellite Programme was the launch of Seasat in July 1978, which provided, in
spite of its short lifetime (106 days), large amounts of data of great interest to the
global oceanographic community. The Seasat results encouraged consideration
of alternative COMSS payloads, and follow-on trade-off studies were performed
in 1980 to consider the inclusion of Radar Altimeter, Wind Scatterometer
and Earth radiation budget instruments. A high-level advisory committee
of European experts was set up in early 1981, chaired by John Houghton
(Director of the Rutherford and Appleton Laboratories). It was charged (by Eric
Quistgaard, Director General of ESA) with reviewing the mission objectives
and proposing a sound payload configuration for the new mission concept,
called ERS‑1, resulting from the merger of LASS and COMSS as it appeared that
a single mission could cover most land, ice and ocean objectives (see Table 1).
It is important to recall that the initial mission objectives defined in
the 1970s had emphasised commercial and operational exploitation and
applications of remote sensing. However, a gradual change occurred with the
emergence of global climate and ocean monitoring programmes (such as the
World Climate Research Programme, the World Ocean Circulation Experiment
and the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere programme) to respond to the
growing concerns of the public, decision makers and politicians about climate
variability processes and possible human interactions and contributions,
which required the development of an improved scientific understanding of the
climate system. This rebalancing of requirements from commercially oriented
applications to scientific research became effective in the early 1980s when the
ERS‑1 mission configuration and objectives were finalised as follows:
—— To explore the potential of radar data for studies of land processes and
applications.
11
SP-1326
1 The ESA Accounting Unit (AU) was roughly equal to the European Currency Unit
(ECU). In 1995, 1 AU = 6.58 FF, £0.78, 1.93 DM, 1885 Lira.
12
History of ERS
carried out by a very large consortium led by Dornier Systems GmbH, Germany,
as the Prime Contractor. The scope of the contract included the establishment of
the space segment specifications (platform and payload), the detailed definition
of the ground segment (payload data management and mission operations), the
continuation of critical technology development and breadboarding activities
(see Table 2) and the definition and realisation of experimental campaigns
to train users and demonstrate the soundness of the instrument concept and
performances required.
The objectives for the ground segment were ambitious, and it was sized
for the delivery a number of selected products within 3 h of observation on
the satellite. An additional condition was that maximum use must be made
of existing national ground facilities for data acquisition, preprocessing and
archiving. Phase B also included the preparation of technical and financial
proposals for Phases C/D/E on a design-to-cost basis.
A major difficulty encountered by the ESA project team at the beginning of
Phase B was the reluctance of industry to make contractual commitments on
the basis of geophysical performance requirements for the ERS‑1 instruments.
This was considered too risky, as it would rely on semi-empirical conversion
algorithms. As a consequence, the project team had to make a major effort
to produce technical and engineering specifications based on the agreed
13
SP-1326
Figure 2. Members of the ERS‑1 industrial consortium during Phases C/D/E (ESA, 1997b).
14
History of ERS
5. ERS‑1 Challenges
During Phases B/C/D, from 1982 to the launch of ERS‑1 in 1991, in addition
to the detailed definition of the ERS‑1 system, the management of industrial
development, testing activities and technical reviews typical of such an
ambitious project, the ESA project team faced a number of challenges, which
are summarised in the following.
—— Radar Altimeter: stringent requirements for the chirp pulse generator (SAW
device).
15
SP-1326
16
History of ERS
17
SP-1326
18
History of ERS
Ocean Research (PIPOR), for example, included several dozen polar ocean
and ice scientists. The PIs held their first meeting at ESRIN in May 1988
and an organisation had to be in place to manage such a large number of
scientists from all continents (Coordinating Investigators were introduced
for each theme and/or geographical region). The PIs played a key role in
the development of the user communities and in raising awareness of ESA’s
Earth observation (EO) programmes and the ERS in particular. Thousands
of peer-reviewed publications resulted from the AO process, which was
repeated several times during the lifetimes of ERS‑1 and ERS‑2, with a variety
of objectives, ranging from scientific research, application demonstration
projects to the exploitation of ERS‑1/ERS‑2 tandem data collected following
the launch of ERS‑2 in 1995. Regular ERS symposia were organised and
attracted increasing numbers of participants, from 400 at the first meeting in
Cannes, France, in 1992, to 1200 at the final symposium in Bergen, Norway,
in June 2010.
—— ESA set up instruments and product advisory expert groups for each ESA-
funded instrument (SAR, Wind Scatterometer, Radar Altimeter and a data
teams to contribute to the definition and preparation of sensor calibration
and product validation activities. These groups brought together the best
European and Canadian experts, who contributed to the definition of
processing algorithms to generate the agreed geophysical parameters derived
from engineering data. They also assisted the project teams in the definition
of airborne campaigns to support the calibration and validation activities.
19
SP-1326
20
History of ERS
Contractor of the ERS‑1 Ground Segment and the Canadian company MDA
that developed the processor, quickly identified that the data from ERS‑1 were
perfect, but that the I/Q assignments of the processor needed to be inverted.
MDA (Paul Lim) performed this remotely and less than 48 h after acquisition of
the first data, an image with perfect quality was processed.
Although the original mission requirements for ERS‑1 did not include
the provision of an interferometry capability, the high performance and
engineering quality of the ERS‑1 system allowed the development of this
21
SP-1326
Figure 6. The first interferograms and unwrapped phase of the Gennargentu mountains, Sardinia, from ERS‑1 (left) and ERS‑2 (right). (ESA/POLIMI)
22
History of ERS
23
SP-1326
24
History of ERS
Figure 14. 3D image of sea level and temperature anomalies in the Pacific during the 1997−98 El Niño event, based on simultaneous ATSR
and Radar Altimeter data acquired by ERS‑2 in November 1997. (ESA/CEOS)
25
SP-1326
26
History of ERS
time, there were also increasing concerns within the scientific community about
ozone depletion and global warming. In November 1988, ESA consulted European
scientists and invited them to propose an atmospheric chemistry instrument
which would be embarked on ERS‑2. The selected proposal, by John Burrows and
Paul Crutzen (who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995), was called
‘SCIA-mini’, derived from the Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for
Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) instrument selected for Envisat.
The instrument was further simplified to meet the ERS‑2 platform resource
constraints and was renamed the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME).
The GOME Phase B started in July 1989 and the development phase in April 1992,
under the stringent condition that the addition of GOME should not delay the
development of the main system. Also, GOME should be accommodated within
the limited ERS‑2 system margins, and the project management and system
engineering should be provided by ESTEC staff. All of these conditions were
met and GOME was ready for launch three years later. This extremely short
development time represents outstanding performance for such sophisticated
space instrumentation. The GOME ground segment, including a GOME data
processing unit, was developed, implemented and operated by the German
Processing and Archiving Facility (PAF) with national funding.
In spring 1990 the Programme Board for Earth Observation (PB-EO)
approved the ERS‑2 programme budget, which totalled 440.33 million AU,
27
SP-1326
including 370.98 million AU for Phases C/D and 69.35 million AU for Phase E.
With the addition of GOME for stratospheric ozone measurements, the ERS‑2
payload was further improved with the ATSR-2, with three additional VIS
channels, and PRARE-2, which had been completely redesigned and rebuilt
using Hi-Rel or military standard rather than commercial components. ERS‑2
was launched on 21 April 1995 at 01:44 GMT (Fig. 17).
28
History of ERS
29
SP-1326
specifications. In this mode, precise roll and tilt piloting were ensured by the
Digital Earth Sensor and Sun Sensor, while the yaw variation was measured
based on the Doppler extracted from the Active Microwave Instrument Wave
Mode science data. These processed data, giving the yaw deviation over the
orbit, were provided by the ground stations to the Flight Operations Team at
ESOC for corrective command uplinks. The corrections had to be made during
several consecutive passes over Kiruna before they had an effect on the
pointing accuracy.
Thanks to the ERS ground station network, which is still based on
agreements and contracts established at the start of the ERS‑1 mission, a
global Low-Bit-Rate station network 2 was providing Wave Mode data to ESOC
within less than 40 min to be considered for attitude correction. A further
improvement in the attitude accuracy was made in mid-2003, when a new
Scatterometer Near-Realtime processor became operational that was able to
handle a relaxed attitude precision of up to ±2°. The Scatterometer, with its
three beams providing a significantly better yaw angle determination, replaced
the Wave Mode data for attitude control in 2004.
The outstanding success in keeping the satellite operational without
gyros was due to the reliable and timely support of the LBR stations that were
purposely integrated into the overall flight operations setup. However, an
important factor in this success was the availability of the internet, as a robust
infrastructure for global data flow, to support the ‘open-loop’ attitude control.
With this approach, the initial yaw uncertainty caused by the gyro failures
was reduced from ±10° to ±2°, ensuring the full functioning of all instrument
missions. At the end of this recovery exercise, only the interferometry mission
(which required very high pointing accuracy) was affected by the slight attitude
degradation, although it was still possible to use some 50% of the data.
2 The LBR network includes ESA stations at Kiruna (Sweden), Maspalomas (Spain),
Matera (Italy), Gatineau (Canada) and Prince Albert (Canada); the national stations
O’Higgins (Antarctica), Chetulmal (Mexico) and West Freugh (UK); and foreign stations
in Miami (USA), Beijing (China), Hobart (Australia), Johannesburg (South Africa) and
Cuiaba (Brazil).
30
History of ERS
31
SP-1326
32
History of ERS
had stringent Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) service
commitments to fulfil, it was obvious that ERS‑2 needed to be manoeuvred to
implement the required baseline at specific observation targets.
Because the interferometry baselines could only be reached via slight
inclination changes, and thus only a range of observation targets within a
range of latitudes could be addressed, the ERS‑2–Envisat tandem mission
was divided into four campaigns. The second and the fourth campaigns were
to address change detection over the intermediate northern latitudes. The
campaigns took place over the following periods:
The exploitation of the unique dataset was advanced and led by two Swiss
remote sensing companies, Gamma Remote Sensing AG and Sarmap SA.
The ERS‑2–Envisat tandem mission addressed numerous applications:
33
SP-1326
For day-to-day operations, the centralised user service and mission planning
at ESRIN ensured that the synergy between ERS‑2 and Envisat was exploited
to the full. ERS‑2, carrying the predecessor instrumentation, acquired data
where Envisat conflicts could not be resolved. For example, ASAR on Envisat
with its modes and different polarisations created conflicting demands, so that
whenever Envisat Image Mode Swath 2 VV polarisation was requested within
the ERS station coverage, then that task was assigned to ERS‑2 while Envisat
addressed different requirements (see Fig. 22).
34
History of ERS
changes in the grounding lines and in the ice mass balances of major glaciers
over a period of 16 years. Figure 24, derived by A. Shepherd (University of
Leeds) and N. Gourmelen (University of Strasbourg), shows that the grounding
line of the Petermann glacier in Greenland retreated by 0.7–3.4 km between
1992 and 2011.
35
SP-1326
into quarter scenes, since the VAX computer with its external array processors
could not handle the processing of an entire 100 × 100 km frame, and data
were disseminated via computer-compatible tape and later via Exabyte
tape shipment. The small mass-market laptops in use today have far greater
processing power than the SAR processing systems used at the start of the ERS
programme.
Likewise, at the beginning of the ERS‑1 mission in the early 1990s
the requirement to disseminate data 3 h after sensing was an enormous
challenge, for which a dedicated satellite-based data dissemination system,
the Broadband Data Dissemination Network (BDDN), was deployed. Now, in
the time of broadband internet, where mobile phones (LTE3 standard) have the
same data source capacity as EO satellites, the demands and expectations of
users have changed dramatically since the mission was defined.
Since 1995 the ERS‑2 operations scenario gradually evolved and adapted to
the changing environment. The Ground Segment, beside the data acquisition
systems located at the stations, was equipped with off-the-shelf computing
hardware. The ERS‑2 mission operations concept relied strongly on services
available on the internet, as the following two examples illustrate.
First, in 2007, ERS‑2 became a major contributor to the GMES Service
Element Maritime Security Service (MARISS) project. To support this project,
the mission planning procedure was tuned to allow satellite tasking within
less than 8 h after the request was communicated. This service started on a
trial basis thanks to the collaboration with DLR, which had the capacity to
manage the entire NRT service. For this operational service, the Neustrelitz
station (north of Berlin) ensured the provision of highly reliable ERS SAR
data by offering observations up to the Portuguese Atlantic coast and
the Mediterranean Sea, the timely processing of these data (initially at
Oberpfaffenhofen until a local processing system was set up at the Neustrelitz
station), and service support for the national authorities in their role as MARISS
consortium members.
Based on the success of this trial the service was quickly adopted by the
entire ESA SAR station network covering Europe and selected world regions.
In many cases the data were made available to the national authorities via the
internet within less than 15 min after sensing. Despite the fact that systematic
observations of the European coast were foreseen, in some cases fast tasking
and operations were still required. The best performance from a satellite tasking
request to the distribution of data, via the internet, to users was 6 h (mission
planning, satellite tasking, acquisition, data processing and dissemination).
Second, following the earthquake in Sendai, Japan, March 2011, ESA’s
cloud computing infrastructure, which became operational in early 2008,
was extended to Taiwan within 24 h, so that every three days ERS‑2 data over
the Sendai area were provided to the geohazard science community in less
than 3 h. In this ad hoc service setup, the Taiwan station (CSRSR) performed
the acquisition and quickly put the data on ESA’s cloud computing assets, for
which a Content Delivery Network storage facility was set up within a day on
the US West coast. The CSTARS station in Miami performed data processing,
putting the results back on ESA’s ‘virtual archive’, from which the National
Research Council (CNR/IREA) in Italy picked up the lower-level product to
create interferograms. These high-level products provided information on
ground deformation (Fig. 25) triggered by the almost daily aftershocks.
A further example of how the use of the internet allowed global
collaboration in an operational manner is the Scatterometer Near-Realtime
mission that followed the failure of the tape recorders on ERS‑2 in summer 2003.
As described elsewhere in this volume, many X-band stations around the world
3 Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard for wireless communication of high-speed data
for mobile phones and data terminals.
36
History of ERS
Figure 25. Monitoring of the Japanese earthquake with ERS‑2 operated in a 3-day repeat cycle using the Small Baseline Subset−
Interferometric SAR (SBAS−InSAR) approach. (ESA, SAR data; CNR/IREA, SBAS–InSAR processing; GSI, GPS RINEX data; ARIA team at JPL
and Caltech, GPS data processing).
have acquired, processed and disseminated Scatterometer NRT data for attitude
control, as well as for science exploitation and operational meteorological
support. The priorities of the mission were to provide full observation coverage
of the North Atlantic, and to ensure that meteorological offices received timely,
high-quality data. The available station network with Gatineau, Maspalomas,
Kiruna, West Freugh and Matera stations, acquired nearly all possible passes,
going beyond their contractual commitments and providing large volumes
of overlapping data. The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI)
used the easy availability of the Scatterometer data via the internet to compile
the products from the station network to form a homogeneous Scatterometer
product. These products were then made available to the science community
and to meteorological offices via the internet in NRT, allowing ERS data to be
considered for assimilation and contributing to improved weather forecasts.
A similar NRT service was set up for the GOME mission by the University of
Bremen, the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (BIRA) and KNMI.
ERS‑1 (ESA) and the world wide web (CERN) were launched in 1991. Since
then the exploitation of mission data has been closely linked to the internet
and the evolution of mass-market IT assets. Today, the science community
is interconnected via the internet, and online storage of large datasets
(petabyte scale) is affordable allowing large-scale data sharing and supporting
interdisciplinary research. One example of this new way of working is the
Group on Earth Observation (GEO) Supersite infrastructure concept illustrated
in Fig. 26. This online infrastructure will contain 20 years of ERS SAR data,
as well as large-scale datasets derived from other space and in situ sources,
37
SP-1326
leading to new and outstanding science. These data, which currently represent
the bulk of data assets in this infrastructure, provide the basis for the Global
Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) for monitoring geohazards.
In 2011, scientists’ requests for hundreds of thousands of SAR images
brought about significant changes in the operations concept since the start of
the ERS mission.
With respect to the future, the availability of cloud computing services at
mass market prices (a few cents per hour for processing), in combination with
the ‘open and free’ data policy of the ERS mission will drastically increase
the demand for ERS data, ensuring the continuation of the mission beyond
its active lifetime. Several areas of research require large-scale SAR data
(hundreds of thousands of images) and processing capabilities, including:
—— the quantification of the impacts of climate change and the efficacy of solutions;
—— studies of global earthquake cycles using the ERS‑1/ERS‑2 and Envisat SAR
data archives;
—— global volcano studies using ERS‑1/ERS‑2 and Envisat SAR data archives; and
—— orbital and atmospheric noise in InSAR data inferred from the global ERS‑1/ERS‑2
and Envisat SAR data archives.
38
History of ERS
often arise as start-ups from the university research and development sector,
and are a constant source of innovation for new techniques and methods
that find their way into commercial applications. Today, this industry has an
estimated annual turnover in revenues of €650 million to €700 million, with
the public sector still forming the largest source of demand (approximately
70% of revenues). The growth in revenues has been constant over the last two
decades at around 8% per year.
There has been no single breakthrough (or ‘killer app’), but continual
improvements in the technical capabilities of these small companies, and
an increasing awareness and acceptance of user communities of the benefits
that EO services can deliver. The ERS has played a significant role in that
development. It has led the way worldwide in the development of services based
on radar, and it is estimated that 60% of all EO information services produced
today are exploiting radar either entirely or in part. Some examples include oil-
spill monitoring (used on an operational basis by the European Maritime Safety
Agency, EMSA), ice mapping (used by national ice mapping agencies in Europe
and Canada), and forest monitoring (where radar is an essential supplement to
optical data for the cloud-covered regions of the tropics).
But perhaps the most striking example is that of precision land motion
monitoring using the technique of SAR interferometry. ERS has pioneered the
development of this sector and led to a small but growing base of specialist
companies in Europe that are continually expanding commercial activity with
clients in both the public sector (e.g. local and national governments) and the
private sector (e.g. oil & gas and civil engineering companies). Free access to
ERS data has also been pivotal in developing the prospects for higher-level EO-
based information services. It is planned to continue this policy with the next-
generation GMES Sentinels, where the heritage and capabilities developed
through ERS will come to full fruition.
39
SP-1326
a very large group via one single interface greatly increased the efficient use
of ESA resources. This setup meant that the production performed for one
single user was fully accessible to several hundred others, thus significantly
reducing costs while improving the service. The availability of time series data
over certain observation areas over 20 years has also encouraged other data
providers to contribute their data and to allow open & free access, but in line
with their individual data policies.
ESA, with its medium-resolution satellites and its open & free data policy,
ensures an optimal outreach of remote sensing fostering further new research,
applications and services that will benefit commercial and dual-use satellite
missions.
—— minimise the satellite reentry time (limit 25 years), in accordance with the
Inter-Agency Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines;
—— free up the ‘busy’ orbits in the low-Earth orbit region (900–700 km); and
—— deactivate the satellite once it reached its disposal orbit.
—— Phase 1: reducing altitude in a circular orbit using only one gyro having an
optimal position for measuring the yaw angle. This gyro had already shown
signs of degradation in the past, so the other gyro, which was still in perfect
shape, was selected in case of problems for Safe Mode operations. This phase
lasted three weeks.
—— Phase 3: exhausting the tanks, minimising the reentry time using a circular orbit
and deactivating the satellite. For this phase a one-day repeat orbit at 570 km
altitude was selected to allow a precise scheduling of the station network using
ESA’s Kiruna and Maspalomas stations, and also the stations at Kourou, Troll
in Antarctica, Hobart and Kumamoto. This phase lasted one week.
40
History of ERS
41
SP-1326
42
History of ERS
—— With ERS, ESA (together with CNES and SPOT) played a major role in the
creation of the International Charter for Major Disaster Management initiated
in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, the most powerful of the 1998 hurricane
season with ~300 km h−1 winds that caused ~20 000 fatalities.
—— ERS, supported by the open and free data policy, made significant
contributions to innovative internet-based exploitation platforms with the
potential to create new business opportunities for commercial companies
and EO data providers, as well as for telecoms and IT industries.
In conclusion, one may say that the ERS programme has been a complete
European success that paved the way for the Envisat, MetOp and Sentinel
missions.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the thousands of engineers, technicians, scientists
from ESA establishments and from European and Canadian industry who
made ERS a reality and an outstanding worldwide success. Particular
acknowledgements are addressed to Jan Burger, the first ERS‑1 Project
Manager from 1984 to 1991 (when he unexpectedly passed away), and his
successor, Reinhold Zobl, who successfully continued his work. The authors
are also grateful to the Announcement of Opportunity Instrument Principal
Investigators and their teams who enabled their instruments to fly on the
ERS platform, namely David Llewellyn Jones and Chris Mutlow for the ATSR,
John Burrows for GOME, Philipp Hartl for PRARE, and René Bernard and his
successor, Laurence Eymard, for the Microwave Radiometer.
Special acknowledgements go to the worldwide user community, whose
members exploited the mission data with outstanding competence and
dedication throughout the exploitation life cycle (research, applications,
operational services), as well as to the ESA Member States, who have
recognised the excellent teamwork and the good return on the investment in
ERS, allowing the long-term continuation of the mission with Envisat and the
Sentinels, and of the Scatterometer and GOME instruments on MetOp.
43
SP-1326
References
GCOS (2003). GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles. World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/
WMO (2010). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010. Global Ozone Research
and Monitoring Project, Report No. 52. World Meteorological Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland. http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/SAP/
ESA (1992). Space at the Service of our Environment. 1st ERS‑1 Symposium, Cannes,
France. ESA SP-359, vols 1 & 2. European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
ESA (1993). Space at the Service of our Environment. 2nd ERS‑1 Symposium,
Hamburg, Germany, vols 1 & 2. ESA SP-361.
ESA (1994). First Workshop on ERS‑1 Pilot Projects, Toledo, Spain. ESA SP-365.
ESA (1995). New Views of the Earth: Scientific Achievements of ERS‑1. ESA SP‑1176/I.
ESA (1996a). New Views of the Earth: Applications Achievements of ERS‑1. ESA
SP‑1176/II.
ESA (1996b). Second ERS Applications Workshop, London, UK. ESA SP-383.
ESA (1997a). Third ERS Scientific Symposium, Florence, Italy. ESA SP-414.
ESA (1997b). New Views of the Earth: Engineering Achievements of ERS‑1. ESA
SP 1176/III.
ESA (1998). Further Achievements of the ERS Missions. ESA SP‑1228.
ESA (2000). ERS–Envisat Symposium, Göteborg, Sweden. ESA SP-461.
ESA (2004). Envisat and ERS Symposium, Salzburg, Austria. ESA SP-572.
ESA (2007). Envisat Symposium, Montreux, Switzerland. ESA SP-636.
ESA (2010). ESA Living Planet Symposium, Bergen, Norway. ESA SP-686.
44
→→ The ATSR Instruments →
and What They Have Led To
ATSR
D.T. Llewellyn-Jones
1. Introduction
The Along-Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) instrument was carried on
the ERS‑1 satellite with the principal objective of providing global Sea-
Surface Temperature (SST) measurements at the levels of accuracy, coverage,
continuity and quality required by the climate research community. ATSR
was an Announcement of Opportunity instrument, nationally funded by the
UK, with additional contributions from Australia and France. It was followed
by its two successor instruments, ATSR‑2 and AATSR, flown on the ERS-2 and
Envisat satellites, respectively. The three ATSR instruments provided a near-
continuous dataset of global SSTs at the level of accuracy needed by the climate
research community, as well as high-quality data on land surfaces and, in the
atmosphere, on aerosols and clouds.
As an example of the completeness and the quality of the SST dataset from
the ATSR sensors, Fig. 1 shows a Global SST Field, averaged for the month of
January, from a new SST climatology derived exclusively from this 20-year
dataset. It can be seen that there are still some areas of the global oceans
where the quantity or quality of data were insufficient to enable a physically
meaningful climatological average SST value to be derived. Nevertheless, all
the main oceanographic features and currents can be seen with great clarity.
Work is continuing to refine and complete this climatology (Corlett, 2011,
private communication).
47
SP-1326
48
ATSR
sketches of the proposed satellite included the proposal. Figure 3 shows the
launch of ERS-1, with a close-up of the fairing and of the sticker that the ERS-1
project team had designed for the occasion.
Soon plans were afoot for the successor instruments, ATSR‑2 and AATSR.
ATSR‑2, which was similar to ATSR‑1 but with the addition of visible and near-
infrared channels (Read et al., 1991), was launched on the ERS-2 satellite in
1995, while AATSR (Llewellyn-Jones et al., 2001), with a higher data rate for
more detailed data over land, was launched on Envisat in 2002.
49
SP-1326
the volcanic ash was known to be distributed during the months immediately
following the eruption.
This result immediately suggested that the difference between the dual-
view and nadir-only view SST values might be used as a proxy for the level
of atmospheric contamination. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that contamination,
presumed to be from Mount Pinatubo’s aerosols, encircled the equator, as
was already well known from other observations at the time. Figure 4 also
shows, slightly to the north of the Atlantic tropics, what is possibly aerosol
contamination due to a Saharan dust outburst, which is a regular occurrence.
Although it took several years to achieve the levels of accuracy required by
the climate research community, it was immediately clear from the Mt Pinatubo
aerosol contamination that ATSR’s unique dual-angle viewing geometry had the
potential to make consistent corrections for the effects of atmospheric aerosols.
50
ATSR
51
SP-1326
retrieved SSTs, monthly global averages of observed SST have been computed for
the duration of the three missions. A sample of the results is shown in Fig. 6.
It should be emphasised that this is a preliminary calculation and, in Fig. 6,
only the 3-channel dual-view data, which provided the most accurate SST values,
are shown. Certain aspects of the data processing, such as the identification and
screening of clouds in the field of view, are known to be less than optimal. For
such reasons, data from ATSR‑1 have not been included in Fig. 6, mainly but not
exclusively because that instrument lost the use of its powerful 3.7 µm thermal
infrared channel at an early stage in the mission (in May 1992) with the result
that, for the bulk of the ATSR‑1 mission, the most accurate SST retrievals could
not be implemented, nor could the most efficient night-time cloud-identification
scheme be used. Thus, continuous 3-channel dual-view data were not available
until the launch of ATSR‑2 on ERS-2 in April 1995.
The time series in Fig. 6, although it extends only from 1996 to mid-2011
shows strong variability. A detailed interpretation of these variations is beyond
the scope of this chapter, but the effects of the substantial El Niño effect in
1997, as well as the strong reverse effect (La Niña) in 2008, are very pronounced
and are perhaps the dominant features of this 15-year time series. Phenomena
such as these underline the importance of obtaining long time series of global
data in order to observe global changes without ambiguity. However, when all
the known attributes of the data are taken into account, the SST values shown
in Fig. 6 can be considered to have an uncertainty of approximately ±0.1K.
It was mentioned above that certain aspects of the current SST data
processing system are now known to be less than optimal. Many of these
aspects have recently been further analysed and more fully taken into account
in the course of a particularly important project, the ATSR Reprocessing
for Climate (ARC). This project is led by C. Merchant of the University of
Edinburgh and implemented by a consortium that includes the University of
Edinburgh, the University of Leicester, the UK Met Office and the University of
Southampton. As a result of this project, globally averaged SST data have been
recalculated between 1993 and the present. There are important similarities
and differences between the ATSR records and the Met Office Hadley Centre’s
own in-situ-based analysis, HadSST3, a discussion of which is beyond the
scope of this chapter. However, it is clear that the ATSR data have earned their
place as a key component of this climate record. It is worth noting that in the
course of the ARC project it has been established that, in the tropics at least,
the ATSR SST record exhibits the stability of 0.03°C per decade (Merchant et al.,
2012), which is well within the requirements previously set out by the climate
research community. Such levels of accuracy and stability clearly demonstrate
that the ATSR sensors certainly met their first objective.
52
ATSR
53
SP-1326
Figure 8. Left: Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) inferred from ATSR data using the two-angle view together with a bidirectional reflectance
model. Right: Inferred land surface reflectance, obtained by using the AOD to correct the measured top-of-atmosphere brightness.
54
ATSR
Figure 9. Left: Gas flare monitoring from space using the ATSR instrument (Casadio et al., 2011; Arino et al., 2011). Right: Global time series
of the number of hotspots observed each year, 1996–2010.
55
SP-1326
56
ATSR
not been an available analysis field that includes ATSR data, for a variety of
reasons principally to do with the method of delivery. The situation has changed
recently on account of an ESA initiative to support the WMO’s Global Ocean Data
Assimilation Experiment (GODAE), which set out a requirement that operational
users of ocean data should be able to receive global data in an agreed format and
on an appropriate timescale (typically within a day of acquisition) and, most
important, with appropriate error and quality information for each data point
provided. This requirement was clearly not within the scope of the standard
Envisat ground segment and ESA, as a result, set up the ‘Medspiration’ project as
part of their Data User Element (DUE) programme. At the same time, the GODAE
High Resolution SST (GHRSST) project, since renamed the Group for High-
Resolution SST was formed, with crucial ESA support. GHRSST coordinated the
work of other SST data providers, including NASA, to ensure that data from other
satellite sensors was available to operational users on the same basis as data
from AATSR was provided through Medspiration.
The availability of global SST data on a daily basis, tailored to the needs
of operational users, presented a great opportunity for meteorological agencies
to access a wealth of excellent SST data from space and other sources. As an
example, the UK Met Office established a daily analysis scheme called the
Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis (OSTIA),1 from
which the maps in Figs 12 and 13 were obtained. The OSTIA scheme, which
uses optimal interpolation of data from seven satellite sources as well as in situ
data, provides daily SST analyses field together with information regarding the
accuracy and consistency of the various datasets involved.
As an example, Fig. 12 shows a global SST analysis field from the OSTIA
scheme. The spatial resolution of the final product is obviously less than that of
the 1 km resolution satellite data from which it was compiled, because the daily
and weekly data will always contain gaps because of coverage and cloudiness
limitations, over which the analysis scheme has used interpolation techniques.
Figure 12. A global SST analysis field plotted for the week ending 24 September 2011. In this plot, data were obtained by six satellites plus
in situ sources. The satellite sensors include three IR sensors, two microwave sensors and one geostationary IR sensor. (UK Met Office;
Crown Copyright 2011)
57
SP-1326
The information content of these SST fields is greatly enhanced when they
are plotted as anomaly fields. In Fig. 13, the corresponding National Centers for
Environmental Prediction (NCEP) climatology field has been subtracted from
the basic OSTIA SST field to provide the anomaly plot shown. It is interesting
to note the very high anomalies that existed in the Arctic regions at that time.
The OSTIA fields are of great potential interest to users of ATSR data because
they are spatially and temporally complete, combining the advantages of
coverage that the multiple sensors provide with the exceptional accuracy of the
AATSR. In fact, AATSR SST values are used in the OSTIA analysis scheme along
with the in situ data to derive bias corrections for the other satellite sensors.
There can be no doubt that the incorporation of AATSR data into an important
meteorological SST analysis scheme, on an operational basis, is one of the most
significant developments in the application of ATSR‑type data, because it has
overcome the shortcomings of coverage, which are important for mesoscale
process studies. It also allows for an objective comparative assessment of
AATSR’s very high data quality, as well as crossing the most challenging bridge
in the transition from scientific to operational observing systems.
58
ATSR
In the Science Museum, the AATSR has been seen by thousands of visitors
of all ages. AATSR is seen in the context of its continued contribution to the
observations and measurements of climate properties, as illustrated in Fig. 15.
59
SP-1326
the instruments. Not only were all these elements needed for a successful
progression, but there must be natural and productive communication
channels between parties. In addition, it must also be admitted that this
success was also made possible by the massive advances in data handling and
processing technologies during the ATSR missions and which were foreseen by
the proposers but not yet available to them.
Acknowledgements
The substantial contributions of several organisations and, perhaps more
crucially, of many individuals, were essential to the success of the ATSR
series. Although it is not practical to mention them all here, a few that must be
mentioned include:
60
ATSR
It is too difficult to list all the individuals who made crucial contributions,
but it would, I believe, be appropriate to mention the contributions of Sir John
Houghton. As a distinguished academic scientist, having done pioneering
work in the development and use of atmospheric sounders in space, he later
became Director-General of the UK Met Office. Most important for ESA, he
was a particularly proactive chairman of the Earth Observation Advisory
Committee (EOAC, now ESAC), and was the founding chairman of the IPCC
Working Group 1. Together with the EOAC and ESA staff, he worked tirelessly
and effectively to define and present the ERS‑1 mission in such a way that it
was not only the optimum flagship for ESA’s applications programme, but also
of immense scientific value. Without this work, it is unlikely that the ERS‑1
mission would ever have met the diverse aspirations of ESA’s Member States
and won their full acceptance and enthusiastic support.
References
Arino, O., Casadio, S. & Serpe, D. (2011) Global night-time fire season timing and
fire count trends using the ATSR instrument series. Rem. Sens. Environ. 113,
408–420. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.05.025
Bevan, S.L., North, P.R.J., Los, S.O. & Grey, W.M.F. et al. (2011). A global dataset of
atmospheric aerosol optical depth and surface reflectance from AATSR. Rem.
Sens. Environ. 116, 119–21078. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.05.024
Casadio, S. Arino, O. & Serpe, D. (2011) Gas flaring monitoring from space using
the ATSR instrument series. Rem. Sens. Environ. 116, 239–249. doi:10.1016/j.
rse.2010.11.022
Corlett, G.K. (2011). Private communication.
Dundas, R.M. (1997): The use of ATSR data to measure the radiative properties of
aerosol particles, PhD Thesis, University of Leicester, UK.
Edwards, T., Browning, R., Delderfield, J., Lee, D.J., Lidiard, K.A., Millborrow, R.S.,
McPherson, P.H., Peskett, S.C., Toplis, G.M., Taylor, H.S., Mason, I.M., Mason,
G., Smith, A. & Stringer, S. (1990). The Along Track Scanning Radiometer:
Measurement of sea surface temperature from ERS‑1. J. Br. Interplanet. Soc. 43,
160–180.
Ghent, D., Kaduk, J., Ardo, J., Remedios, J. & Balzter, H. (2010). Assimilation of land-
surface temperature into the land surface model JULES with an Ensemble Kalman
Filter. J. Geophys. Res. – Atmospheres 115, D19112. doi: 10.1029/2010JD014392
Ghent, D., Kaduk, J., Remedios, J. & Balzter, H. (2011). Data assimilation into land
surface models: the implications for climate feedbacks. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 32(3):
617–632.
Llewellyn-Jones, D.T., Edwards, M.C., Mutlow, C.T., Birks, A.R., Barton, I.J. & Tait,
H. (2001). AATSR: Global-change and surface-temperature measurements from
Envisat. ESA Bull. 105, 10–21.
Llewellyn-Jones, D.T. & Remedios, J.R. (2012). The Advanced Along Track Scanning
Radiometer (AATSR) and its predecessors ATSR‑1 and ATSR‑2. Introduction to the
special issue on AATSR. Rem. Sens. Environ. 116. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2011.06.002
Merchant, C.J., Embury, O., Rayner, N.A., Berry, D.I., Corlett, G.K., Lean, K., Veal,
K.L., Ken, E.C., Llewellyn-Jones, D.T, Remedios, J.J. & Saunders, R. (2012). A 20
year independent record of sea surface temperature for climate from Along-Track
Scanning Radiometers. J. Geophys. Res. 117, C12013. doi: 10.1029/2012JC008400
Read, P.D., Hardie, A.L., Magraw, J.E., Taylor, H.S. & Jelley, J.V. (1991). A Calibration
system, using an opal diffuser, for the visual channels of the Along-Track
Scanning Radiometer, ATSR‑2. Proc. 10th IOP Symp., IOP Conf. Ser. 121, 207–213.
Veal, K. et al. (2013). A time series of mean global skin SST anomaly using data from
ATSR-2 and AATSR. Rem. Sens. Environ. RSE-D-12-00191R2
61
→→ ERS and Atmospheric
Composition Measurements: →
GOME and the SCIAMACHY
Project
GOME and SCIAMACHY
J.P. Burrows
1. Introduction
This chapter describes the evolution and development of the SCIAMACHY
project, and its spin-off, the GOME instrument, which was part of the
core payload on ERS‑2. GOME measured successfully from 1995 to the
decommissioning of ERS‑2 in July 2011. Figure 1 shows the GOME instrument
during testing at the Officine Galileo in Florence, Italy, and a schematic
diagram of GOME’s optical components. The ERS‑2 satellite was tested at
ESA’s European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in Noordwijk,
the Netherlands, prior to being shipped for launch from Europe’s Space Port in
Kourou, French Guiana, in 1994.
The material in this chapter was presented at the symposium to celebrate
20 years of ERS in September 2011, and is structured as follows. Sections 2 to
4 describe briefly the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere, the physical structure
and chemical processes that determine its composition and the impact of
man on the Earth system. Section 5 describes key aspects of the history of
remote sensing from space. In section 6 the development of European remote
sensing and the need for global measurements of atmospheric composition,
the evolution of remote sensing prior to the ERS programme and the European
component. With increasing globalisation and urbanisation, coupled with an
increasing population, the need for this information is greater now than it was
30 years ago.
Sections 7−10 discuss some of the highlights of the development of
SCIAMACHY and its spinoff, GOME, the Phases C and D, the GOME instrument
and the contributions of some of the scientists, engineers and administrators
involved in this remarkable achievement of creating a unique atmospheric
composition observing capability. The excellent performance of GOME on
ERS-2 in orbit is documented in section 11. The development of the retrieval
Figure 1. Left: The GOME instrument during testing at Officine Galileo, Florence, Italy, showing the scan mirror and four spectral channels.
Right: Schematic diagram of the optical layout of GOME. (Officine Galileo)
65
SP-1326
66
GOME and SCIAMACHY
all aspects of the Earth system, with pollution at all scales from local to global.
Within a geologically very short period of 200 years, the human population
grew from 1 to 7 billion in 2011. To put this growth into context, it took until
about 1925 for the global population to reach 2 billion, but only 20 years, since
the launch of ERS‑1 in 1991, to add another 2 billion.
67
SP-1326
68
GOME and SCIAMACHY
the weather in the troposphere, and thus the aviation industry. In the past
40 years it has been established that humans have influenced the amount and
distribution of stratospheric O3 in a number of ways.
Following the discovery of what turned out to be O3 around electrical
discharges by van Muren in the 18th century and its identification and naming
by Schönbein in 1839, significant progress was made during the late 19th and
early 20th centuries with the identification O3 in the atmosphere. In 1879, Cornu
observed a sharp cutoff around 300 nm in the UV solar spectrum. Subsequently,
Hartley measured the O3 absorption cross section in the laboratory and recognised
that the atmospheric UV cutoff is produced by the presence of ozone. The existence
of a temperature inversion layer in the stratosphere was discovered independently
by French meteorologist Teisserenc de Bort and German meteorologist Assmann
in 1902. Huggins reported several absorption bands in the observed spectrum of
the star Sirius between 320 nm and 360 nm in 1890. In 1913 Strutt (Lord Rayleigh)
showed that the UV absorption does not happen in the lower atmosphere. In
1917, the bands identified by Huggins were attributed to the presence of ozone in
the atmosphere by A. Fowler and R.J. Strutt. In 1920 at Marseilles, France, Fabry
and Buisson used UV absorption properties to deduce that the thickness of
atmospheric O3 was of the order of 3 mm STP, later to become 300 Dobson units.
Our understanding of the global nature of atmosphere began with
measurements of O3 in the stratosphere by Dobson and his contemporaries
in the 1920s. This led to our understanding of the dynamics of the upper
atmosphere, dominated by Brewer–Dobson circulation. Similarly, the
production and loss of O3 was a matter of much debate. In 1929 Chapman
explained the maximum of O3 by the competition production and loss of O3.
The production of O3 in the upper atmosphere proceeds by the photolysis of O2
and the molecular reaction of oxygen atoms with O2,
This is followed by the loss of O3 via photolysis and the proposed ‘odd-oxygen’
reaction between O and O3:
Over the next 50 years the evolution of reaction kinetics enabled exact
measurements of the elementary reaction rate coefficients. The rate of reaction
(4) was found to be too slow to explain the loss of O3 in the upper atmosphere.
Following the observation of emissions of excited OH by Meinel (1950), which is
explained by the reaction of hydrogen atoms, H, with O3, Bates & Nicolet (1950)
recognised that reactions of HOx might catalytically destroy O3. This introduces
the generic odd oxygen loss mechanism, which is shown below:
X + O3 " XO + O2 (5)
XO + O " X + O2 (6)
_____________________
Net: O + O3 " O2 + O2
69
SP-1326
H + O3 " OH + O2 (7)
OH + O " H + O2 (8)
_______________________
Net: O + O3 " O2 + O2
It was subsequently shown that NO, chlorine atoms, Cl, bromine atoms, Br,
or even iodine atoms, I, are effective catalysts for this ‘odd-oxygen’ catalytic
cycle 1L. The HOx (= ΣH +OH + HO2 ) cycle largely determines the loss of O3
in the mesosphere and to a lesser extent in the stratosphere. In the late 1960s,
both Harold Johnston and Paul Crutzen recognised the potential importance of
emissions of oxides of nitrogen from high-flying supersonic aircraft proposed
at the time (Johnston, 1971, 1974; Crutzen, 1970, 1973).
Crutzen further proposed a global odd-oxygen catalytic cycle involving
oxides of nitrogen (X = NO) destroying O3. There are two sources of NO in the
stratosphere: the first being transport down from the upper atmosphere, where
it is produced by the interaction of short-wavelength solar radiation with the
bulk atmospheric constituents. The second is the reaction of N2O: photolysis
and reaction of excited oxygen atoms, O(1D), produced in the photolysis of O3
reaction (3):
N2 + O2 D NO + NO (12)
The potential for a chlorine catalytic chain reaction in removing O3 was recognised
by Stolarski & Cicerone (1974), who studied the impact of Space Shuttle exhaust
on the upper atmosphere. However, Molina & Rowland (1974) proposed that the
70
GOME and SCIAMACHY
NO2 reacts slowly with O3 to form NO3, which in daylight is photolysed in the
visible:
Lovelock & Maggs (1972) had discovered that CFCs, in particular CFC-11,
CF3Cl, were present in the troposphere in amounts similar to those produced
industrially. Stolarksi & Cicerone (1974) recognised that chlorine could
71
SP-1326
Outside the vortex these atoms account for approximately 30% of the O3 removal.
These mechanisms currently remove about 6% of the total O3 at mid-latitudes
in the upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere. It is interesting to note that the
BrOx cycle has a chain length about a factor of 10 or more longer than that for
the ClOx cycle. As the industrial use of the cheaper CFCs was much greater than
the halons and methyl bromides, this results several parts per billion of Cl but
only 10–20 parts per trillion by volume of Br compounds. This turns out to be
fortunate, because if as much bromine had been released to the stratosphere by
anthropogenic activities as chlorine, then the O3 stratospheric layer would then
have been reduced globally by a factor of 10 or more. This would have had far
more dramatic consequences for the atmosphere and Earth’s surface, as well as
much larger doses of UV-B to the biosphere and humans.
At night, the equilibrium reaction (27), which is strongly temperature
dependent in the polar vortex, results in the formation of acid anhydride of
nitric acid, dinitrogen pentoxide, N2O5:
During the growth of PSCs, complex heterogeneous reactions take place on and
in liquid and ice surfaces. These involve the temporary reservoir compounds
for the nitrogen and halogens such as N2O5 hydrogen chloride, HCl, chlorine
nitrate, ClONO2 and hypochlorous acid, HOCl. The actual mechanisms involve
the accommodation of species at the particular surface, diffusion across the
interface, diffusion through the liquid or solid PSCs, and then reactions within
the PSCs and the subsequent diffusion of products to the surface, diffusion
across the surface and release back to the atmosphere. For simplicity, these
72
GOME and SCIAMACHY
The aerosol and PSC surfaces provide opportunities for chemical reactions,
bringing together chemical species for sufficient time that chemical reactions
take place, which do not occur rapidly enough during a gas phase collision. The
result, at the end of winter, is that the polar vortex in the southern hemisphere
is populated by PSCs and photolabile halogen compounds – molecular
chlorine, Cl2, bromine chloride, BrCl, and to a lesser extent molecular bromine,
Br2, and chlorine nitrite, ClONO – which are then photolysed at sunrise in the
polar vortex:
The reaction (43) between ClO and BrO has several channels:
73
SP-1326
The OClO, which is itself rapidly photolysed, can be used to detect the
activation of halogens in the vortex:
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the production and catalytic destruction of stratospheric and mesospheric O3, showing the gas phase odd-
oxygen catalytic destruction cycles and the perturbed chemistry involving heterogeneous and multiphase reactions on polar stratospheric
clouds, the release of photolabile halogen compounds, their photolysis and the catalytic destruction of O3 cycles in the gas phase in the
absence of NOx. (J.P. Burrows and S. Noel, University of Bremen)
74
GOME and SCIAMACHY
In the stratosphere the reactions between the different free radicals produce
temporary reservoirs by gas phase in addition to the multiphase reactions (28)
to (36):
The HONO and ClONO are both rapidly photolysed during the day in both the
stratosphere and troposphere:
75
SP-1326
76
GOME and SCIAMACHY
respiratory disease, and led the UK parliament to introduce the world’s first
clean air act in 1956.
Since then, governments around the world have introduced legislation
to control local emissions, while international institutions have supported
environmental agreements to attempt to manage the problem at the global scale.
In 1977, UNEP concluded a World Plan of Action on the Ozone Layer, which called
for international research and monitoring, and in 1981 drafted a global convention
to protect stratospheric ozone. As mentioned above, the Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer, concluded in 1985, is a framework agreement in
which states agreed to cooperate in relevant research and scientific assessments of
the ozone problem, to exchange information, and to adopt ‘appropriate measures’
to prevent activities that harm the ozone layer. The obligations were general and
contain no specific limits on chemicals that deplete the ozone layer. However, the
latter changed with the Montreal Protocol, as described above.
Since 1979 the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(LRTAP), administered by the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE),
has addressed some of the major environmental problems of the UNECE region
through scientific collaboration and policy negotiations. The Convention has
been extended by eight protocols that identify specific measures that states
need to take to cut their emissions of air pollutants. The LRTAP Convention
and its protocols, and the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol and
amendments (see below), have had some success, but the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol have been
far less effective and are not reducing emissions of greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere from anthropogenic activity.
The LRTAP Convention addresses acidic deposition that is the result of
emissions of SO2 and NO2. During the day, SO2 is oxidised by OH radicals in the
gas phase:
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which has a low vapour pressure and is hygroscopic,
immediately forms aerosol condensation nuclei and aerosol particles result.
In addition, the SO2 is oxidised in the aerosol and cloud particles by a
complex reaction involving hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, formed in the gas phase
in the disproportionation of the free radical hydroperoxyl, HO2:
Nitric acid, HNO3, is formed primarily during the day by reaction (48) and at
night by reaction (28). It absorbs more strongly in the UV-B and UB-C regions,
and is only slowly photolysed in the troposphere compared to HONO. In the
troposphere, HNO3, which is soluble, dissolves in aerosol and cloud particles
and often reacts with NH3, which is also very soluble. The NH3 is released from
soils by the oxidation of NH4+ and the reduction of NO3–.
In the 1940s, residents of Los Angeles experienced a different type of smog
during summer (Haagen Smit, 1952; Haagen Smit et al., 1952). Again this was
associated with reduced visibility, but in this case O3 and a variety of organic
compounds, in particular peroxyacetyl nitrate, CH3CO.O2.NO2, were found to
be present in large amounts, as well as aerosols. It turns out that the processes
that produce this type of local smog also occur at the global scale.
Pollutants released from Earth’s surface are characterised as short or long
lived, according to their lifetimes in the troposphere. Air in the troposphere and
77
SP-1326
78
GOME and SCIAMACHY
The oxidation of VOCs also produces not only aldehydes but also ketones such
as acetone, CH3.CHO, which is oxidised to form acetyl peroxy radicals, which
in turn produce peroxyacetyl nitrate and the characteristic components of
summer smog, along with acidic aerosols:
Chlorine atoms react rapidly with aliphatic VOCs, including CH4, to produce
HCl. Br and I, in contrast, do not react with aliphatic hydrocarbons. The
bimolecular disproportionation reaction of ClO is lower than that of BrO dimer
ClOOCl. As a result the chain length of the Cl catalytic removal of O3 is short
compared with that of bromine via a loss cycle similar or equivalent to that of
bromine atoms in cycle 3c-L above.
The Br atoms catalytically destroy O3, via the cycle 2c-L and the mixed
chain reaction 2e-L:
79
SP-1326
However, on the surface of sea salt aerosols and very efficiently on cold brine
under what is called potential frost flower conditions at high latitudes, this
reaction becomes the multiphase chain reactions 3a-L and 3b-L (Kaleschke et
al., 2004). 3a-L is autocatalytic in Br, provided there is a sufficient source of OH.
This chain reactions 3a-L and 3b-L are accelerated at low temperatures, as
the equilibriums (36) and (33) have relatively large enthalpies of reaction
and are acid catalysed. Cations are lost by precipitation from the brine at low
temperatures, forming ikaite, CaCO3·6H2O, calcite (CaCO3) and other minerals.
This results in quasi-liquid layers of brine-covered frost flowers, surface
snow or aerosols that are readily acidified. These multiphase chain reactions
are thus accelerated in at least two ways at low temperature. As a result, sea
salt aerosols at mid-latitudes release Br but at much slower rates than in the
potential frost flower conditions at cold high latitudes.
Chlorine atoms participate in a similar cycle, but the chain length is not as
effective as that of bromine atom, Br, because the rate of reaction Cl with CH4
is much less than that of Br + CH4. Nevertheless, the release of Cl2 produces Cl,
thereby removing some O3 and CH4. This results in the formation of the methyl
peroxy CH3O2 and the hydoxyperoxyl radical HO2 at least in the troposphere.
The iodine oxide, IO, disproportionation reaction has several channels and
produces not only iodine atoms but also OIO and the dimer I2O2. The oxides
of iodine then produce higher oxides, which lead to the production of the acid
anhydrides I2O4 and I2O5, which are hygroscopic and result in new particle
formation:
80
GOME and SCIAMACHY
These pathways are currently the subject of much research investigating the
importance of this natural source of aerosol condensation nuclei. The roles
of glyoxal, CHO.CHO, and methyl glyoxal, CH3CO.CHO, which are formed in
the oxidation of biogenic and aromatic VOCs and related compounds, in the
formation of secondary organic aerosols is also of much interest. Current
studies focus on understanding better their emission to the troposphere,
their natural biogeochemical cycling, the transport and transformation of the
emitted species and the anthropogenic modification of these processes.
The global measurements by GOME and subsequent instruments
(SCIAMACHY and GOME-2) have greatly improved our understanding of global
air pollution and its transport and transformation. Important new areas of
application include numerical predictions of the environment, and the impact
of and feedback between climate change, which changes the temperature fields
and momentum fluxes in the atmosphere, and atmospheric chemistry and
dynamics and/or the hydrological cycle. The global measurements of water
vapour, aerosols and cloud parameters are significant here. Figure 5 shows a
schematic representation of these processes.
NOx species, the sum of NO and NO2 are very important in tropospheric
chemistry. Through the do-nothing cycle mentioned above, NO and NO2 are
often coupled together during the day through the Leighton photostationary
state defined by reactions (2), (13) and (15), where
[NO2]/[NO] = k13[O3]/J15
At lower NOx, the rate of reaction of NO with peroxy radicals and halogen
oxides becomes significant and the ratio of NO to NO2 becomes more complex.
Figure 5. Schematic representation of chemical and physical processes as well as some biogeochemical interactions in the troposphere that
control ozone and aerosols amounts. (J.P. Burrows and S. Noel, University of Bremen)
81
SP-1326
It turns out that even HO2 has a pressure-dependent pathway in its reaction
with NO. This forms HNO3. As the organic peroxy radicals become larger, the
equivalent pathway, which produces organic nitrates, competes ever more
effectively with the channel producing NO2. Thus the rate of production of O3
is dependent on the rate of the reaction of HO2 and the smaller organic peroxy
radicals with NO for the branch producing NO2. HNO3 and the organic nitrates
in the troposphere are often hygroscopic and enter the liquid phase. Nitrites,
which can be carcinogens, sometimes result (for details of tropospheric
chemistry, see Finlayson-Pitts & Pitts, 1986).
Also depicted in Fig. 5 are the surface sources and fluxes. The interaction
of pollutants with the surface and the impact on and modification of the
natural biogeochemical cycling has become a focus of scientific studies. In
addition to the chemically short-lived atmospheric constituents, a variety of
long-lived gases are released by natural phenomena anthropogenic activity.
Species such as the CFCs, their hydrogenated shorter-lived substitutes, the
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), polyfluorinated compounds (PFCs) and
halons, have been created by industry for applications such as refrigeration,
fire extinguishers, electrical circuit board cleaners, etc., and were not present
in the pre-industrial atmosphere. They are also greenhouses gases but they
are infamous as they are transported to the stratosphere, releasing halogens,
in particular Cl and Br, which then catalytically deplete stratospheric O3. In
addition, as a result of fossil fuel combustion and land use change, copious
amounts of CO2, CH4 and N2O are being released to the atmosphere.
The changes in temperature and precipitation patterns result in feedback
with chemical processing and dynamics. Understanding the Earth system and
its atmosphere has been a scientific endeavour since the birth of the modern
scientific method during the Renaissance. Many famous scientists, including
Boyle and Hooke, conducted key experiments of relevance to the atmosphere
and the Earth system. Apparently, Einstein considered that his determination
of Avogadro’s number was likely to be more important than his papers on the
photoelectron effect or special relativity, which were published in the same year.
Climate change driven by anthropogenic activity is also not as novel as
it sometimes appears. Fourier had already noted in 1824 that Earth’s surface
is warmed by the presence of an atmosphere, and in the late 19th century
John Tyndall, following studies of the interaction of radiation with material,
demonstrated that individual gases had different warming effects. In 1896,
Svante Arrhenius calculated that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 would lead
to a surface warming of approximately 4°C. But it is only in the last four
decades that the significance and importance of global pollution and climate
change, driven by anthropogenic activity, has been recognised. This is now
underpinned by objective scientific evidence provided by observations of
changing atmospheric composition and more recently of the diminishing
extent of sea ice and rising sea surface temperatures.
The rate of development of understanding of the atmosphere and its
interactions with Earth’s surface, described briefly in this chapter, has
followed the exponential growth in the demand for energy since the industrial
revolution. In the search for knowledge, scientific curiosity endeavours to
understand the workings of the Earth system and its past behaviour and
to predict its future behaviour. It is recognised that achieving sustainable
development will require global management strategies. There are currently
three relevant international agreements: the UNECE Convention on Long-
Range Transboundary Air Pollution, the UN Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, and the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol.
Since the dawn of the space age, Earth observation has evolved as the science
that meets the need for the global observations of the key parameters describing
Earth’s atmosphere and surface. In order to understand the atmosphere and its
changing behaviour, global measurements of key constituents (gases, clouds
82
GOME and SCIAMACHY
and aerosols) are required to test our understanding. The development of space-
based measurements of atmospheric composition and surface parameters has
been one of the greatest societal, scientific and engineering feats of the past half
century. The following sections document some of the roles played by the ERS
satellites in this process.
83
SP-1326
84
GOME and SCIAMACHY
5.1.1 Microwave
5.1.2 Far-infrared
The spectral region 7−200 cm−1 has been used to study molecular species
in the stratosphere and mesosphere. In the far-infrared region, vibrations
having weak force constants and rotations of light molecules are active. For
these stratospheric measurements, Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTS)
with relatively high spectral resolution have been used. Two balloon-borne
instruments have been flown a number of times (e.g. Carli et al., 1984; Chance
et al., 1989). More recently, an FTS instrument has been developed for flight on
a high-flying Safire aircraft (Table 1).
With the exception of H2O and O3, trace gas measurements made prior to
ERS-2 launch have exploited these long wavelength ranges exclusively for
stratospheric measurements.
85
SP-1326
Table 1. Some of the atmospheric remote sensing instruments flown prior to or during the development of the SCIAMACHY project , i.e. in or
before the early 1990s, and, the height range of measurements, target species and the satellite platform.
86
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Starting with the Selective Chopper Radiometer (SCR) on Nimbus‑4 and -5,
the Department of Physics at the University of Oxford developed a series of
instruments to observe infrared emission from the atmosphere. A pressure-
modulated instrument was flown on Nimbus‑6 and the Stratospheric and
Mesospheric Sounder (SAMS) on Nimbus‑7 (Table 1). SAMS measured in limb-
viewing geometry the gases CO2, H2O, CO, N2O, CH4 and NO in the stratosphere
and mesosphere. An improved version SAMS was flown on the UARS and
added channels for NO2, N2O5, HNO3, O3, and H2O (e.g. Barnett et al., 1992)
(Table 1).
Fourier transform spectrometers had already been used to sound the
stratosphere and upper troposphere in the 1980s. One of the most important
successes was the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS)
project (Farmer et al., 1987; Gunson et al., 1996). The ATMOS instrument was
flown on Spacelab 3 and the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and
Science (ATLAS) on Space Shuttle missions (Table 1). ATMOS performed solar
occultation measurements and retrieved a variety of trace gases in the upper
troposphere and stratosphere.
From its launch in 1991 until 2005, the UARS circled Earth in a low-
Earth non-Sun-synchronous orbit and carried three infrared experiments.
In addition to ISAMS (described above), the Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon
Spectrometer (CLAES) and the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) made
infrared measurements designed to yield information about stratospheric
and tropospheric trace gas constituents. Some of the measurements were
of shorter duration. The CLAES used a high-resolution etalon to measure the
limb emission in the infrared (Roche et al., 1982; Roche & Kumer, 1989). The
target gases and parameters were N2O, NO, NO2, HNO3, CF2Cl2, CFCl3, HCl, O3,
ClONO2, CO2, H2O, CH4 and temperature (UARS, 1987). HALOE used broadband
filter radiometry to measure CO2, H2O, O3 and NO2 and gas filter correlation
radiometry to measure HF, HCl, CH4 and NO (Baker et al., 1986) (Table 1).
All four stratospheric remote sensing missions (MLS, ISAMS, CLAES and
HALOE) on the UARS achieved their goals. The HALOE and MLS were still
measuring after eight years and produced a unique record of the stratosphere.
The UARS eventually ceased operation in 2005 after 14 successful years.
The Japanese National Space Development Agency (NASDA) launched its
Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS) in 1996. The payload included an
Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer (ILAS), an Interferometric Monitor
for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) and a Total Ozone Monitoring Spectrometer
(TOMS) for atmospheric sensing. IMG and ILAS are nadir and limb sounding
infrared instruments (Table 1). ADEOS I was launched in August 1996 but
failed in June 1997. ADEOS II with ILAS‑II was launched in December 2002 but
communication was lost in October 2003.
Prior to the development of the atmospheric sensors on Envisat and ERS‑2,
the only experiment that specifically used infrared information to probe the
troposphere was the Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites (MAPS)
experiment. This was a nadir sounding gas correlation, which made global
measurements of CO in the middle and upper troposphere. It flew three times
between 1981 and 1994 on the NASA Space Shuttle (Reichle et al., 1986; 1990;
Connors et al., 1991).
87
SP-1326
wavelengths. Below 300 nm the solar emission deviates from simple blackbody
behaviour and the solar output is determined to a significant extent by
processes occurring at the edge of the Sun and correlate with solar activity.
In 1957 it was proposed that satellite measurements of backscattered
ultraviolet (BUV) radiation from the terrestrial atmosphere could be used to
deduce ozone profiles on a global basis (Singer Wentworth, 1957). The method
relies on two effects, i.e. the scattering of light at short wavelengths and the
absorption of ozone. Rayleigh scattering of light by air molecules has a strong
dependence on wavelength, whereby the intensity of scattered light is a
function of the inverse of the fourth power of the wavelength. Similarly, ozone
absorption is strongly wavelength-dependent. These effects combine and as a
result the penetration depth of light in the atmosphere varies strongly between
the ozone maximum absorption in the Hartley band around 250 nm and its
minimum beyond 380 nm in the Huggins bands.
Numerical techniques for the determination of vertical profile information
were also studied by NASA for the determination of total ozone in the
atmosphere (Dave & Mateer, 1967; Mateer et al., 1971). The development of these
retrieval techniques has continued up to the present (Bhartia et al., 1996). The
earliest measurement utilising the BUV technique was undertaken by Rawcliffe
& Eliot (1966) using a photometer observing at 284 nm. Ozone distributions
were determined utilising measurements from the USSR Cosmos satellites,
which flew a double monochromator in 1965 and 1966 (Krasnopol’skiy, 1966;
Iozenas et al., 1969a,b).
The Backscatter Ultraviolet atmospheric ozone experiment (BUV) was the
first in a series of instruments produced by NASA and later NOAA, which has
successfully made long-term measurements of the BUV for the vertical profile
and total amount of ozone (Heath et al., 1973) (Table 1). BUV was launched on
the Nimbus‑4 satellite into a circular polar orbit at an altitude of 1100 km. This
orbit is Sun-synchronous and the satellite crosses the equator in an ascending
mode every 107 min close to local noon.
This instrument concept was developed and resulted in the Solar
Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBUV) and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)
launched on Nimbus‑7 (Heath et al., 1975). The SBUV instrument was further
improved to the SBUV-2 and has been flown by NOAA on a series of satellites
(Table 1).
After Nimbus‑7 (1979−92), TOMS was also flown on the Russian Meteor
platform (1992−94), on the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing Satellite
(ADEOS, 1996−97) and on Earth Probe (1996−present) (Table 1). These
measurements have been used to derive a unique ozone dataset. Readers are
referred to the literature about the TOMS data record for more details.
Recognising the importance of long-term calibration and validation of
space-based instrumentation, NASA developed the Shuttle SBUV (SSBUV),
which flew eight times on the Shuttle to calibrate radiometrically the BUV
instruments (Hilsenrath et al., 1988; 1996). The attention paid to the detail of
the calibration of the NASA and NOAA BUV instruments has established the
quality of these datasets (Hilsenrath et al., 1995).
The TOMS retrievals of total column O3 have been combined with data
from the SBUV or the second Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment
(SAGE II) to provide information about tropospheric O3. TOMS had also been
used to demonstrate the emissions of SO2 during volcanic eruptions into the
troposphere and the stratosphere.
The first SAGE instrument (SAGE I), flown on NASA’s Atmosphere Explorer
mission from 1979 to 1981 (Table 1), was a spectrometer that measured the
absorption of sunlight by ozone with four channels centred at 0.385, 0.45,
0.6 and 1.0 μm (McCormick et al., 1979; Chu & McCormick, 1979). SAGE II is a
seven-channel instrument from the same team (Maudlin et al., 1985), which
was launched on NASA’s Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) and is still
in operation today. A third-generation SAGE has been developed, which was
88
GOME and SCIAMACHY
89
SP-1326
90
GOME and SCIAMACHY
improved measurements, and this has been the most consistent and important
recommendation of all ESA scientific user consultations. The ERS programme
addressed the need to achieve long-term global datasets and to benefit from
technological developments to improve the spatial resolution and temporal
sampling of measurements.
The payload of ERS‑1 comprised Earth observation instruments that
gathered information about Earth (land, water, ice and atmosphere) using a
variety of measurement principles:
The ERS-1 payload also included the Precision Range and Range-Rate
Equipment (PRARE) and a Laser Retroreflector. The PRARE was non-
operational since launch. The Retroreflector was used for calibrating the Radar
Altimeter to within 10 cm. In summary, ERS‑1 had only one instrument, the
MWR, for measuring atmospheric composition.
Since the 1970s, the impacts of human activities on the atmosphere were
becoming increasingly apparent. In 1984 a team led by myself from the Max
Planck Institute in Mainz developed a concept called the measurement of
air pollution from space, MAP, to fly on ESA’s European Retrievable Carrier
(EURECA). This was submitted to the ESA call for EURECA instruments in
early 1985. Although the concept was unfortunately not selected, 1985 was a
momentous year for atmospheric science. Farman, Gardner and Shanklin from
the British Antarctic Survey published their discovery of the loss of ozone in
the polar vortex in spring above the Halley Bay research station in Antarctica
(Farman et al., 1985). The term ‘ozone hole’ results from the first observations
from NASA’s TOMS and SBUV O3 data, which showed the large extent and
evolution of this phenomenon, which filled the whole of the polar vortex. The
discovery shocked the public and demonstrated unambiguously the impact
of pollution, particularly the release of CFCs and other ozone-depleting
substances in the northern hemisphere, on a region as far from the point of
release as is possible.
Looking back, it is difficult to imagine the impact of the discovery of the
ozone hole and its importance. The scientific community, funded by the
American and European governments, then embarked on an ambitious set
of experiments to understand the precise origin of this phenomenon. Indeed,
as suggested by Farman et al., (1985), the ozone hole was the result of the
release of CFCs, halons, methyl bromide and other substances, although the
mechanism (described above) is much more complex.
The discovery of the ozone hole focused attention on the need for global
measurements of trace gas species. In Germany, an investigative commission
was established to provide the parliament with advice. The commission was led
by Bernd Schmidbauer and included prominent scientists such as Paul Crutzen,
Reinhardt Zellner and others. The commission’s interim report, ‘Protecting
the Earth’s atmosphere: an international challenge’, had a significant impact
on German scientific policy aimed at controlling ozone-depleting substances
and the measures needed to monitor and assess the impact of international
agreements. It recommended scientific programmes including studies of O3.
91
SP-1326
92
GOME and SCIAMACHY
93
SP-1326
The SCIAMACHY proposal, conforming to the ESA guidelines for the AO for
POEM, was organised and written in late spring and summer 1988, by myself
with contributions from the science and industrial teams. I would like to
thank Wolfgang Schneider, Dieter Perner and Paul Crutzen for their help in the
preparation of the final proposal. In addition to excellent scientific objectives,
affordable and feasible instrument design, calibration and validation strategies,
which were of great importance for the potential success of the project, the
support of the German government was essential. Fortunately, the then German
Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT) in the department run
by Mr Spät and Mr Käsmeier, agreed that their department would support the
proposal, provided that SCIAMACHY was selected for Phase A studies for flight
on the Polar Platform by ESA’s technical and scientific review.
The SCIAMACHY instrument concept at this time comprised two
instruments both able to undertake nadir limb and solar or lunar occultation
measurements: one focused on limb observations and the other on nadir
observations during the Sun-synchronous orbit. Measurements were to be
made during solar and lunar occultation in both hemispheres. This approach
was and is a very attractive concept but was later descoped to one instrument,
making alternate limb and nadir measurements, as well as solar and lunar
occultation when available, in order to reduce costs.
During the time between proposing the MAP instrument for EURECA and
the winter of 1988, there were many developments. The publication of the first
observation of what came to be known as the ozone hole by Farman, Gardner
and Franklin from the UK Natural Environment Research Council; the British
Antarctic Survey had led to many campaigns to assess the origin of this unique
phenomenon. NASA traced the development of the ozone hole using maps
retrieved from both TOMS and SBUV instruments, and detected a large loss in
the vertical profile of O3 using the SAGE-II instrument.
To address the needs of users, ESA hosted a meeting with the EO user
community in Paris in November 1988, organised by Chris Readings, Guy
Duchossois, and others. One objective was to develop a set of priorities.
John Pyle of the University of Cambridge and I on behalf of the atmospheric
scientists presented our findings. One important conclusion was that a
European instrument observing atmospheric trace gas composition was
needed much more quickly than the schedule for the launch of the Polar
Platform would allow.
At the end of the meeting Jan Berger, then director of ESTEC, asked me
what sort of instrument the atmospheric community needed to address
atmospheric chemistry and composition. I explained that sounding
spectrometers could make a valuable contribution. Subsequently the ESA
Earth Observation Directorate invited proposals for ideas for an instrument to
measure atmospheric composition for ERS‑2, which was already being built.
The ERS team, led by Reinhold Zöbl, Peter Edwards and Peter Dubock, had
identified that ERS‑1, which had been built, had some valuable contingency.
They proposed that in ERS‑2, this contingency could be used to accommodate
an additional small instrument. As a result Philip Goldsmith, Director of Earth
Observation and Microgravity at ESA, supported by Guy Duschossois and Chris
Readings, issued a call for instrumentation for measurements of atmospheric
constituents for ERS‑2 in late November 1988.
In response to this call, I developed the SCIA-mini proposal, supported
by Paul Crutzen and selected members of the SCIAMACHY international
science team, and submitted it to ESA in December 1988. Part of the feasibility
assessment of SCIA-mini was again supported by the Dornier industrial team.
The instrument concept comprised two spectrometers, both capable of limb
nadir and occultation measurements. Like SCIAMACHY, one was focused on
nadir and one for limb. However, as ‘off-the-shelf’ technology was required
it was later restricted to using available detectors and was limited to the UV,
visible and near-IR spectral regions.
94
GOME and SCIAMACHY
In February 1989, ESA concluded its review and selection procedures for
the payload instrumentation for the Polar Platform to enter Phase A studies at
a meeting in Paris. The meeting was fraught, as all the proposed instruments
were of unique value. In addition, the task of selecting in a transparent manner
an adequate compliment of instruments for the atmospheric composition
remote sensing payload was challenging. Many exciting concepts were
presented, including the Advanced Microwave Atmospheric Sounder (AMAS),
based on the successful Microwave Atmospheric Sounder, which flew on the
Space Shuttle, proposed by a team led by Klaus Künzi of the University of
Bremen. Another was the Doppler Wind Sounder (DWS), proposed by David
Rees and his team from University College London. The Dynamic Limb Sounder
(DLS) proposed by a team led by John J. Barnett (1948–2010) of the University of
Oxford, and based on pressure modulated experience with the Stratospheric
and Mesospheric Sounder (SAMS) on Nimbus‑7 and the Improved Stratospheric
and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS) on UARS. This was subsequently merged
with an American instrument to become the High-Resolution Dynamic Limb
Sounder (HRDLS) that flew as part of NASA’s Aura mission. The Michelson
Interferometer for Passive Sounding (MIPAS) was proposed by Karlruhe
University and the Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) were
also presented. Finally, the Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars
(GOMOS) proposal was presented by Jena-Louis Berteaux.
I presented the SCIAMACHY concept, supported by Paul Crutzen and
Wolfgang Schneider at this review. Jean-Pierre Pommereau of CNRS, an expert
in atmospheric remote sensing and a member of the science teams of both
GOMOS and SCIAMACHY was tasked to summarise and explain to the ESA
panel, the relative advantages and disadvantages of GOMOS and SCIAMACHY.
After its technical and scientific review, ESA announced that it planned to
initiate Phase A studies of atmospheric instrumentation for the Polar Platform.
Of the instruments in the competition, MIPAS and MERIS were selected to
become ESA-developed instruments, and GOMOS and SCIAMACHY were
selected as nationally funded AO instruments. The ESA Programme Board
for Earth Observation (PB‑EO) and subsequently the ESA Council agreed to
this proposal. The German BMFT, in the department led by Mr Spät and Mr
Käsmeier, then funded an industrial study of SCIAMACHY led by the Dornier
team. The funding was managed by the DLR Aerospace team, then at Köln
Portz, which later became Deutsche Agentur für Raumfahrtangelegenheiten
(DARA), and eventually the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) in 1997. This
enabled work to commence on the design and Phase A for SCIAMACHY.
In April 1989 the German BMFT initiated the Atmospheric Trace Molecule
Spectroscopy (ATMOS) project, coordinated by Wolfgang Mett. ATMOS was
a concept for a national satellite for atmospheric and ocean science, with an
instrument payload comprising the Advanced Millimeter Wave Atmospheric
Sounder (AMAS), the MIPAS, the Reflective Optics Imaging Spectrometer
(ROSIS) and SCIAMACHY. This provided a much-needed boost to the
development of the instrument and mission concepts for both MIPAS and
SCIAMACHY. Ultimately, after an ineffective collaboration with CNES, who
developed the Globsat concept, ATMOS and Globsat missions sadly were
not pursued. However, the ATMOS project then provided funding for the
development of SCIAMACHY for the Polar Platform.
After SCIAMACHY was selected for Phase A studies for the Polar Platform,
and for ATMOS, Albert Goede of the Netherlands Institute for Space Research
(SRON) and Roel Hoekstra (1932–5) of Netherlands Organisation for Applied
Scientific Research, Institute of Applied Physics (TNO-TPD) visited me in my
role as PI to discuss the potential Dutch interest and proposed that the Dutch
participate in the industrial consortium to build SCIAMACHY. After discussion
with Dornier, work packages were agreed for SRON and TNO-TPD who then
joined the industrial consortium with Dornier as the Prime Contractor. TNO-
TPD was tasked with optical design issues and the SRON team with the
95
SP-1326
96
GOME and SCIAMACHY
der Woerd (Netherlands Institute for Public Health and the Environment,
RIVM) and K.V. Chance (Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory). Rudolfo
Guzzi and Adelbert Goede also joined the group in this first phase. Chris
Readings chaired the subsequent GSAG meetings until his retirement in 2001. I
acted as scientific secretary or organised this position for the next eight years.
Some 23 years later, GSAG still exists, with several of the original members.
GSAG now supports GOME‑2 on the MetOp series of platforms and is managed
by Rosemary Munro of Eumetsat and Tobias Wehr of ESA.
The SCIAMACHY project comprised the development of SCIAMACHY for
flight on the Polar Platform and of the SCIA-mini, later SCIAS−GOME proposals.
The research and technological development in this project provided the basis
for the GOME Interim Science report. The heritage of SCIAMACHY and GOME
included:
97
SP-1326
98
GOME and SCIAMACHY
99
SP-1326
available from the University of Bremen. These models are suitable for use with
either optimal estimation or DOAS techniques (Platt & Perner, 1980).
One unique feature of the radiative transfer model GOMETRAN/SCIATRAN
was the linearisation procedure for calculating weighting functions developed
by Rozanov to meet the need for a rapid convergence during fitting iterations.
The development of SCIATRAN continued over the next 23 years. It now
comprises a family of programmes, which simulate all relevant absorption
scattering and emission phenomena in the atmosphere and at Earth’s surface
including Raman scattering, fluorescence from land plants , oceanic biomass,
and atmospheric emissions, for all relevant viewing geometries, e.g. nadir,
limb, solar or lunar occultation and ground. SCIATRAN calculates both as a
scalar or a vector model, where the polarisation is explicitly considered. The
SCIATRAN forward radiative transfer model and inversion programs have
become workhorses for atmospheric science. There is now a significant and
large group of SCIATRAN users.
Dorothy Diebel joined the MPI team in 1991 and provided valuable support
to the development of algorithms and management of the growing GOME and
SCIAMACHY activities, prior to her leaving to join Eumetsat, where she worked
initially on GOME‑2 issues in 1995. Robert Spur also joined my research group
in 1991, leaving in 1994 to join the DLR. He provided scientific secretary support
for GSAG and programming support for the development of GOMETRAN.
In 1991 I was elected Professor of Physics at the University of Bremen. As a
result part of the optical spectroscopy group at the MPI moved with me in early
1992 (D. Diebel, A, Ladstatter Weißenmayer, M. Weißenmayer, V.V. Rozanov
and R. Spur). Thereafter I continued a close collaboration with Paul Crutzen,
Dieter Perner and Geert Moortgat at the MPI in Mainz. At the University of
Bremen my research group and that of Klaus Künzi were initially part of the
Institute of Remote Sensing. In 1993 Klaus Künzi, Wolfgang Roether and I
formed the Institute of Environmental Physics (IUP), which included the
Institute of Remote Sensing as the section dedicated to long-term projects
using remote sensing using instrumentation from the ground, ship, aircraft or
satellite platforms.
In the summer of 1992 an international atmospheric conference was held
in Berlin, organised by Harold Schiff (1923–2003) from York University in
Canada and Ulrich Platt, who had moved to the University of Heidelberg in
1989. This provided an opportunity to showcase GOME and SCIAMACHY
scientific objectives and developments. I organised a session on atmospheric
remote sensing, which focused on DOAS applications and the potential of
GOME and SCIAMACHY. Ulrich Platt has been an excellent colleague over
the past 25 years, participating with his research team initially at the Jülich
Research Centre and from 1989 onwards at the University of Heidelberg, in
the development of the GOME and SCIAMACHY retrieval algorithms, the
validation of data products and data exploitation. Our research groups have
worked closely together on the development of ground-based, aircraft-borne
instrumentation and some balloon experiments. Over the past two decades,
the University of Bremen team has benefited from the scientific collaborations
and support of the Institute of Environmental Physics at the University of
Heidelberg and that of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry.
From 1992 onwards, the University of Bremen became the Principal
Investigator or Lead Scientist Institution for both GOME and SCIAMACHY. A large
effort was invested by the University in this evolving team to provide scientific
support for these exciting, at the time, novel and challenging projects. In my
years in Bremen a number of young scientists, who would make outstanding
contributions to the development of GOME, SCIAMACHY and the remote sensing
of atmospheric constituents from space, ground or aircraft, began their research
careers. These included Andreas Richter (DOAS ground-based and satellite
measurements of trace gases), Michael Buchwitz (detector development, radiative
transfer model development and trace gas retrieval), Thomas Kuroso (cloud and
100
GOME and SCIAMACHY
101
SP-1326
Figure 6. Left: Target molecules and parameters and the spectral coverage of the instruments GOME on ERS‑2 and SCIAMACHY on Envisat.
Right: Differential trace gas absorption cross sections of a selection of target trace gases. (TNO and University of Bremen)
102
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Figure 7. Schematic diagrams of the GOME instrument (left) showing the four-channel spectral channel measuring simultaneously in nadir,
and the ERS‑2 in orbit with the GOME scan pattern in forward scan (right). (ESA)
103
SP-1326
104
GOME and SCIAMACHY
105
SP-1326
—— the radiometric calibration, which uses the dark signal during eclipse;
observations of the Sun via the diffuser plate on a daily basis; observations of
the full Moon, when available, via the diffuser plate, for long-term radiometric
calibration; and the LEDs in each spectral channel;
—— the spectral calibration, which uses periodic observations of the Pt/Cr/Ne
hollow cathode discharge line emission lamp, and observations of Fraunhofer
solar lines.
The Level 1 to 2 processor is used to invert the retrieved radiance and irradiance
into Level 2. Utilising the Beer–Lambert law and considering radiative transfer
through the atmosphere, the intensity of solar radiation reaching GOME can be
approximated by the following equation:
I^mh = cI0 ^mh exp $-/ v'i ^mh SCDi - / v * i ^mh SCDi - v Ray ^mh SCDRay - ^vhMie ^mh
i i
(1)
I^mh = cI0 ^mh exp $-/ v'i ^mh SCDi - / v * i ^mh SCDi - v Ray ^mh SCDRay - ^vhMie ^mh SCDMie .
i i
where I0(λ) is the intensity of solar radiation reaching Earth, i represents the
gas, c is a factor that depends on the surface spectral reflectance and multiple
scattering in the atmosphere; the absorption cross-section, σ(λ), of the
absorbers separated into the slowly varying low-pass contribution σ*(λ) and
strongly varying high-pass or differential part σ′(λ) σ(λ) = σ*(λ) + σ′(λ); SCDi is
the slant column density of the gas; SCDray is the slant column of air; SCDMie is
the slant column of particles. This can then be approximated by
where apλp is a polynomial that fits the broadband or low-pass scattering and
absorption terms, and the high-pass or differential structure term Σσ′i(λ)SCDi
yields the set of SCDi. The equation is written as
I0 ^mh
ln = / v'i ^mh SCDi + / a p m p (3)
I^ mh i p
106
GOME and SCIAMACHY
107
SP-1326
108
GOME and SCIAMACHY
In addition the total column amounts of the trace gases IO and CHO.CHO, which
were retrieved first from SCIAMACHY and then GOME‑2, will be retrieved in
the future from GOME. The cloud fractions and cloud top heights are obtained
using the O2 A‑band absorptions around 760 nm.
The GOME data products have been produced and some interesting results
are highlighted below. First, however, one trivial lesson learned from GOME
is that the value of the data products is dependent on the investment in the
development of the data products and their distribution system. A significant
fraction of the investment in the development of the retrieval algorithms was
funded through and thus relied on the idealism of the scientific community.
There is clearly an imbalance between ESA’s mandate to invest in the
industrial procurement of instruments and the organisation of science teams to
exploit the data. NASA appears to work on a more systematic approach, creating
instrument support for validation and scientific exploitation. In this context
GOME and SCIAMACHY have been a voyage of discovery both for atmospheric
remote sensing and the development of human capacity and understanding the
limitations in the current ESA and national space agency approaches to deliver
scientific return as opposed to support for the development of hi-tech industry.
Although in many respects GOME established the template approach for trace
gas retrieval in European remote sensing, the approach did not provide adequate
resources for the scientific exploitation. The generation of data products and their
use in research and applications was in some senses fortuitous, relying on the
research infrastructure and the idealism of many researchers. This is particularly
challenging as in the case of GOME the experiment had a life of over 20 years.
The differences in the ability to fund the industrial contractors, the scientific
performance in space and that specifically targeted for the scientific exploitation
of the data are dramatic. Until this issue is addressed and the delivery of scientific
data products and their exploitation given adequate resources, the full value of the
investment of both resources and intellectual effort will not be realised.
109
SP-1326
110
GOME and SCIAMACHY
by the IUP/UB team and its partners in 1994 as an optimal spectral window for
the first retrievals of the total column amount of O3 from GOME. This spectral
window has become a standard and has been used for the retrieval of total O3
from GOME, SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2.
There is more information about O3 available in the GOME measurements,
which can be used in the future to improve the precision and accuracy of the
measurements and thereby provide more information about O3 changes in the
atmosphere.
Figures 13 and 14 were produced using a merged dataset of GOME,
SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2 data, generated at IUP-UB. Figure 14 shows the
development of the ozone hole over the northern hemisphere, retrieved using
the so-called weighting function modified DOAS approach (Rozanov et al.,
1998). There are now several merged datasets for O3 from the European early
morning platform produced using different but related techniques and giving
similar results. There are also data assimilation schemes that use the different
measurements, but these are considered to combine model and measurement
information and are therefore less valuable for trend or change analyses.
Figure 13. The total O3 column amount above the northern hemisphere in March, 1996–2012, shown in a polar projection using the merged
GOME, SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2 data record. The background colours indicate the contributions of the different instruments. (M. Weber
and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
111
SP-1326
Figure 14. The total O3 column amount above the southern hemisphere in October, 1995–2011, shown in a polar projection using the
merged GOME, SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2 data record. (M. Weber and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
112
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Figure 15. Left panel: The approach used for the retrieval of vertical profiles of O3. Right panel: Some comparisons of the retrieved profiles
with the initial guess or a priori measurements from an O3 balloon sonde and from the HALOE instrument on NASA’s UARS (M. Weber,
K.‑U. Eichmann, K. Bramstedt and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen).
113
SP-1326
Figure 16. Left panels: Retrieval of the vertical profile of O3, showing the O3 concentration (molecules/m3) at the potential temperatures of
475K, ~19 km, and 550K, ~22 km, in the lower stratosphere together with the total column of O3 (in Dobson units) and NO2 (molecules/cm2),
retrieved from GOME measurements on 2 April 2002. Right: Latitudinal transect along the orbit, showing the high O3 concentration outside
the polar vortex and the chemical depletion of O3 within the vortex. (ESA/DLR/M. Weber, K.‑U. Eichmann, K. Bramstedt and J.P. Burrows,
University of Bremen)
vortex value for O3 was achieved in these years. This was made possible by
European and German funding of polar ozone research.
During late autumn and early winter the polar vortex literally spins up. In
the polar night the polar vortex cools, and NOx is converted first to N2O5 via
the chemical reactions (13), (16) and (27) described in section 3. N2O5 is then
transformed on aerosols and Polar Stratospheric Clouds to nitric acid by reaction
(28). Eventually, the PSCs become nitric acid trihydrate, HNO3.3H2O, which is
the most stable azeotrope. The consequence of these reactions is shown in the
114
GOME and SCIAMACHY
observations of the total NO2 column amount above the northern hemisphere in
January and March 1997 and 2001, see Fig. 18. The loss of NO2 is readily visible.
This process has presumably always taken place, but the difference in the past
50 years is that the loading of halogens, resulting from the tropospheric release
of ozone-depleting substances, has resulted in a change in the chemistry and the
catalytic destruction of O3 in the lower stratosphere at high latitudes in spring.
A sudden stratospheric warming is defined as an event where the polar
vortex of westerly (eastward) winds in winter slows down abruptly (i.e. over
the course of a few days) or even reverses direction. This is accompanied
by a rise in stratospheric temperature by several tens of K and is a dramatic
meteorological event. In Fig. 19 a sudden warming, which resulted in the polar
115
SP-1326
vortex being pushed to lower latitudes, is observed in the NO2 vertical amount.
The vortex air then mixes with the southern hemispheric air, diluting the low
O3 over the hemisphere.
An interesting test of our understanding of the stratosphere occurred in 2002,
during a major warming event, defined as when the westerly winds at 60°N and
10 hPa (geopotential height) reverse, i.e. become easterly (westward), above
Antarctica. This was a unique event in the southern hemisphere, whereas they are
regular features in winter and spring above the northern hemisphere, and were
first observed above Berlin in late January 1952. The question remains as to whether
this was a sign of changing dynamics, resulting from the increased amount of
energy in the atmosphere, the result of the absorption by the greenhouse gases
released by anthropogenic activity, or a phenomenon that occurs periodically but
had not been previously observed in modern times. This situation is similar to the
first hurricane observed in the South Atlantic off the coast of Brazil in 2004.
Figure 20 shows observations of NO2, OClO and O3, as well as estimates
of the potential vorticity and temperature from ECMWF and UK Met Office
data assimilation models. OClO is formed in the pathways of the reaction (43)
between BrO and ClO. The figure shows clearly that OClO and thus ClO are
activated as the NO2 is lost.
The temporal behaviour of the OClO slant column density at a solar zenith
angle of 90° and the NO2 vertical column between latitudes 70° and 80° is shown
in Fig. 21. The latter focuses on the unusual behaviour in 2002 and the range of
behaviours from 1996 to 2001. These data have now become diagnostics that
are used in the WMO Global Atmosphere Watch reports on the monitoring of the
ozone layer to characterise the behaviour of the polar vortex,1 and represent a
unique data product provided from GOME measurements. The datasets have been
Figure 20. Observations of NO2, OClO and O3 and estimates of potential vorticity and temperature in the polar vortex before 1 September
2002, during 25 September 2002 and after the first major sudden warming of the polar vortex in the southern hemisphere. (A. Richter, M.
Weber and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
116
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Figure 21. Left panels: OClO slant column densities, observed at a solar zenith angle of 90°, plotted for each day of the year in the northern and
southern hemispheres between 70° and 80° latitude. Right panels: The corresponding vertical column densities of NO2. Data retrieved from
GOME observations. The ranges of values for the years 1996–2001 are indicated in grey. (A. Richter and J. P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
extended by the IUP/UB team to include data from SCIAMACHY. Following the loss
of Envisat, these data products can be produced from GOME‑2, which flies an hour
earlier than GOME on MetOp-A, with an equator crossing time of 09:30.
OClO is an important indicator of the extent of chemical processing within
the polar vortices on polar stratospheric clouds. However OClO is rapidly
photolysed and as a result its stratospheric loading maximises at large solar
zenith angles close to dusk. The appearance of OClO is anti-correlated with the
amount of NO2 as this competes with BrO to react with ClO to form ClONO2.
As can be seen in Fig. 20, in late September 2002 the polar vortex above
Antarctica split into two parts as a result of the flow of energy from lower
latitudes. One of the vortices moved to lower latitudes while the second moved
back over the pole. This is clearly observed in the total O3, NO2 and OClO. In
the lower panels of Fig. 21, the behaviour of NO2 and OClO was clearly affected
in 2002 by the sudden stratospheric warming, which was observed for the first
time in the southern hemisphere in spring in 2002.
117
SP-1326
key constituents such as O3, NO2, BrO and aerosols, which are present in the upper
atmosphere in significant amounts. When SCIAMACHY and GOME were proposed
in the late 1980s, many scientists were sceptical that valuable information about
tropospheric composition could be retrieved. For this reason the name GOME
focused attention on the instrument’s ability to observe global O3 from space.
One of the most important contributions made by the ERS project has been
to demonstrate unambiguously through GOME that accurate measurements of
key tropospheric trace gases can be made from space. The data rate available to
ERS‑2 for GOME was limited, and this in turn limited the spatial resolution of the
results. However, GOME’s ability to retrieve tropospheric trace gases emitted by
natural phenomena (e.g. biogenic emissions, volcanic eruptions, fires, surface
fluxes from the land, the ocean or ice, etc.) and resulting from human activities
(e.g. fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, agriculture, etc.) represented a
breakthrough. The amounts and distributions of these constituents, which are
controlled by biogeochemical cycling, atmospheric chemistry and dynamics,
can be objectively measured from space using nadir observations or, even better,
the combination of nadir coupled with limb or occultation observations of the
upwelling electromagnetic radiation from the top of the atmosphere.
This limitation on GOME arising from the available resource on ERS-2
with respect to the data rate resulted in the poor spatial resolution of GOME of
320 × 40 km but global coverage at the equator in three days and more rapidly
at higher latitudes. We knew at the time that we needed much higher resolution
to resolve important tropospheric processes but had to accept this compromise.
The three-day global coverage was sufficient to catch many phenomena. In
addition, the somewhat higher spatial resolution of 80 × 40 km for 10% of the
GOME observation time enabled assessments of the impact of the lower spatial
resolution on our interpretation of trace gas retrievals.
Only 50 years ago it was thought that the behaviour of O3 in the troposphere
could be explained by transport from the stratosphere and deposition at the
surface. We now know that there are large catalytic sources and sinks for O3
in the troposphere, which determine the chemical weather or air quality
of a given air mass. These processes have been briefly described above. The
modification of these cycles as a result of human interventions can have large
impacts on air quality, agriculture and human health.
The retrieval from space of the total column amounts of the key trace
gases involved in the production and destruction of O3 and aerosols in the
troposphere, has enabled the quantification of natural biogeochemical cycles
and of human impacts on the lower atmosphere from local to global scales.
Some examples of the results and highlights of retrievals of tropospheric
species from GOME measurements are described in the following sections.
The oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2, are key free radicals that play important
roles in the mesosphere and stratosphere. NO and NO2 also play special roles in
tropospheric chemistry, because, as explained above, they are chain carriers in
catalytic cycles producing tropospheric O3, react with OH to produce the acids
HONO and HNO3, and in the dark their reactions produce NO2, an oxidant,
andN2O5, the acid anhydride of HNO3. The sum of NO and NO2, NOx, and O3 in
the troposphere are often in the Leighton photostationary state as a result of
the ‘do-nothing’ cycle described in section 3.3. However, the reactions of RO2
and HO2 with NO to form NO2 are key propagation reactions in the catalytic
production of O3 in the troposphere and lower stratosphere.
NO has ultraviolet emissions, produced by the absorption of NO at short
wavelengths in the upper atmosphere, which were observed by GOME‑
However, this absorption by NO occurs below 230 nm and was therefore not
detected by GOME. As a result, NO cannot retrieve NO in the troposphere or
118
GOME and SCIAMACHY
119
SP-1326
in large NO2 plumes flowing out over the ocean. The fires, a consequence of
ENSO and anthropogenic activities, are also visible. The outflows of NO2 from
the Congo basin at low altitudes, and from East Africa at higher altitudes, can
also be observed. It turns out that the NO2 in ship tracks can also be retrieved
successfully from such pictures.
120
GOME and SCIAMACHY
understand the strength of the different emissions and the human impact on
the production of NOx.
The emissions of NO2 from fires were assessed by using fire counts for example
from simultaneous measurements made by Envisat’s AATSR at night (Fig. 23).
Lightning estimates used GOME data and observations of lightning by NASA’s
Optical Transient Detector (OTD), carried as a secondary payload on Pegasus, an
Orbital Sciences Corporation rocket launched on 3 April 1995 into Earth orbit at an
altitude of approximately 710 km (446 miles), with an inclination of 70°.
Part of the NO2 over the rainforest and savannah during the monsoon or
rainy seasons can be attributed to the bacteriological reduction of NH4+ and
the oxidation of NO3–, which releases NO, N2O and N2. The NO reacts with O3 to
produce NO2 (Bertram et al., 2005).
Figure 24 (top) shows the annual cycle of NO2 above Africa, as derived from
SCIAMACHY in 2003 together with fire counts, in this case from NASA’s Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and lightning estimates from the
OTD. Additional sources of NO2 attributed to soils and domestic fires are required
to explain the observations. Figure 24 (bottom) shows observations of similar
behaviour over Montana, USA, following the application of manmade NH4NO3
as fertiliser, using in this case the high spatial resolution of SCIAMACHY. The
production of NOx from the bacterial degradation of fertiliser in soils has also
been found to be significant over Asia and parts of Africa.
121
SP-1326
inventory data for Asia available at that time. In the meantime agreement is
now much better.
In Fig. 26 the monthly and annual average composite values for NO2
tropospheric columns are plotted for data from GOME, SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2
for the region 30−40°N 110–124°E in eastern China from 1996 to 2010. The
selection of the area is somewhat arbitrary. The ERS Envisat and MetOp A have
or had equator crossing times of 10:30, 10:00 and 09:30, respectively, so that
small changes as a result of the diurnal cycle of NO2 are also identifiable. The
global data from GOME and SCIAMACHY overlap, as do those from SCIAMACHY
and GOME‑2 data. The retrievals of tropospheric NO2 are in good agreement.
As expected, a seasonal cycle in NO2 is observed, with higher values in
winter than in summer. This is qualitatively explained by the seasonal cycles
in the photolysis frequency of NO2 and the combustion of fossil fuels. The
increase first observed in the GOME data continues. The impact of attempts
to reduce pollution for the Olympic Games in Beijing in summer 2008 and the
global economic recession in 2008 are clearly observable. Since then, the NO2
column over China has continued to increase.
Figure 27 shows the first 15 years of the tropospheric columns of NO2
derived from GOME and SCIAMACHY over six regions where statistically
significant annual changes could be determined from GOME data. The plot
shows increases over Asia and reductions over Europe and North America.
The improvement in air quality in Europe may now have stopped, while over
China the NO2 column continues to decline. The area shaded blue in the figure
indicates GOME data alone published some years ago.
Figure 26. Monthly changes in tropospheric NO2 over central eastern China (30°−40°N, 110–124°E) derived from GOME, SCIAMACHY and
GOME‑2 data for <10% cloud cover. (A. Richter and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
122
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Figure 28. Left: NO2 emissions from shipping retrieved from GOME‑2 data, 2007–9. (A. Richter and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
Right: Increases in NO2 emissions from ships crossing the Indian Ocean between Sri Lanka and Indonesia, retrieved from GOME,
SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2 data, 2008. TEC, Total Electron Content. (A. Richter. V. Eyring, K. Franke and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
One of the discoveries of the GOME and SCIAMACHY missions was the
observation of NO2 emissions from ships (e.g. Richter et al., 2005). The research
groups at the universities of Heidelberg and Bremen found clear evidence
of increased emissions from ships using the route between Sri Lanka and
Indonesia (Fig. 28; Richter et al., 2004; Franke et al., 2008/2009).
123
SP-1326
for the TOMS data (Fishman et al., 1990, 1991, 1992, 1996). The TTO algorithm
is particularly elegant (Hudson et al., 1996; Hudson & Thompson, 1998; Kim
et al., 1996). The TTO approach and an assessment of the profile regimes led
to the discovery that the tropical tropopause is expanding (Hudson, 2012, and
references therein). Another approach to derive tropospheric O3 used the cloud
top heights (Ziemke et al., 1998).
Figure 30 shows the tropospheric columns of HCHO, NO2 and the tropospheric
excess column of O3, the latter being the difference between the total column
density of O3 at a given location and that at the same longitude around the
international dateline, which is assumed to have low and reasonably constant
O3. The latter assumption is simple but useful for explanatory purposes.
The O3 is produced by the chain reactions described above, resulting from
both natural and anthropogenic emissions of NOx and VOCs. In the tropics,
lightning, biomass burning and biogenic emissions release the VOCs and NOx
required to produce this O3 photochemically. However, domestic heating and
industry cannot be ignored. As can be seen in Fig. 30, this results in a plume of
air producing O3 flowing from the Congo basin at low altitudes into the South
Atlantic and, conversely, a plume of air at higher tropospheric altitudes, sending
O3-rich air and its precursors towards Australia in the southern hemisphere.
There are also retrieval algorithms that derive tropospheric O3 outside the
tropics and subtropics, although this is more challenging as frontal systems
vary the height of the tropopause. An adequate discussion of these retrieval
approaches and their results is beyond of the scope of this chapter.
As TOMS measurements had been used to derive SO2 from volcanic eruptions
(Krueger, 1983; Krueger et al., 1996, 1998), GOME with its much superior
spectral coverage was expected to measure the release of SO2 from volcanoes.
Michael Eisinger, who later joined ESTEC to work on GOME‑2 from the DOAS
group at IUP/UB, supported by Andreas Richter and myself, was the first to
retrieve SO2 columns from GOME data. The spectral measurements made by
the CATGAS team turned out to be invaluable as the GOME spectral channel
2 has some unique characteristics, including, as mentioned above, a spectral
resolution that varied between 314 nm and 325 nm, and the FWHM changing
from 0.6 nm at 314 nm to 0.2 nm at 325 nm (Eisinger & Burrows, 1998a,b).
In addition, the first space-based observations of SO2 from tropospheric
pollution were reported. The sources of this pollution include the burning
of lignite and other brown coals, metal smelters and the combustion of oil
containing sulphur. The sensitivity was not sufficient, however, to determine the
124
GOME and SCIAMACHY
125
SP-1326
Figure 32. Monthly and annual changes in SO2 vertical column amounts above eastern China, retrieved from GOME and SCIAMACHY
measurements. (A. Richter and J.P. Burrows, University of Bremen)
values in winter when more energy is produced for heating. Although the
desulphurisation of coal-fired power plants began in China in 1998, the
programme was rapidly expanded in 2007 to improve air quality for the
Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008. The decrease in 2008, which may also result
in part from the global recession, is readily visible. It appears that after 2010
the SO2 vertical column may have started to increase again.
One the most surprising discoveries in the early days of the analysis of GOME
data was associated with the retrieval of BrO vertical columns. Large clouds of
BrO at high latitudes in the Antarctic and the Arctic springs were discovered
by the groups at the universities of Heidelberg and Bremen, respectively
(e.g. Richter et al., 1998). Figure 33 shows examples for both hemispheres.
This natural phenomenon represents a coupling and feedback between the
cryosphere and the oxidising capacity of the troposphere, and has been the
subject of much recent research. This remains an important research topic as
the sea ice is changing as a result of global climate change and the impact on
the processes producing BrO, explained in more detail in section 3.3, and the
oxidising capacity of the troposphere is not yet clear.
These clouds of BrO are associated with tropospheric O3 and mercury
depletion events (Barrie et al., 1988; Simpson et al., 2007). Modulation of
the tropopause can also cause some apparent increases in BrO similar to
126
GOME and SCIAMACHY
127
SP-1326
128
GOME and SCIAMACHY
in Fig. 36 and have been validated by comparison with H2O sonde data. The
reason for these changes is not yet clear and may be in part the result of natural
variations in the hydrological cycle or global climate change. Changes in the
height of the tropopause and the tropical extent of the tropical tropopause will
both have impacts. Local changes attributable to water usage in urban areas
have been identified.
Measurements of reflectance using the higher-spatial-resolution Polarisation
Measurement Device and the O2 absorption are used to determine cloud cover
and cloud top heights. The O4 and the ring feature are also alternatives for
determining cloud top heights. Although the cloud data products were initially
intended to be used in the interpretation of the columns of trace gases retrieved
from GOME, they have become important data products in their own right.
Similarly, the absorbing aerosol index data products, first produced for TOMS,
generated from GOME, SCIAMACHY and GOME‑2 measurements have also
become useful data products.
The complexity of the hydrological cycle is such that accurate separation
of anthropogenic influences from natural occurring oscillations or changes
requires long-duration, comparable and consistent datasets. The early morning
measurements and resultant data products initiated with the launch of GOME
are now beginning to be of significant value in this respect.
129
SP-1326
Two decades later, the most recent ESA user consultation meeting was held
in Bruges, Belgium, in June 2012, for the atmospheric community following
the loss of ESA’s flagship Envisat. Its recommendations were similar to those
made in 1991. This is because without Envisat there are no European nadir
measurements of key greenhouse gases, no limb/occultation profiling of
atmospheric constituents and parameters, and more.
One of ESA’s programmatic objectives during the 1990s was to establish the
Earth Explorer and EarthWatch missions. The Earth Explorers were envisaged
as promoting innovation and the evolution of European Earth observation,
while the EarthWatch missions would yield the long-term measurements of
surface parameters and atmospheric composition required for applications
such as numerical weather prediction, air quality monitoring and climate
science. While the Earth Explorer missions for Earth observation have
flourished to some extent, with ESA releasing eight calls for missions since
1998, the need for long-term measurements of key atmospheric pollutants and
greenhouse gases as expressed in the EarthWatch approach has floundered.
The continuity of atmospheric composition has not been achieved adequately.
The loss of Envisat has resulted in the complete loss of European vertical profile
measurements and nadir sounding of the total columns of the greenhouse
gases CO2 and methane.
In the 1990s, however, ESA and Eumetsat were able to establish and define
the need for an ozone monitoring instrument for the MetOp series of platforms.
The ESA-developed GOME‑2 was selected as part of the core payload for MetOp.
This improved somewhat on the GOME design but ESA was unable to fund the
addition of 2D detector arrays, which would have significantly improved the
spatial resolution.
130
GOME and SCIAMACHY
131
SP-1326
132
GOME and SCIAMACHY
Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
The pictures of the amounts and distributions of the trace gases, aerosol and
cloud parameters resulting from GOME, SCIAMACHY and now GOME‑2 are
compelling. They document the changing atmospheric composition, which is
intrinsically fascinating, and demonstrate uniquely the increasing impact of
man during this early phase of the Anthropocene.
The success of GOME and SCIAMACHY and the value of their data products
have been internationally recognised. The importance of this breakthrough
in providing global, objective measurements of pollution and natural
biogeochemical cycling cannot be underestimated for both atmospheric
science and the development of global environmental policy. A review of
the development of modern tropospheric remote sensing has been provided
elsewhere (Burrows et al., 2011), and a book on SCIAMACHY is now in its
second edition (Gottwald & Bovensmann, 2011).
Turning to the European plans for the future, the picture is disappointing
and high risk. This is primarily because progress is too slow compared with the
growing need for accurate global information on atmospheric composition. The
Copernicus Sentinel‑4 will provide the first measurements of diurnal variations
in tropospheric trace gases over Europe from a geostationary orbit but not
simultaneously over the tropics or sub-Saharan Africa. It is interesting to note
that it took about six years from the proposal of SCIMACHY and SCIA-mini to
the launch of GOME on ERS‑2, whereas it will have taken ~21 years from the
proposal of GeoSCIA to the launch of Sentinel‑4. From 2020 onwards Sentinel‑5
will continue the early-morning measurement series currently being made by
GOME‑2, and will improve the spatial resolution and add targets CO and CH4,
like SCIAMACHY, but there are no plans to focus on CO2, according to ESA. In
addition, the Sentinel‑5 Precursor will make measurements similar to those of
OMI with the addition of a NIR/SWIR channel, but in the early afternoon, from
2017 onwards.
Sadly, as a result of the sudden and unexpected loss of contact with Envisat
on 8 April 2011, there will be no new data and therefore knowledge of many
important processes occurring in the atmosphere and at Earth’s surface.
Envisat had been in operation for twice its guaranteed lifetime, as defined by
the industrial consortium that built it. However, its instruments were working
excellently prior to failure, and in the case of SCIAMACHY no end-of-life issues
for components were foreseen prior to 2020. The lack of an overlap with or
plans for new European instruments to undertake nadir soundings of CO2,
the most important greenhouse gas, or limb and occultation observations of
the profiles of key atmospheric constituents from the upper troposphere to the
thermosphere shows a systemic problem in the development of the European
component of the required global measurement system.
This is not a new issue. The gaps in datasets and slow progress in
improving measurement spatial resolution and sampling is partly related to the
responsibilities and mandates given by governments to the various research,
space, meteorological and environmental agencies. There appears to be a
lack of joined-up thinking, which leads to insufficient funding to maintain
and deliver an adequate and integrated global observing system. The cost of
providing the research and space segment for the required global atmospheric
measurements is not trivial, but is, in my opinion, lower than that of not
obtaining the knowledge from this system. This is because it is not possible to
manage what is not being measured. I estimate that a 1 cent tax on a barrel of
oil, coal and gas equivalent in Europe (i.e. 1/10000 of the current cost) alone
would pay for much more than the global measurement systems required and
defined by expert groups.
The European EarthWatch concept, discussed in the 1990s, has not been
realised for atmospheric composition. After three pioneering decades, a golden
age, it appears that we are returning to a darker age when much less global
atmospheric information on atmospheric composition will be available for
133
SP-1326
scientists and policy makers. It appears that a global observing system that
builds on the pioneering achievements of the SCIAMACHY project, other
atmospheric composition measurements and in particular GOME on ERS‑2,
will remain a distant objective.
The creation of an adequate global observing system, associated ground
segment infrastructure, and the human capacity to run the system are needed
urgently to provide the information to assess human impacts on the evolution
of the Earth system during the next decades of the Anthropocene. The latter is
required to improve our understanding and the accuracy of prediction of the
behaviour of the Earth system and its responses in a warming, increasingly
urbanised world. This information would in turn provide the objective evidence
needed to develop further and monitor the effectiveness of international
environmental policy. The latter has the aim of achieving sustainable economic
development and optimised global environmental management, at a time
when the Earth’s population is heading rapidly towards and beyond 10 times
what it was at the outset of the industrial revolution.
Acknowledgements
This chapter has provided a subjective, partially historical review of key
aspects of the initiation and the development of GOME and SCIAMACHY, as
well as some of the scientific results obtained from GOME. It is not intended to
be a comprehensive objective analysis, but my personal view of the evolution
of GOME and European remote sensing of atmospheric composition.
Many individuals have contributed to the success of GOME and the
SCIAMACHY project that I have not had space or time to list in detail. I therefore
wish to acknowledge explicitly all the scientists, engineers and administrators
who contributed to the success of these projects and to the ERS and Envisat
programmes. These have been remarkable European civil achievements.
There are many fathers and mothers of success, and without the funding
agencies, who invested in this project it would not have happened. ESA, the
German Ministry of Science and Education (BMBF), the German Aerospace
Center (DLR), and the Dutch, Belgian and Italian space agencies are to be
thanked, as well as NASA (in particular E. Hilsenrath, J. Gleason and S. Janz)
for their collaborative support. My friends and scientific mentors Paul Crutzen,
Dieter Perner (1934–2012), Wolfgang Schneider, Geert Moortgat at the Max
Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz and Richard Wayne of the University of
Oxford were a great strength and support, particularly during the development
of the scientific objectives of SCIAMACHY and GOME. I would also like to thank
Ulrich Platt and his team at the University of Heidelberg for their many and
continuing contributions. Phil Goldsmith, Chris Readings, Guy Duschossois,
Peter Dubock, Peter Edwards, Achim Hahne, Alain Lefebvre, Jörg Calleis and
Reinhold Zöbl of ESA also made important contributions, without which GOME
would not have been possible. The teams at the then Officine Galileo have
had the pleasure of seeing their instrument becoming a world-beater. EADS
Astrium was responsible for key aspects of the ERS and Envisat platforms and
also the prime contractor for SCIAMACHY. I thank them all and many others
not mentioned by name for their outstanding work.
I am indebted to the State and University of Bremen for in part funding
my research. I thank the faculty of Physics for hosting our Institutes of
Environmental Physics and Remote Sensing. In particular I wish to thank the
members of the research team at the Institute of Environmental Physics of
the University of Bremen, IUP-UB, who have supported my efforts and made
many important and original contributions of their own to various aspects of
the GOME and SCIAMACHY projects. In particular, I thank my close colleagues
of many years at IUP-UB – Heinrich Bovensmann, Klaus Bramstedt, Michael
Buchwitz, Kai-Uwe Eichmann, Konstantin Gerilowski, Klaus Künzi, Alexander
134
GOME and SCIAMACHY
References
Arrhenius, S. (1896). On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the
temperature of the ground. Phil. Mag. and J. Sci. 41, 237.
Baker, R.L., Maudlin, L.E. III & Russell, J.M. III (1986). Design and performance of
the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) remote sensor. Proc. SPIE 685,
181−191.
Barnett, J.J., Morris, P.E., Nightingale, T.J., Palmer, C.W.P., Peskett, G.D., Rodgers,
C.D., Taylor, F.W., Venters, P., Wells, R.J., Whitney, J.G., Ballard, J. & Knight,
J. (1992). The improved stratospheric and mesospheric sounder on the Upper
Atmosphere Research Satellite. Proc. SPIE 1715, 527.
Barrie, L.A., Bottenheim, J.W., Snell, R.C., Crutzen, P.J. & Rasmussen, R.A. (1988).
Ozone destruction and photochemical reactions at polar sunrise in the lower
Arctic atmosphere. Nature 334, 138−140.
Bates, D.R. & Nicolet, M. (1950). The photochemistry of atmospheric water vapour,
J. Geophys. Res. 55(3), 301–327. doi: 10.1029/JZ055i003p00301
Bertram, T.H., Heckel, A., Richter, A., Burrows, J.P. & Cohen, R.C. (2005). Satellite
measurements of daily variations in soil NOx emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett. 32
(24), L24812
Bhartia, P.K., McPeters, R.D., Mateer, C.L., Flynn, L.E. & Wellemeyer, C. (1996).
Algorithm for the estimation of vertical ozone profiles from the backscattered
ultraviolet technique. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 18793−18806.
Brasunas, J.C., Kunde, V.G. & Herath, L.W. (1988). Cryogenic Fourier spectrometer
for measuring trace species in the lower stratosphere. Appl. Opt. 27, 4964−4976.
Bovensmann, H., Burrows, J.P., Buchwitz, M., Frerick, J., Noël, S., Rozanov, V.V.,
Chance, K.V. & Goede, A.P.H. (1999). SCIAMACHY: Mission objectives and
measurement modes. Conf. on Global Measurement Systems for Atmospheric
Composition, Toronto, Canada. J. Atmos. Sci. 56(2), 127−150.
Buchwitz M., Rozanov V.V., Eichmann K.-U., de Beek, R. & Burrows, J.P. (2001).
SCIATRAN: A new atmospheric radiative transfer model for the ultraviolet,
visible, and near-infrared spectral regions. In: W.L. Smith & Y.M. Timofeyev (Eds),
IRS 2000, Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, Studies in Geophysical
Optics and Remote Sensing. A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, VA, pp.365−368.
Burrows, J.P., Schneider, W., Geary, J.C., Chance, K.V., Goede, A.P.H., Aarts, H.J.M.,
de Vries, J., Smorenburg, C. & Visser, H. (1990). Atmospheric remote sensing
with SCIAMACHY. Dig. Mtg on Optical Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere No. 4.
Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, pp.71−75.
Burrows, K., Chance, V., Goede, A.P.H., Guzzi, R., Kerridge, B.J., Muller, C., Perner,
D., Platt, U., Pommereau, J.-P., Schneider, W., Spurr, R.J. & van der Woerd,
H. (1993). Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment: Interim Science Report, T.D.
Guyenne & C.J. Readings (Eds). ESA SP-1151, European Space Agency, Paris.
Burrows, J.P., Diebel, D., Kerridge, B.J., Munro, R., Pemberton, D., Platt, U. & Frank,
H. (1994). A Study of the Methods for the Retrieval of Atmospheric Constituents,
Final Report, ESA Contract 9687/91/NL/BI.
135
SP-1326
Burrows J.P., Hölzle, E., Goede, A.P.H., Visser, H. & Fricke, W. (1995). SCIAMACHY:
Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography. Acta
Astronaut. 35(7), 445−451.
Burrows, J.P., Weber, M., Buchwitz, M., Rozanov, V.V., Ladstätter, A., Weißenmayer,
A., Richter, A., DeBeek, R., Hoogen, R., Bramstedt, K. & Eichmann, K.U. (1999).
The Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME): Mission concept and first
scientific results, Conf. on Global Measurement Systems for Atmospheric
Composition, Toronto, Canada. J. Atmos. Sci. 56 (2), 151−175.
Burrows J.P., Borrel, P. & Platt, U. (Eds) and authors (2011). The Remote Sensing of
Tropospheric Composition from Space, Springer, Heidelberg. doi: 10.1007/978-3-
642-14791-3
Carli, B., Mencaraglia, F. & Bonetti, A. (1984). Submillimeter high resolution FT
spectrometer for atmospheric studies. Appl. Opt. 23, 2594−2603.
Chance, K.V., Johnson, D.G. & Traub, W.A. (1989). Measurement of stratospheric
HOCl: Concentration profiles, including diurnal variation. J. Geophys. Res. 94,
11059–11069.
Chu, W. & McCormick, M.P. (1979). Inversion of stratospheric aerosol and gaseous
constituents from spacecraft solar extinction data in the 0.38−1.0 micron region.
Appl. Opt. 18, 1404−1414.
Coffey, M.T., Mankin, W.G. & Golden, A. (1981). Simultaneous spectroscopic
determination of the latitudinal, seasonal, and diurnal variability of N2O, NO,
NO2 and HNO3. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 7331−7341.
Connors, V.S., Cahoon, D.R., Reichle, H.G. Jr. & Scheel, H.E. (1991). Comparison
between carbon monoxide measurements from spaceborne and airborne
platforms. Can. J. Phys. 69, 1128−1137.
Crewell, S., Künzi, K., Nett, H., Wehr, T. & Hartogh, P. (1993). Aircraft measurements
of ClO and HCl during EASOE 1991/92. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 1267−1270.
Crutzen P.J. (1970). Influence of the oxides of nitrogen on atmospheric ozone
content. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 96(408), 320−325. doi: 10.1002/qj.49709640815
Crutzen, P.J. (1973). A discussion of the chemistry of some minor constituents in
the stratosphere and the troposphere. Pure Appl. Geophys. 106−108, 1385−1399.
Dave, J.V. & Mateer, C.L. (1967). A preliminary study of the possibility of estimating
total atmospheric ozone from satellite measurements. J. Atmos. Sci. 24, 414−427.
Deschamps, P.Y., Herman, M., Podaire, A., Leroy, M., Laporte, M. & Vermande, P.
(1990). A spatial instrument for the observation of polarization and directionality
of Earth reflectances. Proc. IGARSS 90, IEEE, Washington, DC.
DeZafra, R.L., Jaramillo, M., Parrish, A., Solomon, P., Connor, R. & Barrett, J. (1987).
High concentrations of chlorine monoxide at low altitudes in the Antarctic spring
stratosphere: diurnal variation. Nature 328, 408−411.
Eisinger, M. & Burrows, J.P. (1998a). Observations of SO2 from volcanic plumes.
Earth Obs. Q. 58, 16−18.
Eisinger, M. & Burrows, J.P. (1998b). Tropospheric sulphur dioxide observed by the
ERS‑2 GOME Instrument, Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 4177−4180.
ESA (1991) Report of the Earth Observation User Consultation Meeting, Barron, C. &
Battrick, B. (eds), May 1991. ESA SP-1143, European Space Agency, Paris.
Farman, J.C., Gardner B.G. & Franklin, J.D. (1985). Large losses of total ozone in
Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx and NOx interaction. Nature 315, 207−210.
Farmer, C.B., Raper O.F. & O’Callaghan, F.G. (1987). Final report on the first flight
of the ATMOS instrument during the Spacelab 3 mission, Publication 87−32, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasedena, California.
Farquhar, J., Bao, H. & Thiemens, M. (2000). Atmospheric influence of Earth’s earliest
sulfur cycle. Science 289(5480), 756−758. doi: 10.1126/science.289.5480.756.
Finlayson-Pitts, B.J. & Pitts, J.N. Jr. (1986). Atmospheric Chemistry: Fundamentals
and Experimental Techniques. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
Fishman, J. and Crutzen, P.J. (1978). Origin of ozone in the troposphere. Nature
274(5674), 855−858. doi: 10.1038/274855a0
Fishman, J., Watson, C.E., Larsen, J.C. & Logan, J.A. (1990). Distribution of
tropospheric ozone determined from satellite data. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 3599−3617.
136
GOME and SCIAMACHY
137
SP-1326
Hilsenrath, E., Cebula, R.P., Deland, M.T., Laamann, K., Taylor, S., Wellemeyer, C.
and Bhartia, P.K. (1995). Calibration of the NOAA-11 solar backscatter ultraviolet
(SBUV/2) ozone data set from 1989 to 1993 using in-flight calibration data and
SSBUV. J. Geophys. Res. 100, 1351−1366.
Hilsenrath, E., Newman, P.A., Cebula, R.B., DeCamp, P.W., Kelly, T.J. & Coy, L.
(1996). Ozone change from 1992 to 1993 as observed from SSBUV on the ATLAS-1
and ATLAS-2 missions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 2305−2308.
Hilsenrath, E., Williams, D. & Frederick, J. (1988). Calibration of long term data sets
from operational satellites using the space shuttle. Proc. SPIE 924, 215−222.
Holloway, A.M & Wayne, R.P. (2010). Atmospheric Chemistry. Royal Society of
Chemistry, London.
Houghton, J.T., Meira-Filho, L.G., Bruce, J., Hoesung Lee, Callander, B.A., Haites,
E., Harris, N. & Maskell, K. (Eds.) (1995). Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing
of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hoogen R., Rozanov, V., Bramstedt, K., Eichmann, K.-U., Weber, M., de Beek, R.,
Buchwitz, M. & Burrows, J.P. (1998). Height resolved ozone information from
GOME data. Earth Obs. Q. 58, 9−10.
Hoogen, R., Rozanov, V.V., Bramstedt, K., Eichmann, K.-U., Weber, M. & Burrows,
J.P. (1999a). O3 profiles from GOME satellite data, I: Comparison with ozonesonde
measurements. Phys. Chem. Earth C – Solar, Terrestial and Planetary Science
24(5), 447−452.
Hoogen, R., Rozanov, V.V. & Burrows, J.P. (1999b). Ozone profiles from GOME
satellite data: algorithm description and first validation. J. Geophys. Res. −
Atmospheres 104 (D7), 8263−8280.
Hudson, R.D. (2012). Measurements of the movement of the jet streams at mid-
latitudes, in the northern and southern hemispheres, 1979 to 2010. Atmos. Phys.
Chem. 12(16), 7797−7808. doi: 10.5194/acp-12-7797-2012.
Hudson, R.D., Kim, J. & Thompson, A.M. (1995). On the derivation of tropospheric
column ozone from radiance measured by the total ozone mapping spectrometer.
J. Geophys. Res. 100, 11138−11145.
Hudson, R.D. & Thompson, A.M. (1998). Tropical ozone from total ozone mapping
spectrometer by a modified residual method. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 22129−22146.
Hsu, N.C., Herman, J.R., Bhartia, P.K., Seftor, C.J., Torres, O., Thompson, A.M.,
Gleason, J.F., Eck, T.F. & Holben, B.N. (1996). Detection of biomass burning
smoke from TOMSmeasurements. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 745−748.
Ignatov, A.M., Stiwe, L.L., Sakerin, S.M. & Korotaev, G.K. (1995). Validation of
the NOAA/NESDIS satellite aerosol product over the North Atlantic in 1989.
J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5123−5132.
Iozenas, V.A. et al., (1969a). Studies of the Earth’s ozonosphere from satellites. Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR Fiz. Atmos. Okeana 5, 77−82.
Iozenas, V.A. et al., (1969b). An investigation of the planetary ozone distribution
from satellite measurements of ultraviolet spectra. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Fiz.
Atmos. Okeana 5, 219−233.
Johnston, H.S. (1971). Reduction of stratospheric ozone by nitrogen oxide catalysts
from supersonic transport exhaust. Science 173(3996), 517–521. doi: 10.1126/
science.173.3996.517
Johnston, H.S. (1974). Photochemistry in the stratosphere with applications to
supersonic transport. Acta Astronaut. 1 (1−2), 135−156. doi: 10.1016/0094-
5765(74)90013-7.
Kaleschke, L., Richter, A., Burrows, J.P., Afe, O., Heygster, G., Notholt, J., Rankin,
A.M, Roscoe, H.K., Hollwedel, J., Wagner, T. & Jacobi, H.W. (2004). Frost flowers
on sea ice as a source of sea salt and their influence on tropospheric halogen
chemistry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31(16), L16114.
Kim, J.-H., Hudson, R.D. & Thompson, A.M. (1996). A new method for deriving
time averaged tropospheric column ozone over the tropics using total ozone
monitoring spectrometer (TOMS). radiances: Intercomparison and analysis
using TRACE A data. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 24317−24330.
138
GOME and SCIAMACHY
139
SP-1326
Reichle, H.G. Jr., Connors, V.S., Holland, J.A., Sherrill, R.T., Wallio, H.A., Casas,
J.C., Condon, E.P., Gormsen, B.B. & Seiler, W. (1990). The distribution of middle
tropospheric carbon monoxide during early October 1984. J. Geophys. Res. 95,
9845−9856.
Richter, A., Wittrock, F., Eisinger, M. & Burrows, J.P. (1998). GOME observations of
tropospheric BrO in the northern hemispheric spring and summer 1997. Geophys.
Res. Lett. 25, 2683−2686.
Richter, A., Eyring, E., Burrows, J.P., Bovensmann, H., Lauer, A., Sierk, B. &
Crutzen, P.J. (2004). Satellite measurements of NO2 from international shipping
emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31 (23), L23110.
Richter, A., Burrows, J.P., Nüß, H., Granier, C. & Niemeier, U. (2005). Increase in
tropospheric nitrogen dioxide over China observed from space. Nature 437,
129−132.
Roche, A.E. & Kumer, J.B. (1989). Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer
(CLAES). Proc. SPIE 973, 324−335.
Roche, A.E., Forney, P.B., Kumer, J.B., Naes, L.G. & Nast, T.C. (1982). Performance
analysis for the cryogenic etalon spectrometer on the upper atmospheric
research satellite. Proc. SPIE 354, 46−54.
Rozanov, V., Diebel, D., Spurr, R.J.D. & Burrows, J.P. (1997). GOMETRAN: A
Radiative Transfer Model for the Satellite Project GOME: I Plane-Parallel Version,
J. Geophys. Res. − Atmospheres 102 (D14), 16683−16695 .
Rozanov, V.V., Kurosu, T. & Burrows, J.P. (1998). Retrieval of atmospheric constituents
in the UV-visible: A new analytical approach for the calculation of weighting
functions. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Trans. 60(2), 277−299.
Rusch, D.W., Mount, G.H., Barth, C.A., Thomas, R.J. & Callan, M.T. (1984). Solar
mesospheric explorer ultraviolet spectrometer: measurements of ozone in the
1.0−0.1 mbar region. J. Geophys. Res. 84, 11677−11687.
Sander. R., Burrows, J.P. & Kaleschke, L. (2006). Carbonate precipitation in brine – a
potential trigger for tropospheric ozone depletion events. Atmos. Phys. Chem. 6,
4653−4658.
Schönhardt, A., Richter, A., Wittrock, F., Kirk, H. & Burrows, J.P. (2007/2008).
Observations of iodine monoxide (IO) columns from satellite. Atmos. Chem. Phys.
Discussions 712959−12999 (2007); Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 637−653 (2008).
Simpson, W.R., von Glasow, R., Riedel, K., Anderson, P., Ariya, P., Bottenheim,
J., Burrows, J.P., Carpenter, L., Frieß, U., Goodsite, M.E., Heard, D., Hutterli,
M., Jacobi, H.W., Kaleschke, L., Neff, B., Plane, J., Platt, U., Richter, A.,
Roscoe, H., Sander, R., Singer, S.F. & Wentworth, R.C. (2007). A method for the
determination of the vertical ozone distribution of ozone distribution from a
satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 62, 299−308.
Singer, S.F. & Wentworth, R.C. (1957). A method for the determination of the vertical
ozone distribution from a satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 62(2) 299–308. doi: 10.1029/
JZ062i002p00299
Stachnik, R.A., Hardy, J.C., Torsala, J.A., Waters, J.W. & Erickson, N.R. (1992). Sub-
millimeter heterodyne measurements of stratospheric ClO, HCl, O3 and HCl: First
results. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19, 1931−1934.
Stolarski, R.S. and Cicerone, R.J. (1974). Stratospheric chlorine – a possible sink for
ozone? Can. J. Chem. 52(8), 1610–1615. doi: 10.1139/v74-233.
Thomas, R.J., Barth, C.A., Rusch, D.W. & Sanders, R.W. (1984). Solar mesospheric
near-infrared spectrometer: measurements of 1.27 mm radiances and inference
for mesospheric ozone. J. Geophys. Res. 89, 9569−9580.
Thomas, W., Hegels, E., Slijkhuis, S., Spurr, R. & Chance, K. (1998). Detection of
biomass burning products in South East Asia from backscatter data taken by the
GOME spectrometer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 1317−1320.
Titz, R., Birk, M. Hausamann, D., Nitsche, R., Schrier, F., Urban, J., Küllmann, H. &
Röser, H.P. (1995). Observation of stratospheric OH at 2.5 THz with an airborne
heterodyne system. Infrared Phys.Technol. 36, 883−891.
140
GOME and SCIAMACHY
UARS (1987). Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. Project Data Book April 1987.
Prepared by General Electric Astro-Space Division, Valley Forge, for the NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center.
Waters, J.W., Hardy, J.C., Jarnot, R.F. & Pickett, H.M. (1981). Chlorine monoxide
radical, ozone and hydrogen peroxide by microwave limb sounding. Science
214, 61−64.
Waters, J.W., Hardy, J.C., Jarnot, R.F., Pickett, H.M. & Zimmermann, P. (1984).
A balloon borne microwave limb sounder for stratospheric measurements.
J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Trans. 32, 407−433.
Waters, J.W., Froideveaux, L., Read, W.G., Manney, G.L., Elson, L.S., Flower, D.A.,
Jarnot R.F., & Harwood, R.S. (1993). Stratospheric ClO and ozone from the
microwave limb sounder on the Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite. Nature
362, 597−602.
Wayne, R.P. (1992). Chemistry of Atmospheres. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
Wittrock, F., Richter, A., Oetjen, H., Burrows, J.P., Kanakidou, M., Myriokefalitakis,
S., Volkamer, R., Beirle, S., Platt, U. & Wagner, T. (2006). Simultaneous global
observations of glyoxal and formaldehyde from space. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33,
L16804. doi: 10.1029/2006GL026310
WMO (2010). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010. Report No. 52,
World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring
Project. WMO, NOAA, NASA, UNEP, WMO and the European Commission.
http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/SAP/Scientific_Assessment_2010/
Wofsey, S.C., McElroy, M.B. & Yung, Y.L (1975). Chemistry of atmospheric bromine.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 2(6), 215–218. doi: 10.1029/GL002i006p00215
Zander, R. (1981). Recent observations of HF and HCl in the upper stratosphere.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 8, 413−416.
Ziemke, J.R., Chandra, S. & Bhartia, P.K. (1998). Two new methods for deriving
tropospheric column ozone from TOMS measurements: Assimilated UARS MLS/
HALOE and convective-cloud differential techniques. J. Geophys. Res. 103(D17),
22 115–22 127.
141
→→ The ERS Scatterometer:
Achievements and the Future
Scatterometer
1. Introduction
The first Active Microwave Instrument was launched on the European Remote
Sensing satellite, ERS‑1, in July 1991. When operated in Wind Scatterometer
mode, the instrument acquired measurements of sea surface wind speed and
direction. ERS Scatterometer (ESCAT) data are now widely used for hurricane
prediction, Numerical Weather Prediction, marine ‘nowcasting’, oceanography,
hydrology and studies of the cryosphere, with societal and economic benefits
in areas such as marine safety, offshore activities, ship routing, wind energy
and climate change monitoring.
The ESCAT research mission was well prepared with aircraft campaigns,
including the setup of the RENE campaign for Calibration and Validation
(Cal/Val), the development of a Geophysical Model Function (GMF) and initial
preparations for user applications, such as the near-realtime availability of
the scatterometer winds. Nevertheless, initial comparisons of the ESCAT
winds with other wind information showed large inconsistencies. This led
to the development of novel analytical techniques using the measurement
space of ESCAT, which confirmed the expected internal consistency of the
ESCAT measurements and the low noise, but also provided an improved
characterisation of the sensitivity to wind speed and direction, resulting
in improved GMFs. Moreover, the visualisation of the ESCAT measurement
space provided insights into the nonlinear wind retrieval problem, which has
subsequently been improved, aided the discrimination of sea ice and water,
and provided important insights into wind quality control.
The ESCAT wind Cal/Val also led to the development of the triple
collocation methodology, which is now widely used in satellite algorithm
development. The lessons learnt from ESCAT were readily applied to the
NASA scatterometer missions at the Ku-band and provided similar benefits,
leading to improved rain screening and wind datasets. ESCAT has also been
successfully applied in soil moisture, sea ice and snow characterisation,
leading to operational applications. ESCAT’s heritage has also been important
in the development of the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on MetOp for the
Eumetsat Polar System (EPS). The EPS Second Generation ASCAT (ASCAT-SG)
is now being designed, where the ESCAT C‑band static fan beam concept is
being maintained due to its great success. This may well lead to over 40 years
of C-band fan beam scatterometer data, which will be a tremendous resource
for climate applications for studying wind climatologies, air–sea interactions,
atmospheric processes, etc. The demand for the unique ESCAT data and
services will therefore remain high in the years to come.
145
SP-1326
146
Scatterometer
147
SP-1326
parameters, i.e. wind speed and direction, the ESCAT wind retrieval problem
is overdetermined in principle. Moreover, the dominant harmonic azimuth
dependence of the radar backscatter is a double harmonic (Long, 1986), which
is ideally sampled by three azimuth angles 45° apart, enabling rather constant
wind direction sensitivity of the ESCAT instrument. It was therefore anticipated
(Attema, 1991) that this measurement geometry would generally result in (only)
two opposite wind vector solutions and some residual information.
Based on the available technology, the C-band wavelength was chosen
for the ERS microwave mission. With hindsight, this was a very fortunate
choice as it provided sufficient wind sensitivity and little sensitivity to rain
effects. Several campaigns were conducted to prepare the ESCAT mission (e.g.
PROGRESS and TOSCANE).
Long (1986) developed empirical GMFs to match backscatter measurements
with the measurement geometry and local wind conditions. Inversion of
this GMF at each WVC revealed two wind vector solutions. As the satellite
propagates along its orbit it thus produced a swath of WVCs with ambiguous
winds, so that statistical techniques that exploited prior information on the
spatial structure of the surface wind field were developed to resolve these
ambiguities (e.g. Offiler, 1987).
148
Scatterometer
ESCAT winds. Since the bias patterns were very stable and repetitive, there was
hope that they could be removed.
149
SP-1326
three beams. This effect is particularly relevant for low winds, as these show
the highest relative variation in surface backscatter. The inconsistency in the
spatial collocation of fore, mid- and aft beams and the resulting backscatter
uncertainty due to local (sub-WVC) wind variability has been called
‘geophysical noise’ by Portabella & Stoffelen (2006).
In the cross sections (as in Fig. 6) occasional triplets are seen that lie almost
in the middle of the cone (i.e. along its major axis) and rather far away from
the wind GMF manifold as measured by the nominal noise parameters. These
triplets do not correspond to good-quality winds and are rejected after wind
retrieval by a Quality Control (QC) step. For ERS and ASCAT, about 0.5% of data
over the open ocean (Portabella et al., 2011) could be rejected as being unlikely
wind triplets. The same QC methodology has been applied to the NASA
Scatterometer (NSCAT; Figa & Stoffelen, 2000) and SeaWinds instruments at
the Ku-band with great success (Portabella & Stoffelen, 2001, 2002). At this
wavelength about 5% of open-ocean WVCs are rejected by the QC procedure,
most often due to rain clouds.
It was also noted that in cross sections across the cone (Fig. 6, left panels)
the measurements appear to be triangular in shape. Stoffelen & Anderson
(1997a) realised that prior knowledge of this particular shape could be used in
the wind retrieval in order to avoid irregularities (attractors) in the retrieved
wind directions. They found a rather simple transformation of the backscatter
measurement space that results in a circular manifold. A circular manifold has
constant prior probability of each wind direction and is straightforward in the
wind retrieval. Later, Stoffelen & Portabella (2006) noted that the wind retrieval
in the transformed measurement space with a circular GMF manifold is regular
since it results in a wind vector sensitivity that is rather smooth and constant.
However, while the transformation works well for ESCAT-type scatterometers,
constant wind vector sensitivity cannot be obtained for rotating pencil-beam
scatterometers. So, due to rain and measurement geometry rotating pencil-
beam Ku-band scatterometers are difficult to handle, but the experiences with
ESCAT resulted in unprecedented-quality retrievals for QuikScat and OceanSat-2
150
Scatterometer
(Stoffelen et al., 2013; Vogelzang et al., 2011). Table 1 provides evidence of the
high accuracy of the scatterometer products based on ESCAT heritage.
The final advance in the geophysical interpretation of the ESCAT backscatter
data was its use to model sea ice and to discriminate between water and sea ice
surfaces. Just like wind over water, sea ice has a very particular signature in
the measurement space. Sea ice surfaces are generally isotropic with varying
roughness. Indeed, sea ice points lie on a line in measurement space, where the
coordinate along the line depicts sea ice roughness (De Haan & Stoffelen, 2001).
Subsequently, Bayesian methods were used to compute the probability of water
in the WVC (Belmonte Rivas & Stoffelen, 2011). This method, first developed for
ESCAT, is now also in use for the QuikScat and the OceanSat-2 scatterometers.
In summary, the advances inspired by the ESCAT measurement space
revolutionised not only the ESCAT wind retrieval methodology, but also those
of all other wind scatterometers.
151
SP-1326
shaded Meteosat IR image is coherent with the scatterometer winds, with wind
convergence patterns lining up well with cloud patterns, revealing details of
the local meteorological conditions.
Since C-band scatterometers are much less affected by rain than Ku-band
scatterometers, the representation of deep tropical convection will be much
improved. However, there may still be issues of concern due to effects of splash, i.e.
rain droplets roughening the sea surface, or wind downbursts. The latter are due
to air cooled by melting and evaporating precipitation, thus increasing its mass
density and falling to the sea surface, where the air is deflected in the horizontal
direction, often in a circular outflow pattern. The horizontal extent of downburst
patterns is generally much larger than that of the associated rain patterns.
Figure 8 shows a representative example of moored buoy winds in the
tropics in the presence of rain. Wind shifts as large as 10 m s–1 are often
associated with local rain. However, convective areas also show wind shifts
when no rain is measured at the buoy. This is most likely because the horizontal
extent of downburst areas is larger than those of rain areas. ASCAT winds are
variable in convective areas, but prove a reasonable representation of the local
buoy winds, given the rather high wind variance in the spatial representation
difference of buoy and ASCAT. Triple collocation shows that the ECMWF model
winds are clearly further away from the buoy winds, as expected, given the
rather smooth wind fields in such convective areas (Portabella et al., 2011). It
may be clear that convective processes in the tropics have a rather large effect
on the surface winds and air−sea interaction processes, but also on vertical
exchange in the atmosphere and tropical circulation. It remains a challenge
today to assimilate the full spatial detail as measured by a scatterometer into
NWP models. Therefore, process studies using scatterometer data will remain
necessary in order to exploit scatterometer data to the full.
152
Scatterometer
153
SP-1326
154
Scatterometer
Figure 10. Mean monthly soil moisture derived from ESCAT backscatter data (1992−2000) for January, April, July and October. Brown tones
indicate dry conditions (wilting level), blue tones indicate wet conditions (field capacity). Tropical forest, desert regions with strong azimuth
effects, and areas affected by snow and frost have been masked out.
155
SP-1326
teams quickly demonstrated the high quality of the data (Dirmeyer et al.,
2004; Drusch et al., 2004; Pellarin et al., 2006). This was unexpected because
active C-band measurements had not been considered to be well suited for the
retrieval of soil moisture. This was mainly because, first, active measurements
are more sensitive to surface roughness compared with passive microwave
measurements and, second, the C-band (λ = 3.8−7.5 cm) is less able to penetrate
vegetation and the soil than the L-band (λ = 15−30 cm) (Wagner et al., 2007).
Exactly for these reasons, passive long-wavelength measurement concepts
have been selected for ESA’s Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission
and NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission – the first two satellite
missions developed specifically for the retrieval of soil moisture – utilising
passive sensors operating at the L-band (Entekhabi et al., 2004; Kerr, 2007).
Nevertheless, the positive results from the validation studies, and
the increasing use of the ESCAT soil moisture database in such diverse
applications as hydrology (Parajka et al., 2006; Scipal et al., 2005), Numerical
Weather Prediction (Scipal et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2006), agronomy (De Wit
& van Diepen, 2007) and climate monitoring (Künzer et al., 2009) led to the
recommendation to build up a global near-realtime soil moisture service for
ASCAT. This operational service was developed by Eumetsat in cooperation
with TU Wien, and went fully operational in December 2008 (Bartalis et al.,
2007; Wagner et al., 2010).
In retrospect, it can be said that this unexpected success was possible
because of ESCAT’s unique characteristics:
Now that the ERS‑2 mission has come to a successful end, there is an
opportunity to reprocess the complete ESCAT data archive to 25 km to create
a Fundamental Climate Data Record (FCDR) that will provide crucial inputs
to any effort dealing with the creation of an Essential Climate Variable (ECV)
record on soil moisture (Wagner et al., 2009). The first efforts in this direction
are already underway and it is planned to release an improved 25-km resolution
ESCAT soil moisture dataset in 2013. Furthermore, by merging ESCAT and
ASCAT soil moisture data with a suite of soil moisture products derived from
passive microwave sensors (SMMR, SSM/I, TMI, AMSR-E) it will be possible
to create a 30+ year soil moisture ECV data record (Dorigo et al., 2010; Liu et
al., 2011). Such a first soil moisture ECV dataset, where ESCAT is essential for
characterising the climate in the 1990s, is also planned for release in 2013.
156
Scatterometer
4. The Future
4.1 C-band Fan Beam Scatterometer Heritage
ESCAT was followed by ASCAT, a clear heritage instrument, building on
the success of the ESCAT instrument and ground processing. The Eumetsat
Polar System programme lists the Second Generation ASCAT as a high-
priority instrument. Specific requirements include slightly increased spatial
resolution, extended swath, radiometric stability with reference to ASCAT,
and the addition of horizontal polarisation. The C-band was chosen because it
provides good sensitivity, all-weather capability and continuity of the ESCAT
and ASCAT series. Rotating pencil beam concepts were discarded due to poorer
simulated performance, while rotating fan beam concepts were considered to
be technically too complex, since ASCAT-SG would share a satellite platform
with several other Earth-viewing microwave instruments (Lin et al., 2012).
The addition of horizontal polarisation could potentially result in an
improved capability to sense hurricane winds, since the vertical emit and receive
polarisation of ESCAT and ASCAT saturates at around 40 m s–1. Since Eumetsat,
together with many international sister agencies, is involved in building a global
constellation of ocean vector wind missions (CEOS VC) and obtaining extreme
winds is a prerequisite for these sister agencies, the requirement for measuring
extreme winds becomes more important. Horizontal polarisation in addition
to vertical polarisation, however, requires an extended-capability antenna,
which may be best accommodated on the mid-beams that are fixed on the body
of the satellite platform. When emitting and receiving horizontal polarisation
(HH) with the mid-beam, the additional sensitivity to hurricane winds would
be limited as the geophysical dependency of HH is only favourable for extreme
winds at incidence angles above 35° (see Fig. 12). Therefore, ASCAT-SG incidence
angles from 20° to 35° would not profit much from the extended HH capability.
157
SP-1326
Another, more convenient, option would be to use the vertically emitted pulses
and use the dual-polarisation mid-beam antennas to receive both the vertical
(VV) and horizontal polarisations (VH).
Recently, Vachon & Wolfe (2011) reported on the Radarsat SAR, which has
cross-polarisation or VH capability, a linear dependency of VH backscatter
on wind speed. No significant dependency on azimuth or incidence angle
was found. Preliminary verification of the Radarsat SAR VH backscatter
dependency in tropical hurricanes confirmed a linear dependency at extreme
winds as well, but with somewhat reduced slope. NOAA’s aircraft campaigns
and Eumetsat’s Satellite Application Facility for Numerical Weather Prediction
(NWP SAF) performance assessments are planned to verify the VH geophysical
dependency at extreme winds.
Cross-polarisation capability would furthermore improve vegetation
determination and, as a consequence, soil moisture index retrieval. Advantages
for sea ice detection are also anticipated.
Following the successful ERS mission at the C-band and successful NASA
missions at the Ku-band, several agencies plan to develop scatterometer
systems combining both wavelengths. In this way, resolution enhancements
may be combined with the C‑band all-weather capability.
158
Scatterometer
5. Conclusions
C-band scatterometer data are now widely used for hurricane prediction,
Numerical Weather Prediction, marine nowcasting, oceanography, hydrology
and studies of the cryosphere, providing societal and economic benefits in
areas such as marine safety, offshore activities, ship routing, wind energy
and climate change monitoring. The ESCAT research mission anticipated such
a wide range of applications, with for example the near-realtime availability
of the scatterometer winds. The launch of ERS‑1 inspired the development of
novel analytical techniques using the measurement space of ESCAT, which
confirmed the expected internal consistency of the ESCAT measurements and
the low noise, but also provided improved characterisation of the sensitivity
to wind speed and direction, resulting in improved GMFs. Moreover, the
visualisation of the ESCAT measurement space provided insights into the
nonlinear wind retrieval problem, which has subsequently been improved.
It has also aided the discrimination of sea ice and water and has provided
important insights into the wind retrieval quality control.
The ESCAT wind Cal/Val led to the further development of the triple
collocation methodology that is now widely used in Earth observation. The
lessons learnt from ESCAT were readily applied to the NASA scatterometer
missions at the Ku-band and provided similar benefits, leading to improved
rain screening and wind datasets. ESCAT has also been successfully applied
in soil moisture, sea ice and snow characterisation, leading to operational
applications. The ESCAT heritage has been important for the development of
ASCAT on MetOp for the Eumetsat Polar System. The EPS Second Generation
ASCAT is now being designed, where the ESCAT C-band static fan beam concept
is being maintained due to its great success. This may well lead to over 40 years
of C-band scatterometer data, which will be a tremendous resource for climate
applications to study wind climatologies, air–sea interactions, atmospheric
processes, etc. The demand for the unique ESCAT wind, soil moisture, snow
and sea ice data will therefore remain high in the years to come, and continued
ESA data and processing services would provide great benefit to society.
159
SP-1326
Acknowledgements
The NWP SAF scatterometer wind processors for SeaWinds (SDP) and ASCAT
(AWDP) are freeware, and can be obtained upon registration at www.nwpsaf.org.
Access to near-realtime scatterometer wind products can be obtained upon
registration at www.osi-saf.org. The NWP SAF and OSI SAF are sponsored by
Eumetsat.
TU Wien would like to acknowledge the support of the Austrian Science
Fund (FWF), the Austrian Space Application Programme (ASAP) and ESA for
developing the first ESCAT soil moisture database. The support through the
enhanced-resolution ERS‑2 Scatterometer Soil Moisture Product project funded
by ESA is also gratefully acknowledged.
References
Attema, E.P.W. (1991). The Active Microwave Instrument on-board the ERS‑1
satellite. Proc. IEEE 79(6), 791–799. doi: 10.1109/5.90158
Bartalis, Z., Wagner, W., Naeimi, V., Hasenauer, S., Scipal, K., Bonekamp, H., Figa,
J. and Anderson, C. (2007). Initial soil moisture retrievals from the MetOp-A
Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT). Geophys. Res. Lett 34, L20401.
Belmonte Rivas, M. & A. Stoffelen, 2011, New Bayesian algorithm for sea ice
detection with QuikSCAT. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. I 49(6), 1894–1901.
doi:10.1109/TGRS.2010.2101608
Blanke, B., Speich, S., Bentamy, A., Roy, C. & Sow, B. (2005). Modelling the
structure and variability of the southern Benguela upwelling using QuikSCAT
wind forcing. J. Geophys. Res. 110, C07018. doi: 1029/2004JC002529
Bourassa, M.A., Stoffelen, A., Bonekamp, H., Chang, P., Chelton, D.B., Courtney,
J., Edson, R. Figa, J. He, Y., Hersbach, H., Hilburn, K., Jelenak, Z., Kelly, K.A.,
Knabb, R., Lee, T., Lindstrom, E.J., Liu, W.T., Long, D.G., Perrie, W., Portabella,
M., Powell, M., Rodriguez, E., Smith, D.K., Swail, V. & Wentz, F.J. (2009).
Remotely sensed winds and wind stresses for marine forecasting and ocean
modelling. Proc. OceanObs ’09: Sustained Ocean Observations and Information
for Society, Community White Paper. www.oceanobs09.net/proceedings/cwp/
Bourassa-OceanObs09.cwp.08.pdf
Cavanié, A., Demurger, J. & Lecomte, P. (1986). Evaluation of the different
parameters in Long’s C-band model. Proc. Workshop on ERS‑1 Wind and
Wave Calibration, Schliersee, Germany. ESA SP-262, European Space Agency,
Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.47−51.
CERSAT (2011). Monitoring Sea Ice Using Scatterometers of the ERS Satellites. Centre
ERS d’Archivage et de Traitement, IFREMER, France. http://cersat.ifremer.fr/
Science-Applications/Sea-ice/Sea-Ice-by-ERS
Chelton, D.B., Schlax, M.G. Freilich, M.H. & Milliff, R.E. (2004). Satellite
measurements reveal persistent small-scale features in ocean winds. Science
303, 978–983.
De Haan, S. & Stoffelen, A. (2001). Ice Discrimination using ERS Scatterometer.
Document external project: 2001, SAF/OSI/KNMI/TEC/TN/120, Eumetsat.
www.knmi.nl/publications/fulltexts/safosi_w_icescrknmi.pdf
De Wit, A. & Van Diepen, C. (2007). Crop model data assimilation with the ensemble
Kalman filter for improving regional crop yield forecasts. Agric. Forest Meteorol.
146(1–2), 38–56.
Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo, Z.C. & Gao, X. (2004). Comparison, validation, and
transferability of eight multiyear global soil wetness products. J. Hydrometeorol.
5(6), 1011–1033.
Dorigo, W.A., Scipal, K., Parinussa, R.M., Liu, Y.Y., Wagner, W., de Jeu, R.A.M. &
Naeimi, V. (2010). Error characterisation of global active and passive microwave
soil moisture datasets. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 14(12), 2605–2616.
160
Scatterometer
Drinkwater, M.R., Long, D.G. & Bingham, A.W. (2001). Greenland snow accumulation
estimates from satellite radar scatterometer data. J. Geophys. Res. D: Atmospheres
106(D24), 33 935–33 950.
Drusch, M., Wood, E., Gao, H. & Thiele, A. (2004). Soil moisture retrieval during
the Southern Great Plains Hydrologic Experiment 1999: A comparison between
experimental remote sensing data and operational products. Water Resources
Res. 40(W02504). doi:10.1029/2003WR002441.
Entekhabi, D., Njoku, E.G., Houser, P., Spencer, M., Doiron, T., Yunjin, K., Smith, J.,
Girard, R., Belair, S., Crow, W., Jackson, T.J., Kerr, Y.H., Kimball, J.S., Koster, R.,
McDonald, K.C., O’Neill, P.E., Pultz, T., Running, S.W., Jiancheng, S., Wood, E.
& van Zyl, J. (2004). The Hydrosphere State (Hydros) satellite mission: An Earth
system pathfinder for global mapping of soil moisture and land freeze/thaw.
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 42(10), 2184–2195.
ESA (1998). Proc. Emerging Scatterometer Applications Workshop, ESTEC. ESA
SP‑424, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
ESA (1999). Atmospheric Dynamics Mission: Core Earth Explorer Mission Selection
Report. ESA SP-1233(4), European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
Eumetsat OSI SAF (1999). www.knmi.nl/scatterometer/ers_prod/
Figa, J. & Stoffelen, A. (2000). On the assimilation of Ku-band scatterometer winds
for weather analysis and forecasting, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(4),
1893–1902.
Frison, P.L. & Mougin, E. (1996). Monitoring global vegetation dynamics with ERS‑1
wind scatterometer data. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 17(16), 3201–3218.
Hersbach, H. (2008). The usage of scatterometer data at ECMWF. OVWST meeting,
Seattle. http://coaps.fsu.edu/scatterometry/meeting/docs/2008/othersci/hersbach.pdf
Hersbach, H., Stoffelen, A. & de Haan, S. (2007). An improved C-band
scatterometer ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5. J. Geophys. Res. 112.
doi:10.1029/2006JC003743.
Hollmann, R., Merchant, C.J., Saunders, R., Downy, C., Buchwitz, M., Cazenave, A.,
Chuvieco, E., Defourny, P., de Leeuw, G., Forsberg, R., Holzer-Popp, T., Paul, F.,
Sandven, S., Sathyendranath, S., van Roozendael, M. & Wagner, W. (2013), The
ESA Climate Change Initiative: satellite data records for essential climate variables.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00254.1
Isaksen, L. & Stoffelen, A. (2000). ERS scatterometer wind data impact on ECMWF’s
tropical cyclone forecasts. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem Sens. 38, 1885–1892.
Isaksen, L. & Janssen, P.A.E.M. (2004). Impact of ERS scatterometer winds in
ECMWF’s assimilation system. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130(600), 1793–1814, Part
A. DOI: 10.1256/qj.03.110.
Kennett, R.G. & Li, F.K. (1989). Seasat over-land scatterometer data, I: Global
overview of the Ku-band backscatter coefficients. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens.
27(5), 592–605.
Kerr, Y.H. (2007). Soil moisture from space: Where are we? Hydrogeol. J. 15(1),
117–120.
Künzer, C., Zhao, D., Scipal, K., Sabel, D., Naeimi, V., Bartalis, Z., Hasenauer, S.,
Mehl, H., Dech, S. & Wagner, W. (2009). El Niño Southern Oscillation influences
represented in ERS scatterometer-derived soil moisture data. Appl. Geog. 29,
463–477.
Le Meur, D., Isaksen, L. Hansen, B., Saunders, R. & Janssen, P. (1998). Global
Validation of ERS Wind and Wave Products. Final report to the European Space
Agency, ESA contract No. 8488/95/NL/CN, ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading,
Berkshire, UK.
Lin, C.C., Betto, M. Belmonte Rivas, M. Stoffelen A. & de Kloe, J. (2012). Post-
EPS wind scatterometer concept trade-offs and wind retrieval performance
assessment. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 50(7), 2458−2472. doi: 10.1109/
TGRS.2011.2180393
161
SP-1326
162
Scatterometer
Scipal, K., Drusch, M., Hasenauer, S., Wagner, W. & Jann, A. (2007). Towards the
assimilation of scatterometer derived soil moisture in the ECMWF numerical
weather prediction system. Joint 2007 Eumetsat Meteorological Satellite Conf. and
15th Satellite Meteorology & Oceanography Conf. of the American Meteorological
Society, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Scipal, K., Scheffler, C. & Wagner, W. (2005). Soil moisture–runoff relation at the
catchment scale as observed with coarse resolution microwave remote sensing.
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 9(3), 173–183.
Scipal, K., Wagner, W., Trommler, M. & Naumann, K. (2002). The Global Soil
Moisture Archive 1992–2000 from ERS scatterometer data: First results. Proc.
IGARSS 2002.
Sienkiewicz, J., Brennan, M.J., Knabb, R., Chang, P.S., Cobb, H., Jelenak, Z.J.,
Ahmad, K.A., Soisuvarn, S., Kosier, D. & Bancroft, G. (2010). Impact of the loss of
QuikSCAT on NOAA MWS marine warning and forecast operations. 1st Int. Ocean
Vector Winds Science Team Meeting, Barcelona, Spain.
SSMIS (2011). www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/rsad/ssmi/swath/index.html
Stoffelen, A. (1998). Scatterometry, PhD Thesis, Utrecht University, the Netherlands.
http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/dissertations/01840669/inhoud.htm
Stoffelen, A. & Anderson, D. (1993). Wind retrieval and ERS‑1 scatterometer radar
backscatter measurements. Adv. Space Res. 13(5), (5)53–(5)60.
Stoffelen, A. & Anderson, D. (1997a). Scatterometer data interpretation: measurement
space and inversion. J. Atm. Ocean Techn. 14(6), 1298–1313.
Stoffelen, A. & Anderson, D. (1997b). Ambiguity removal and assimilation of
scatterometer data. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 123, 491–518.
Stoffelen, A. & van Beukering, P. (1997). Implementation of Improved ERS
Scatterometer Data Processing and its Impact on HIRLAM Short Range Weather
Forecasts. HIRLAM Technical Report No. 31, KNMI, the Netherlands.
Stoffelen, A. & Cats, G. (1991). The impact of SeaSat-A scatterometer data on high-
resolution analyses and forecasts: The development of the QEII storm. Mon. Wea.
Rev. 119, 2794–2802.
Stoffelen, A., & Portabella, M. (2006). On Bayesian scatterometer wind inversion,
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 44(6), 1523–1533. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2005.862502
Stoffelen, A. & Verhoef, A. (2011). Validation of Oceansat-2 scatterometer data,
Proc. Eumetsat Satellite Conf., Oslo, Norway, www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/
AboutEUMETSAT/Publications/ConferenceandWorkshopProceedings/2011/
groups/cps/documents/document/pdf_conf_p59_s5_06_stoffele_v.pdf
Stoffelen, A., Verhoef, A., Verspeek, J., Vogelzang, J., Driesenaar, T., Risheng, Y.,
Payan, C., De Chiara, G., Cotton, J., Bentamy, A., Portabella, M. & Marseille,
G.J. (2013). Research and Development in Europe on global application of
the OceanSat-2 Scatterometer winds, Document extern project: 2013, NWP
SAF report number: NWPSAF-KN-TR-022 OSI SAF report no. SAF/OSI/CDOP2/
KNMI/TEC/RP/196, KNMI, De Bilt, the Netherlands. www.knmi.nl/publications/
fulltexts/oceansat_cal_val_report_final_copy1.pdf
Tokmakian, R. (2005). An ocean model’s response to scatterometer winds. Ocean
Modeling 9, 89–103.
Vachon, P. & Wolfe, J. (2011). C-band cross-polarization wind speed retrieval. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. Lett. 8(3), 456–459. doi: 10.1109/LGRS.2010.2085417.
Verspeek, J., Stoffelen, A. Verhoef, A. & Portabella, M. (20112. Improved ASCAT
wind retrieval using NWP ocean calibration. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens.
50(7), 2488–2494. doi: 10.1109/TGRS.2011.2180730
Vogelzang, J., Stoffelen, A., Verhoef, A. & Figa-Saldaña, J. (2011). On the
quality of high-resolution scatterometer winds. J. Geophys. Res. 116, C10033.
doi:10.1029/2010JC006640.
Vogelzang, J. & Stoffelen, A. (2012). Scatterometer wind vector products for
application in meteorology and oceanography. J. Sea Res. special issue on
Physics of Sea and Ocean, 74, 16–25.
163
SP-1326
Wagner, W., Bartalis, Z., Naeimi, V., Park, S.-E., Figa-Saldana, J. & Bonekamp, H.
(2010). Status of the METOP ASCAT soil moisture product. Proc. IEEE Geoscience
and Remote Sensing Symp., IGARSS 2010, Honolulu, USA, pp.276–279.
Wagner, W., Blöschl, G., Pampaloni, P., Calvet, J.-C., Bizzarri, B., Wigneron, J.-P.
& Kerr, Y. (2007). Operational readiness of microwave remote sensing of soil
moisture for hydrologic applications. Nordic Hydrol. 38(1), 1–20.
Wagner, W., de Jeu, R. & van Oevelen, P. (2009). Towards multi-source global soil
moisture datasets for unravelling climate change impacts on water resources.
Proc. 33rd Int. Symp. on Remote Sensing of Environment (ISRSE). Joint Research
Centre of the European Commission, Stresa, Italy, p.3.
Wagner, W., Lemoine, G., Borgeaud, M. & Rott, H. (1999a). A study of vegetation
cover effects on ERS scatterometer data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 37(2),
938–948.
Wagner, W., Noll, J., Borgeaud, M. & Rott, H. (1999b). Monitoring soil moisture over
the Canadian Prairies with the ERS scatterometer. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens.
37(1), 206–216.
Wagner, W., Scipal, K., Pathe, C., Gerten, D., Lucht, W. & Rudolf, B. (2003).
Evaluation of the agreement between the first global remotely sensed soil
moisture data with model and precipitation data. J. Geophys. Res. D: Atmospheres
108(D19), Art. No. 4611.
Wen, J. & Su, Z.B. (2003). A time series based method for estimating relative soil
moisture with ERS wind scatterometer data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30(7), 1397.
WindSat (2011). www.nrl.navy.mil/WindSat/
Wismann, V. (2000). Monitoring of seasonal thawing in Siberia with ERS
scatterometer data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(4 II), 1804–1809.
Woodhouse, I.H. & Hoekman, D.H. (2000). Determining land-surface parameters
from the ERS wind scatterometer. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(1), 126–140.
Zhao, D., Su, B. & Zhao, M. (2006). Soil moisture retrieval from satellite images and
its application to heavy rainfall simulation in eastern China. Adv. Atmos. Sci.
23(2), 299–316.
Zribi, M., André, C. & Decharme, B. (2008). A method for soil moisture estimation in
Western Africa based on the ERS scatterometer. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens.
46(2), 438–448.
164
→→ The ERS SAR Wave Mode:→
A Breakthrough in Global
Ocean Wave Observations
SAR Wave Mode
1. Introduction
The first European Remote Sensing satellite, ERS‑1, launched on 17 August
1991, was conceived in the 1980s, at a time of growing scientific and public
awareness of the need to better understand, monitor and manage the Earth
system. The dangers of environmental degradation, the alarming increase in
the rate of loss of species, and the threat of irreversible climate change had
emphasised the need to treat Earth as an integrated system. Satellites provided
a unique opportunity to obtain the necessary global, continuous datasets. And
an ocean satellite would clearly be needed as a key component of an integrated
satellite Earth observation system in order to monitor the oceans, which cover
more than two-thirds of Earth’s surface, and the ocean−atmosphere interface.
To achieve a 24-hour, all-weather global capability, it was decided that
the main instrument on ERS‑1 would be a multi-component Active Microwave
Instrument (AMI), consisting of a scatterometer, a radar altimeter and a
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Since they can see through clouds and are
independent of sunlight, microwave systems have the great advantage of being
able to operate under all conditions. The proof of concept of satellite-based
microwave measurements of the ocean had been provided by the NASA−NOAA
satellite Seasat, launched in August 1978. Although Seasat unfortunately failed
through a power short-circuit after only 100 days of operation, initial analyses
had demonstrated that microwaves, reflected or backscattered from the sea
167
SP-1326
surface, could provide valuable data on sea surface heights, sea surface winds,
wave heights and many other important features.
In particular, it had been shown that the SAR could reveal detailed
structural information on a wide variety of ocean phenomena. The SAR is an
advanced radar imaging instrument that achieves high resolution not only in
the range direction, through the standard radar technique of measuring the
travel time of short microwave pulses, but also in the along-track (azimuthal)
direction, by exploiting the Doppler shift induced by the satellite motion. The
achievable azimuthal resolution is then of the order of the antenna length, as
opposed to the inverse dependency on the antenna length for a conventional
radar. The ocean surface features imaged by the Seasat radar included the
propagation directions and wavelengths of surface waves and internal waves,
current-induced surface signatures of bottom topography, and the distribution
of oil slicks, eddies and fronts.
Seasat not only provided a major technical impetus for an improved follow-
on European satellite ERS‑1, but also created a strong motivation for European
scientists to engage in satellite remote sensing of the oceans. The collaboration
with American colleagues had demonstrated to European scientists the
exciting opportunities that all-weather global satellite measurements offered
for studies of the ocean, the coupled ocean−atmosphere system and the
cryosphere. Particularly influential in this respect was John Apel (1930−2001),
a long-standing advocate of ocean remote sensing and a key player in the
Seasat project.
One of the many important applications of ERS‑1 (1991–2000) and its
successors ERS‑2 (1995−2011) and Envisat (2002−12) was in the field of ocean
waves. The launch of ERS‑1 came at an opportune time for ocean wave
research. In the three decades prior to the launch of ERS‑1, detailed theoretical
studies and extensive field programmes had led to major advances in our
understanding of the dynamics and propagation of wind-driven ocean waves.
Numerical wave models, such as the WAM model (WAMDI, 1988), had been
developed to compute the space–time evolution of the two-dimensional
ocean wave spectrum, for given wind field forcing, as a function of period and
propagation direction (for a comprehensive summary of ocean wave research
and modelling, see Komen et al., 1994). What were needed now to drive the
models were good surface wind data, and, to initialise and validate the models,
good wave data. The combined modes of the Active Microwave Instrument of
ERS‑1 were able, in principle, to provide all the data needed: surface winds,
from the scatterometer and Radar Altimeter; mean wave heights, also from the
Radar Altimeter; and the full two-dimensional surface wave spectrum, from
the SAR.
168
SAR Wave Mode
Figure 1. ERS‑1 orbits and footprints of the nadir-looking Radar Altimeter and the full-swath SAR of the AMI. The wave-mode SAR was
switched on briefly every 200 km along the satellite track, producing a 5 × 10 km SAR imagette (top right). (From Lehner et al., 2000; DLR)
Bottom right: Example of the standard SAR wave mode product delivered by ESA. (Brooker, 1995)
the satellite was in sight of a ground station, to which the SAR data could
then be transmitted directly, and a global SAR wave mode, designed with
a periodic on/off operation cycle. The SAR wave mode was activated only for
a short period every 200 km along the orbit, producing 5 × 10 km rectangular
‘imagettes’ (see Fig. 1, top right). (In Envisat, which succeeded ERS‑1/ERS‑2, the
separation between imagettes was reduced to 100 km).
The wave mode data were sufficiently reduced relative to the full-swath
data that they could be stored aboard the satellite until the data could be
transmitted to a ground station in sight of the satellite. Although small, the
imagettes, were nevertheless sufficiently large compared with the wavelengths
of ocean waves to retrieve a meaningful statistical ocean wave spectrum.
They were also sufficiently closely spaced to be compatible with the spatial
resolution of current numerical global ocean wave prediction models, as
applied, for example, in the daily global wave forecasts of the European Centre
for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF).
The SAR wave mode imagettes were obtained at a mean incidence angle of
23°, within the low-incidence-angle region of the broader scatterometer swath
(see Kerbaol et al., 1998, for a detailed description and analysis). Together with
the Radar Altimeter wave heights measured directly below the satellite orbit
and the winds retrieved from the scatterometer, these data provided a valuable
and unique synergistic dataset that could be used both as inputs to numerical
wave prediction models and as data for model validation.
169
SP-1326
The second basic problem in the SAR imaging of ocean waves was the
interpretation of the images. Seasat had clearly demonstrated that the SAR
could see ocean waves (see Johannessen et al., this volume, for similar full-
swath examples for ERS). But what was the relation between the waves seen
in the image and the real waves in the ocean? Since the standard SAR image
processing assumed that the Doppler was produced only by the satellite
motion, the imaging theory could not be directly applied to random time-
varying surfaces such as the sea surface. In particular, doubts had been
expressed that SAR images could be used for quantitative measurements
of ocean waves due to the orbital motions of the long waves that transport
the short Bragg waves (in the 20 cm wavelength range) responsible for the
microwave backscatter. The additional Doppler shift induced by the long-
wave orbital velocities leads to a misplacement of the inferred position of the
backscattered surface element, resulting in a distortion of the inferred wave
spectrum. In one of the first analyses of these effects, Alpers & Rufenach (1979)
pointed out that, depending on the wave steepness and propagation directions,
some wave components would thereby be enhanced, while others would be
smeared out.
A first convincing demonstration that, despite these concerns, SAR wave
image data could nevertheless provide useful information on wave spectra
was provided by the analysis of the full wave dataset from a Seasat orbit (Fig.
2, left). The inferred centre of high winds that produced the swell agreed well
with the wind field reconstructed from weather data (Fig. 2, right).
Yet this successful reconstruction of the swell sources from SAR wave data
glossed over some of difficulties emphasised by Alpers & Rufenach (1979).
Since the Seasat SAR wave data were uncalibrated, only the wavelengths
and propagation directions of the wave retrievals were used, not the wave
amplitudes. Moreover, the swell fields were well dispersed, corresponding to
Figure 2. Left: Principal propagation directions of swell derived from the SAR wave images of the SEASAT orbit 757, acquired at 22:47 UTC
on 18 August 1978, with the position of the inferred extratropical cyclone. (From Lehner, 1984) Right: Contour plot of surface wave heights
(in metres) derived from a later reanalysis of the ECMWF data (ERA-40) at 18:00 UTC on 17 August 1978.
170
SAR Wave Mode
171
SP-1326
172
SAR Wave Mode
173
SP-1326
Figure 5. Seasonally and ocean-basin averaged polar diagrams of wave heights and directions (defined analogously to the standard wind
vector polar diagrams of operational meteorology). Left: Wind sea spectra. Right: swell. Solid lines: ERS‑1 SAR wave mode data; dashed
lines: ECMWF-WAM model predictions. (From Heimbach et al., 1998)
174
SAR Wave Mode
175
SP-1326
operational SAR wave data assimilation scheme has only a minor impact on
the skill of the prediction (Fig. 9). However, this level of maturity could not
have been reached without the two-dimensional wave spectra provided as
verification data by the global SAR wave mode system.
The above comparisons of retrieved and predicted wave spectra were still
based on a first-generation type 1M retrieval algorithm, in which the directional
ambiguity of the SAR image spectra had not been removed. Figures 10 and
11 show similar comparisons using the type 2M PARSA retrieval algorithm.
Figure 10 illustrates that in this case it is meaningful to compare not only the
directional spread (as in Fig. 8), but also the mean direction itself. The impact
of combining model and retrieved fields in the simultaneous determination of
both the retrieved and predicted wave spectra is illustrated in Fig. 11, which
shows comparisons of retrieved and predicted wave heights for two models,
176
SAR Wave Mode
Figure 10. Comparisons of the PARSA mean frequency (left) and mean wave direction (right) with those of the ECMWF reanalysis wave
model. (Li et al., 2010)
Figure 11. Comparisons of the PARSA significant wave heights with the results of the ECMWF reanalysis wave model (left) and the DWD
forecast wave model (right). (Li et al., 2010)
ECMWF and the German Weather Service (DWD), both of which are based on
the same basic physics.
The examples differ in two respects, however. First, as input first-guess
spectra, the same predicted ECMWF spectra were used in both cases. Thus in
the DWD case, the input data came from another model. Second, in the ECMWF
prediction, in contrast with the DWD prediction, earlier SAR spectra had been
177
SP-1326
assimilated in initialising the wave spectrum for the subsequent wave model
integration. Thus, it is not surprising that the deviations between the predicted
and retrieved wave spectra are almost 50% smaller for the ECMWF model than
for the DWD model. Attention must clearly be given to the relative weights
assigned to the predicted first-guess spectrum and the SAR image spectrum
both in the maximum likelihood retrieval algorithm and in the assimilation
scheme when comparing predictions and observations. We return later to
the important question of the advantages and disadvantages of combining
prediction, retrieval and assimilation in a single operation, but first we present
results in which no first-guess input wave spectra are used.
178
SAR Wave Mode
179
SP-1326
180
SAR Wave Mode
181
SP-1326
replaced by auxiliary data from sources other than a wave model. But even
in retrievals of type 1S or 2S, the directional ambiguity is often not a serious
problem, if the propagation directions (as in the examples presented above)
can be clearly inferred from the overall geometry.
The main issue in the choice of retrieval algorithm therefore arises when
the azimuthal cutoff becomes important, namely for steep, high-wind seas. The
question is whether it is best in this case to use a first-guess wave spectrum
provided by a state-of-the-art wave model (type 1M and 2M retrievals), or to
try to substitute for the missing azimuthal cutoff information using other data
(type 1A and 2A retrievals), such as from a radar altimeter, a scatterometer
(although this instrument was no longer available on Envisat) or from wave
buoys. The answer depends on whether the goal is to provide the best possible
estimate of the wave spectrum, or to improve the wave model.
If the goal is to provide the best possible estimates of the wave spectrum
for operational predictions or hindcasting studies, the answer is that one
should clearly attempt to make optimal use of all available data in a global
data assimilation scheme, including not only state-of-the-art wave models,
but also state-of-the-art operational weather forecasting models, and all forms
of observational data, including from satellites and conventional observing
systems.
As an example, Figs 17 and 18 (Li et al., 2010) show the impact of
assimilating first-guess model data on the prediction of a complex sea state
in an intense storm region. It is clear that without a reasonably realistic first-
guess input, it would have been impossible to derive the complex spectra
shown on the right in Fig. 18 from the ESA WVW wave mode products shown
in the middle column, which exhibit a pronounced azimuthal cutoff. But it
is equally evident that the first guess for this complex storm system exhibits
systematic errors that could not have been corrected without the information
from the SAR. Thus a retrieval of the wave spectrum from the complex SAR
image spectrum requires simultaneous information from both the SAR and the
wave model.
On the other hand, if the goal is to test and improve the model, one should
clearly strive to use independent data that have not been used in the model
prediction. Unfortunately, this is feasible for SAR wave data only if one restricts
the investigation, as in the examples of Figs 13 and 16 above, to type 1S and 2S
retrievals, in which the nonlinear azimuthal cutoff region is excluded. In the
case of strong wind sea spectra, as in the example just shown, the important
spectral information lost beyond the azimuthal cutoff cannot be provided by
model-independent, spectrally integrated observations. For this reason, most
of the various proposed type 1A and 2A retrieval algorithms − e.g. Mastenbroek
& de Valk (2000), CWAVE (Schulz-Stellenfleth et al., 2007), CWAVE_ENV (Li
et al., 2011) − were not developed to test and improve state-of-the-art wave
models, but rather simply to retrieve characteristic wave parameters.
Although these retrieval algorithms cannot therefore compete with type
1M and 2M state-of-the-art retrieval algorithms for detailed spectral wave
measurements, or with type 1S and 2S algorithms for testing and improving
state-of-the-art wave models, they nevertheless represent a valuable
complement to these more sophisticated retrieval algorithms in providing
generally accessible, simple tools for useful exploratory studies. As an
example, Fig. 19 shows the validation of the operational wave model of the
German Weather Service (DWD) against a combination of Envisat RA-2 data
and ASAR-retrieved wave heights using the CWAVE_ENV algorithm.
In the long term, the SAR wave mode data could be seen as but one
component of a highly complex satellite. The satellite, in turn, is only conceived
as one component of an integrated Earth observation system, consisting of
several satellites and an extensive ground-based conventional observing
system. To make full use of this extensive global dataset, we need to develop
sophisticated integrated models that also treat Earth as a complex coupled
182
SAR Wave Mode
183
SP-1326
Figure 19. Validation of the DWD forecast wave model using simultaneous wave measurements of the Envisat/ASAR and RA-2. Centre:
The forecast wave field at 0:00 UTC on 20 January 2007 (background) and significant wave heights (SWH) retrieved from the ASAR wave
mode data using the CWAVE_ENV algorithm (right track), and the collocated RA-2 SWH data (left track), both acquired between 23:39 and
23:51 UTC on 19 January 2007. The right and left panels show the model predicted SWH compared with the ASAR and RA-2 retrievals,
respectively. (Courtesy of X.-M. Li)
184
SAR Wave Mode
185
SP-1326
186
SAR Wave Mode
the individual wave components of a random sea state. Freak waves would
then obey Gaussian statistics. However, the available evidence suggests that
observed monster waves can be considerably higher than can be reasonably
expected from Gaussian statistics, and must thus therefore represent a
basically nonlinear phenomenon. Various nonlinear models based on the
Benjamin−Feir wave−wave interaction instability mechanism (Janssen, 2003)
or on wave–current interactions have been proposed, but it is likely that a
number of different nonlinear interaction configurations can produce freak
waves (Dysthe et al., 2008).
Given the structure of a freak wave, including the orbital velocity field and
its interaction with the short backscattering Bragg waves superimposed on the
large-scale orbital velocity field, the mapping into a SAR image is in principle
well defined (although for ERS SAR wave mode incident angles of only 23°, the
standard Bragg backscattering theory must presumably be augmented for steep
range-travelling waves by a specular reflection model). However, the computation
of the resultant image is computationally demanding. Unfortunately, the statistical
closure methods applied in the fully nonlinear forward-mapping algorithm of
Hasselmann & Hasselmann (1991) and Krogstad (1992) for wave spectra cannot be
simply carried over to the case of individual wave representations.
However, an approximation using a linearised Fourier transform relation
for individual images, in which a filter is applied to the azimuthal cutoff
region (corresponding to a type 2S algorithm, but applied now to the image
itself, not to the image spectrum), has been proposed by Schulz-Stellenfleth
& Lehner (2004). Figure 21 shows an example of the sea surface elevation
field (B) derived from the calibrated ERS‑2 wave mode data (A) using this
algorithm. The algorithm has been applied to two years (September 1998 to
November 2000) of reprocessed ERS‑2 SAR wave mode data to derive a global
map of maximum (SAR estimated) single wave heights (Fig. 22). Although not
applicable for quantitative assessments of individual wave heights, due to the
neglect of the nonlinear distortions induced by the SAR imaging system, this
provides nevertheless a useful tool for arriving at first estimates of the statistics
of exceptional individual wave occurrences as seen by the SAR.
Another application of SAR-derived wave images is the investigation of
wave groupiness (Borge et al., 2004; Niedermeier et al., 2005). Figure 23 shows
an example of pronounced wave groupiness occurring in the vicinity of the
Ekofisk oil platform in the North Sea.
The third and final challenge is to invert the freak wave → SAR image
mapping relation in order to recover the properties of the original monster wave
from the SAR freak wave image. This will depend, of course, on the freak wave
model and will presumably involve some form of parametric inversion method.
Without progress in addressing the first two problems, however, predictions on
advances on this question must remain speculative.
Even after a complete three-stage freak wave model → SAR freak wave
image → SAR image inversion scheme has been developed, one then faces
the further difficulty that the probability of simultaneously observing a
freak wave both in reality and in a SAR wave image in order to validate the
model is for all practical purposes negligible. However, there is an interesting
exception: the monster waves that occur at a few locations famous for their
exceptional surfing conditions (Fig. 24). These huge surf waves are produced
by refraction at subsurface reefs and are generated under well defined,
reproducible and measurable wave conditions. Although representing a special
type of monster wave, they may provide an ideal dataset for testing theories
of the mapping of monster waves into SAR images, as well as for developing
the associated inversion algorithms. Under less extreme conditions, coastal
wave transformation due to complex bathymetry changes can also be used to
interpret and better understand SAR observations involving wave focusing and
refraction effects (e.g. Collard et al., 2005).
187
SP-1326
188
SAR Wave Mode
189
SP-1326
190
SAR Wave Mode
Figure 25. Envisat/ASAR-derived currents and wave observations in the Agulhas current (left), confirmed by the altimetry-derived surface
flow field (right). A southwesterly swell system interacts first with the Agulhas current, flowing toward the west, and subsequently with
the Agulhas return current, flowing and meandering towards the east. The principal swell propagation directions (left) are displayed as
background below the sketched ASAR Doppler-derived current pattern (full curves). (CLS)
Figure 26. Wave spectra for three imagettes corresponding to the three locations shown in Fig. 25: A (left), B (middle) and C (right).
The 300 m swell system is strongly influenced by the large surface current gradients, and the two swell patterns of comparable energy
eventually cross. (CLS)
191
SP-1326
192
SAR Wave Mode
wave prediction and eagerly welcomed the opportunity to feed these models
with appropriate wave spectral data from a globally observing satellite.
However, although Seasat had already demonstrated that a SAR could image
ocean waves, it soon became apparent that the imaging process was highly
complex. For a quantitative interpretation of the ERS SAR wave images,
detailed models of the electromagnetic return from a random, moving surface,
including, in particular, the interactions between short backscattering
Bragg waves in the decimetre range and the imaged long waves in the 100–
1000 m range were needed. These were soon developed. Methods were then
needed to invert the mapping relation, and retrieve the two-dimensional
wave spectra from the satellite image spectra. This task was also achieved.
However, because the general forward-mapping relation was nonlinear, the
inverse mapping relation involved the unavoidable loss of some information:
wavenumbers beyond an azimuthal high wavenumber cutoff could not be
resolved. Thus, for a satisfactory general retrieval algorithm, the missing
spectral information needed to be supplied from another source. In practice,
the only available source was a two-dimensional spectral wave model, as all
conventional measurement systems (other than wave buoys at a few isolated
locations) are unable to resolve the specific spectral bands of interest. Thus
retrieval algorithms in the general nonlinear case necessarily require an input
first-guess wave spectrum from a wave model.
This results, however, in an unavoidable intertwining of three separate
aspects of the ERS SAR wave mode data: the retrieval of ocean wave spectra
from the SAR data, the prediction of ocean wave spectra, and the assimilation
of observational data in wave prediction models. The last two aspects imply
that the application of the SAR wave mode data becomes coupled also to the
problem of weather prediction, involving in addition the measurement and
assimilation of atmospheric data. The separability of the three problems is
feasible only for swell systems, outside an active wave generation region, in
which the nonlinearities of the SAR imaging mechanism become negligible.
The application of SAR wave mode data in this intertwined mode, together
with improvements in weather prediction and associated atmospheric data
assimilation methods, has led to the continuous improvement of global wave
prediction models to a level at which, for most state-of-the-art wave models
today, no systematic deviations between observed and modelled wave spectra,
beyond the expected variability of observations, is found in the overall
statistics of the comparisons of model predictions and SAR observations.
However, significant deviations can still be found in individual cases,
such as in intense cyclonic storms. Apart from the difficulties of an accurate
prediction of wind fields in such extreme situations, it is well known from
theoretical studies that the numerical approximations of the important source
function describing the nonlinear energy transfer exhibit serious shortcomings
in most wave models in complex wind seas. The SAR wave mode data
provide an excellent opportunity for revisiting this problem and significantly
improving wave models in these important cases.
A related problem in which the application of SAR wave mode data could
lead to significant progress is in the occurrence of individual extreme wave
formations known as freak or monster waves. Although monster waves occur
infrequently, they represent a serious danger for the rapidly expanding global
shipping industry, causing significant losses or damage to container ships
and supercarrier vessels. Global SAR wave mode observations of individual
extreme waves could provide a valuable statistical database for determining
the frequency and conditions of occurrence of these poorly understood wave
formations. However, further work is needed on the nonlinear SAR imaging of
individual waves before a quantitative determination of the statistics of real
freak waves rather than freak SAR wave images can be provided.
Another process that leads to the formation of extreme wave conditions is
the interaction between waves and currents, an important problem that is also
193
SP-1326
ripe for a more detailed exploration using SAR wave mode (and in this case
also full-swath SAR data). Strong current gradients can result in a focusing of
waves, producing abnormal wave conditions. Previously regarded as largely
unpredictable, the simultaneous measurements of both wave spectra and
currents using SAR wave imaging, the SAR Doppler for current measurements,
and currents computed from radar altimeter sea level measurements, now
enable predictions of the anomalous wave spectra produced by wave–current
interactions.
Finally, interesting data on the location of unusual systems of ocean
waves travelling in opposite directions can be derived from triangulations
of microseism measurements at different stations. Microseisms of twice the
wave frequency are generated by quadratic interactions between ocean waves
travelling in opposite directions in the open ocean, caused by moving cyclonic
storm systems, or in the vicinity of coasts through wave reflections at steep
shorelines. Important indirect information on processes within a storm can
also be derived from observations of swell propagating away from a distant
storm.
These and other examples presented in this chapter demonstrate that
despite the considerable advances in our understanding and prediction of
ocean waves achieved through the ERS SAR wave mode data, many interesting
problems that could be successfully addressed using this instrument still await
a solution.
It is therefore very encouraging that there are plans to continue the ERS-1/
ERS-2–Envisat satellite system with the launch in 2013 of Sentinel-1, the first in
a series of next-generation satellites, as an important component of the Global
Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) system. Sentinel-1 will again
carry a SAR wave mode instrument with enhanced capabilities (20 × 20 km
imagettes every 100 km). The continuation of this satellite series is important
not only for the upgrading of the present ocean observing system and the
resolution of the open problems mentioned, but also for the creation of a long-
term time series in support of climate change monitoring.
References
Abdalla, S., Bidlot, J. & Janssen, P. (2004). Assimilation of ERS and ENVISAT wave
data at ECMWF, Proc. 2004 Envisat & ERS Symposium, Salzburg, Austria. ESA
SP-572, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
Abdalla, S., Janssen, P. & Bidlot, J.-R. (2010). Envisat ASAR wave mode spectra
global validation and assimilation. Proc. SeaSAR 2010, Frascati, Italy. ESA
SP-679, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
Alpers, W.R. & Rufenach, C.L. (1979). The effect of orbital motions on synthetic
aperture radar imagery of ocean waves. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat. 27,
685–690.
Aouf, L., Lefevre, J.-M., Chapron, B. & Hauser, D. (2010). Some recent improvements
of the assimilation of upgraded ASAR L2 wave spectra. Proc. SeaSAR 2010,
Frascati, Italy. ESA SP-679, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
Ardhuin, F., Chapron, B. and Collard, F. (2009). Observation of swell dissipation
across oceans. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36(L06607), 10.1029/2008GL037030.
Ardhuin, F., Rogers, W.E., Babanin, A.V., Filipot, J., Magne, R., Roland, A., van
der Westhuysen, A., Queffeulou, P., Lefevre, J., Aouf, L. & Collard, F. (2010).
Semiempirical dissipation source functions for ocean waves. Part I: Definition,
calibration, and validation. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 40, 1917–1941.
Aster, R.C., McNamara, D.E. & Bromirski, P.D. (2008). Multidecadal climate
induced variability in microseisms. Seismol. Res. Lett. 79, 194–202. doi:10.1785/
gssrl.79.2.194
194
SAR Wave Mode
Barber, B.F. & Ursell, F. (1948). The generation and propagation of ocean waves
and swell. I. Wave periods and velocities. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 240(824),
527–560.
Bauer, E. & Heimbach, P. (1999). Annual validation of significant wave heights
from ERS‑1 synthetic aperture radar wave mode spectra using TOPEX/
POSEIDON and ERS‑1 altimeter data. J. Geophys. Res. 104(C6), 13 345–13 357.
doi:10.1029/1999JC900014
Borge, J.C.N., Lehner, S. Niedermeier, A. & Schulz-Stellenfleth, J. (2004). Detection
of ocean wave groupiness from spaceborne synthetic aperture radar. J. Geophys.
Res. 109, C07005. doi:10.1029/2004JC002298
Breivik, L.A., Reistad, M. Schyberg, H. Sunde, J. Krogstad, H.E. & Johnsen, H. (1998).
Assimilation of ERS SAR wave spectra in an operational wave model. J. Geophys.
Res., 103(C4), 7887−7900.
Brooker, G. (1995). UWA Processing Algorithm Specification, version 2.0, Tech. Rep.,
ESTEC/NWP, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.
Chapron, B., Collard, F. & Ardhuin, F. (2005). Direct measurements of ocean surface
velocity from space: interpretation and validation, J. Geophys. Res. 110, C07008.
doi:10.1029/2004JC002809
Chapron, B., Johnsen, H. & Garello, R. (2001). Wave and wind retrieval from SAR
images of the ocean. Ann. Telecommun. 56, 682−699.
Collard, F., Ardhuin, F. & Chapron, B. (2005). Extraction of coastal ocean wave
fields from SAR images. IEEE J. Oceanic. Eng. 30(3), 526—533.
Collard, F., Ardhuin, F. & Chapron, B. (2009). Monitoring and analysis of ocean
swell fields from space: New methods for routine observations. J. Geophys. Res.
114, C07023. doi: 10.1029/2008JC005215
Delpey, M.T., Ardhuin, F. Collard, F. & Chapron, B. (2010). Space–time structure of
long ocean swell fields. J. Geophys. Res. 115, C12037. doi:10.1029/2009JC005885
Dysthe, K., Müller P. & Krogstad, H.E. (2008). Oceanic rogue waves. Ann. Rev. Fluid
Mech. 40, 287−310.
Ebeling, C. W., & Stein, S. (2011). Seismological Identication and characterization of
a large hurricane. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 101(1), doi: 10.1785/0120100175
Engen G. & Johnsen, H. (1995). SAR-ocean wave inversion using image cross
spectra. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 33(4), 1047−1056.
Engen G., Johnsen H., Krogstad, H.E. & Barstow, S.F. (1994). Directional wave
spectra by inversion of ERS‑1 synthetic aperture radar ocean imagery. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 32(2), 1994.
Grevemeyer, I., Herbert, R. & Essen, H.H. (2000). Microseismological eveidence for
a changing wave climate in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. Nature 408, 349–352.
Grob, M., Maggi, A. & Stutzmann, E. (2011). Observations of the seasonality of the
Antarctic microseismic signal, and its association to sea ice variability. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 38, L11302. doi: 10.1029/2011GL047525
Hanafin, J.A., Quilfen, Y., Ardhuin, F., Sienkiewicz, J., Queffeulou, P., Obrebski, M.,
Chapron, B., Reul, N., Collard, F., Corman, D., de Azevedo, E. B., Vandemark, D.
& Stutzmann, E. (2012). Phenomenal sea states and swell from a North Atlantic
storm in February 2011: A comprehensive analysis. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.
93(12), 1825–1832. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00128.1
Hasselmann, K. (1963). A statistical analysis of the generation of microseisms. Rev.
Geophys. 1, 177–210.
Hasselmann, K (1967). A criterion for nonlinear wave stability. J. Fluid Mech. 30,
737–739.
Hasselmann, K. & Hasselmann, S. (1991). On the nonlinear mapping of an ocean
wave spectrum into a Synthetic Aperture Radar image spectrum and its
inversion. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 10713−10729.
Hasselmann, K., Raney, R.K. Plant, W.J. et al. (1985). Theory of synthetic aperture
radar ocean imaging: A MARSEN view. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 4659−4686.
Hasselmann, S., Brüning, C. Hasselmann K. & Heimbach, P. (1996). An improved
algorithm for the retrieval of ocean wave spectra from SAR image spectra.
J. Geophys. Res. C101, 16615−16629.
195
SP-1326
196
SAR Wave Mode
Li, X.-M., König, Th., Schulz-Stellenfleth J. & Lehner, S. (2010). Validation and
intercomparison of ocean wave spectra retrieval scheme using ASAR wave mode
data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 31(17), 4969–4933. DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2010.485222
Liu, A.K., Peng, C.Y. & Schumacher, J.D. (1994). Wave−current interaction study in
the Gulf of Alaska for detection of eddies by synthetic aperture radar. J. Geophys.
Res. 99(C5), 10 075−10 085. doi: 10.1029/94JC00422
Longuet-Higgins, M. (1950) A theory of the origin of microseisms. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
London, A, 243, 1–35.
Mastenbroek, C. & de Valk, C.F. (2000). A semi-parametric algorithm to retrieve
ocean wave spectra from synthetic aperture radar. J. Geophys. Res. 105,
3497−3516. doi:10.1029/1999JC900282
Niedermeier, A., Borge, J.C.N., Lehner, S. & Schultz-Stellenfleth, J. (2005). A wavelet-
based algorithm to estimate ocean wave group parameters from radar images.
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 43(2), pp. 327–336. doi: 10.1109/TGRS.2004.836873
Schulz-Stellenfleth, J. & Lehner, S. (2004). Measurement of two-dimensional sea
surface elevation fields using complex synthetic aperture radar data, IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Rem. Sens. 42, 1149−1160.
Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., Lehner S. & Hoja, D. (2005). A parametric scheme for the
retrieval of two-dimensional ocean wave spectra from synthetic aperture radar
look cross spectra. J. Geophys. Res, 110, C05004. doi: 10.1029/2004JC002822
Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., König, Th. & Lehner, S. (2007). An empirical approach for the
retrieval of integral ocean wave parameters from synthetic aperture radar data.
J. Geophys. Res. 112, doi: 10.1029/2006JC003970
Snodgrass, F.E., Groves, G.W., Hasselmann, K., Miller, G.R., Munk, W.H. & Powers,
W.H. (1966). Propagation of ocean swell across the Pacific. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
London 249A, 431–497.
Tamura, H., Waseda, T. & Miyazawa, Y. (2010). Impact of nonlinear energy transfer
on the wave field in Pacific hindcast experiments. J. Geophys. Res. 115, C12036.
doi: 10.1029/2009JC006014
Tamura, H., Waseda, T., Miyazawa, Y. & Komatsu, K. (2008). Current-induced
modulation of the ocean wave spectrum and the role of nonlinear energy
transfer. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 38, 2662–2684.
Tolman, H.L. (2004). Inverse modeling of discrete interaction approximations for
nonlinear interactions in waves. Ocean Modelling 6, 405–�422.
Tolman, H.L. (2009). Practical nonlinear interaction algorithms. Proc. 11th Int.
Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting, and 2nd Coastal Hazards Symp.,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Tolman, H.L. (2011). On the impact of nonlinear interaction parameterizations
in practical wave models. Proc. 12th Int. Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and
Forecasting, and 3rd Coastal Hazards Symp., Hawaii, USA.
Tolman, H.L., Banner, M. & Kaihatu, J. (2011). The NOPP Operational Wave
Model Improvement Project, Proc. 12th Int. Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and
Forecasting, and 3rd Coastal Hazards Symp., Hawaii, USA.
Ueno, K. & Kohno, N. (2004). The development of the third generation model MRI-III
for operational use, Proc. 8th Int. Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting
G2, pp.1–7.
Vachon, P.W. & West, J.C. (1992). Spectral estimation techniques for multilook SAR
images of ocean waves. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 30(3), 568–577.
Vachon, P.W. & Raney, R.K. (1991). Resolution of the ocean wave propagation
direction in SAR imagery. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 29(91), 105–112.
Van Vledder, G.P. (2001). Extension of the discrete interaction approximation for
computing nonlinear quadruplet wave–wave interactions in operational wave
models, Proc. 4th ASCE Int. Symp. on Ocean Waves, Measurements and Analysis,
San Francisco, CA, USA, pp.540–549.
WAMDI Group (1998). The WAM model – a third generation ocean wave prediction
model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 18, 1775−1810.
197
→→ Satellite Oceanography from
the ERS Synthetic Aperture
Radar and Radar Altimeter: →
A Brief Review
SAR & Altimeter
1. Introduction
The cloud-independent, all-weather, day-and-night active microwave Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) and Radar Altimeter (RA) operated continuously on
ERS‑1 from July 1991 to March 2000 and on ERS‑2 from October 1995 to July
2011. In addition, the two ERS satellites also operated the active microwave
C-band scatterometer (see Stoffelen & Wagner, this volume). The side-looking
C-band (5.6 GHz) SAR was operated to obtain two-dimensional spectra of ocean
surface waves to reveal ultra-high-resolution surface wind field patterns, to
identify numerous oceanic features, as well as to detect oil spills, ship and
detailed sea ice conditions and deformation. The nadir-pointing Ku-band
(13.8 GHz) RA aimed to measure sea surface height, significant wave heights
and wind speed, and thanks to the choice of orbit, it also covered high latitudes
for sea ice signature observations including freeboard heights.
Table 1 summarises the applications of the ERS‑1/ERS‑2 SAR and RA data
in the field of oceanography. The SAR surface wave retrievals, in particular the
SAR wave mode capabilities and the altimeter mean sea level retrievals, are
addressed by Hasselmann et al. and Andersen et al., respectively, elsewhere
in this volume. A comprehensive overview of the key early scientific findings
based on ERS data is presented in the special issue the Journal of Geophysical
Research: Oceans on advances in oceanography and sea ice research using
ERS observations (Johannessen et al., 1998).
201
SP-1326
202
SAR & Altimeter
203
SP-1326
to biological pumping of nutrients into the upper ocean and their role as
significant components of dissipation within the ocean circulation energy
regime.
204
SAR & Altimeter
205
SP-1326
Figure 4. Left: ERS‑1 SAR image acquired on 20 January 1994 revealing the surface manifestation of an internal soliton close to its
generation area in the centre of the Strait of Gibraltar and an internal wave packet east of the strait generated during the previous tidal
cycle. Right: ERS‑2 SAR strip acquired over the Andaman Sea on 11 February 1997 showing a surface manifestation of internal solitary
waves. The land area visible at the bottom is the island of Sumatra. The image area is 100 × 300 km. The smaller circular pattern in the
upper third of the SAR image is the surface signature of a secondary internal wave generated by the interaction of the first internal solitary
wave with the Dreadnought underwater bank, 241 m deep. (Vlasenko & Alpers, 2005)
206
SAR & Altimeter
with ship-based depth soundings the number of ship tracks can be reduced
by a factor of 3–5, while still maintaining an rms error of the depth map of
less than 30 cm (Hasselmann et al., 1997), which is the accuracy required by
the Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works (Rijkswaterstaat). This
conclusion has been corroborated by the results of depth assessments in other
areas. It demonstrates that the use of SAR imaging can lead to substantial
reductions in the cost of traditional sounding campaigns. Capitalising on these
findings, the Dutch company ARGOSS has developed a system, called the
Bathymetry Assessment System (BAS), which is commercially available (see
Alpers et al., 2004).
207
SP-1326
208
SAR & Altimeter
Figure 8. Mean radial surface speed derived from ascending Envisat/ASAR wide-swath mode acquisitions for the Gulf Stream (left) and the
Agulhas current (right). The colour bars indicate the velocity (in m s−1) revealing opposite flow directions for the two current systems. (CLS)
209
SP-1326
210
SAR & Altimeter
et al., 1998; Kerbaol et al., 1998; Lehner et al. 1998; Wackerman et al., 2003;
Horstmann et al., 2000, 2004; Horstmann & Koch, 2005).
Given the wind direction, the wind speed retrieval then relies on the global
empirically based model function developed for the ERS scatterometer for
fully developed seas (Stoffelen et al., 1997a,b; Quilfen et al., 1998). This model
function relates the Normalised Radar Cross Section (NRCS) to the local near-
surface wind speed u, wind direction versus antenna look direction Φ, and the
incidence angle θ. The general form of the function is:
211
SP-1326
approach (Lorenc, 1986) was then applied to SAR observations. This method
allows retrievals of an optimum wind vector from the best combination of
SAR and other wind information, and has shown promising results, although
deficiencies remain in cases of abrupt shifts in wind direction associated with
wind fronts (Portabella et al., 2002). The methodology is now being extended
to include the SAR Doppler information (Mouche et al., 2012) in order to help
constrain front locations.
Katabatic winds are cold winds that blow down a sloping terrain (‘gravity flow’)
and, at a coast, out over the adjacent sea surface. These winds are generated
because during the evening and at night, air near the surface cools faster over
land than over the sea, resulting in a downhill flow of cold air. A large number
of ERS SAR images show sea surface signatures of katabatic wind fields in
various coastal regions adjacent to mountainous areas. This is shown in Fig. 10
for the katabatic winds blowing down from 1800 m high mountains through a
broad valley into the Gulf of Gioia Tauro in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The roughness
212
SAR & Altimeter
pattern has the form of a mushroom. The wind field has been simulated
using a non-hydrostatic mesoscale atmospheric model and then compared
with the wind field derived from the ERS‑1 SAR image using the C-band wind
scatterometer model CMOD4 (Alpers et al., 1998). The comparison shows that
the atmospheric model reproduces quite well the mushroom-like form of the
wind field pattern, while the wind speed is somewhat lower than the one
inferred from the SAR image.
213
SP-1326
214
SAR & Altimeter
5. Currents from RA
The Radar Altimeters on ERS‑1/ERS‑2 measured the transit time and
backscatter power of the transmitted pulses. The transit time is proportional
to the satellite’s altitude above the ocean and sea ice surfaces, provided that
adequate corrections for time delays are applied. To ensure reliable atmospheric
and ionospheric corrections of the RA signals and accurate knowledge of
their position in space, Microwave Radiometer (MWR) and Precise Range and
Range-Rate Equipment (PRARE) were operated simultaneously to measure the
integrated atmospheric water vapour column and cloud liquid water content as
well as particle density in the ionosphere. Over ocean surfaces the measured
range is accurate to about 5 cm at an along-track resolution of about 5 km,
with the largest contribution to the uncertainty arising from the sea state bias
(Gaspar & Florens, 1998). Higher-range accuracy is then achieved by detailed
analysis of the received signal resulting from averaging a large number of
echoes at the expense of reduced spatial resolution. The magnitude and shape
of the returned echoes also contain information about the characteristics of the
reflecting surface, from which it is possible to retrieve geophysical parameters
such as significant wave heights, wind speeds and the freeboard height and
location of the edges of sea ice.
Measurements of the sea surface height have been routinely obtained from
satellite altimeter missions in the last 20 years. Today the annual mean sea
surface (MSS) height derived from altimetry is known with millimeter accuracy
(e.g. Cazenave et al., 2009) in the open ocean. As most changes in ocean surface
currents (on timescales of a few days or more) result in a geostrophic balance,
the sea surface height gradients derived from the ERS Radar Altimeters were
employed to investigate temporal and spatial changes in the large basin-scale
circulation patterns and mesoscale ocean dynamics. At seasonal and inter-
annual time scales the RA also detects phenomena such as the westward-
propagating Rossby waves and El Niño−Southern Oscillation that are manifest
in the sea surface topography anomalies (see also Andersen et al., this volume).
215
SP-1326
216
SAR & Altimeter
217
SP-1326
218
SAR & Altimeter
—— strengthening the consistent use of SAR and altimeters in synergy with high-
resolution optical sensors; and
—— better scientific and operational use of merged high-resolution SAR imaging
sensor data and nadir-profiling altimeters taking into account new approaches
for measuring surface velocities and topography directly from satellites such
as NASA’s Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission and ESA’s
Wavemill instrument mission.
Acknowledgements
The advances in satellite oceanography based on the ERS Synthetic Aperture
Radar and Radar Altimeter observations over the last 20 years have been
possible thanks to the involvement and efforts of a large range of scientists,
engineers and technicians with support from national and international
funding agencies, as well as the steady supply of data and scientific support
studies initiated by ESA as well as other space agencies.
References
Alpers, W. (1985). Theory of radar imaging of internal waves. Nature 314, 245−247.
Alpers, W. & Salusti (1983). Scylla and Charybdis observed from space. J. Geophys.
Res. 88, 1800−1808.
Alpers, W. & Stilke, G. (1996). Observation of a nonlinear wave disturbance in the
marine atmosphere by the synthetic aperture radar aboard the ERS‑1 satellite,
J. Geophys. Res. 101, 6513−6525.
Alpers, W., Brandt, P. & Rubino, A. (2008). Internal waves generated in the Straits of
Gibraltar and Messina: Observations from space, in V. Barale & M. Gade (Eds.),
Remote Sensing of the European Seas. Springer, Heidelberg, pp.319−330.
Alpers, W., Campbell, G. Wensink, H. & Zheng, Q. (2004). Bottom Topography:
Synthetic Aperture Radar Marine User's Manual. Chapter 10, Underwater
topography. Sponsored by the NOAA/NESDIS Office of Research and Applications.
www.sarusersmanual.com
Alpers, W., Chen, J.-P. Lin, I.-I. & Lien, C.-C. (2007). Atmospheric fronts along the
east coast of Taiwan studied by ERS synthetic aperture radar images. J. Atmos.
Sci. 64, 922−937.
Alpers, W., Chen, J.P., Pi, C.-J. & Lin, I.-I. (2010). On the origin of atmospheric frontal
lines off the east coast of Taiwan observed on space-borne synthetic aperture
radar images, Mon. Wea. Rev. 138, 475−496. doi:10.1175/2009MWR2987.1
Alpers, W. & Hennings, I. (1984). A theory of the imaging mechanism of underwater
bottom topography by real and synthetic aperture radar. J. Geophys. Res. 89,
10529−10546.
Alpers, W., Pahl, U. & Gross, G. (1998). Katabatic wind fields in coastal areas studied
by ERS‑1 synthetic aperture radar imagery and numerical modeling. J. Geophys.
Res. 103, 7875−7886.
Apel, J.R., Holbrook, J.R., Liu, A.K. & Tsai, J. (1985). The Sulu Sea Internal Soliton
Experiment. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 15, 1625−1651.
Avicola, G.S., Moum, J.N., Perlin, A. & Levine, M.D. (2007). Enhanced turbulence
due to the superposition of internal gravity waves and a coastal upwelling jet.
J. Geophys. Res. 112, C06024. doi: 10.1029/2006JC003831
Beal, R., Kudryavtsev, V., Thompson, D., Grodsky, S., Tilley, D.D., Dulov, D. &
Graber, H. (1997). The influence of the marine atmospheric boundary layer on
ERS 1 synthetic aperture radar imagery of the Gulf Stream. J. Geophys. Res.
102(C3), 5799−5814.
Beal R.C. & Pichel, W.G. (2000). Coastal and marine applications of wide swath
SAR. Johns Hopkins APL Tech. Dig. 21, 176.
219
SP-1326
Boebel, O., Rossby, T., Lutjeharms, J.R.E., Zenk, W. & Barron, C. (2003). Path and
variability of the Agulhas return current. Deep Sea Res. 50, 35−56.
Brandt, P., Alpers, W. &. Backhaus, J.O. (1996). Study of the generation and
propagation of internal waves in the Strait of Gibraltar using a numerical model
and synthetic aperture radar images of the European ERS 1 satellite. J. Geophys.
Res. 101, 14 237-14 252.
Brandt, P., Rubino, A., Alpers, W. & Backhaus, J.O. (1997). Internal waves in the
Strait of Messina studied by a numerical model and synthetic aperture radar
images from the ERS‑1/2 satellites. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27, 648−663.
Cazenave, A., 2009. Sea level budget over 2003–2008: A reevaluation from GRACE
space gravimetry, satellite altimetry and Argo. Global and Planetary Change
65(1–2): 83–88.
Cazenave, A., Dominh, K., Guinehut, S., Berthier, E., Llovel, W., Ramillien,
G., Ablain, M. & Larnicol. G. (2009). Sea level budget over 2003−2008: A
reevaluation from GRACE space gravimetry, satellite altimetry and Argo. Global
Planet. Change 65(1−2), 83−88.
Chapron, B., Collard, F. & Ardhum, F. (2005). Direct measurements of ocean surface
velocity from space: Interpretation and validation. J. Geophys. Res. 110, C07008.
Chapron, B., Fouhaily, T.E. & Kerbaol, V. (1995). Calibration and Validation of ERS
Wave Mode Products, Document DRO/OS/95-02, IFREMER, Plouzane, France.
Chelton, D.B. & Schlax, M.G. (1996). Global observations of oceanic Rossby waves.
Science 272, 234–238.
Chelton, D.B., Schlax, M.G. & Samelson, R.M. (2011). Global observations of
nonlinear mesoscale eddies. Prog. Oceanogr. 91(2), 167−216. doi:10.1016/j.
pocean.2011.01.002
Chelton, D.B., Schlax, M.G., Samelson, R.M. & de Szoeke, R.A. (2007). Global
observations of large oceanic eddies. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L15606.
doi:10.1029/2007GL030812
Chelton, D.B., de Szoeke, R.A., Schlax, M.G., Naggar, K.E. & Siwertz, N. (1998).
Geographical variability of the first baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation.
J. Phys. Oceanogr. 28, 433–460.
Cipollini, P., Cromwell, D., Jones, M.S., Quartly, G.D. & Challenor, P.G. (1997a). The
potential of ERS for the detection of Rossby waves in the Northeast Atlantic.
Proc. 3rd ERS Symp., Space at the Service of our Environment, Florence, Italy,
17−21 March. ESA SP-414, Vol. 3, European Space Agency. Noordwijk, the
Netherlands, pp.1473−1478.
Cipollini, P., Cromwell, D., Jones, M.S., Quartly, G.D. & Challenor, P.G. (1997b).
Concurrent altimeter and infrared observations of Rossby wave propagation
near 34°N in the Northeast Atlantic. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 889–892.
da Silva, J.C.B. & Helfrich, K.R. (2008). Synthetic Aperture Radar observations of
resonantly generated internal solitary waves at Race Point Channel (Cape Cod).
J. Geophys. Res. 113, C11016. doi:10.1029/2008JC005004
da Silva, J.C.B, New, A.L. & Azevedo, A. (2007). On the role of SAR for observing
local generation of internal solitary waves off the Iberian Peninsula. Can. J.
Remote Sens. 33, 388−403.
da Silva, J.C.B., New, A.L. & Magalhaes, J.M. (2009). Internal solitary waves in the
Mozambique Channel: observations and interpretation. J. Geophys. Res. 114,
C05001. doi:10.1029/2008JC005125
da Silva, J.C.B., New, A.L. & Magalhaes, J.M. (2011). On the structure and
propagation of internal solitary waves generated at the Mascarene plateau in the
Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. 58, 229−240.
DiGiacomo, P.M. & Holt, B. (2001). Satellite observations of small coastal ocean
eddies in the Southern California Bight. J. Geophys. Res., 106 (C10), 22 521–22 544.
Drobinski, P. & Foster, R. (2003). On the origin of near-surface streaks in the
neutrally-stratified planetary boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 108(2),
247–256.
220
SAR & Altimeter
Ducet, N., Le Traon, P.-Y. & Reverdin, G. (2000). Global high-resolution mapping of
ocean circulation from TOPEX/Poseidon and ERS‑1 and -2. J. Geophys. Res. 105,
19 477−19 498.
Elachi, C. (1987). Spaceborne Remote Sensing: Applications and Techniques. IEEE
Press, New York.
Elfouhaily, T. (1997). Physical Modelling of Electromagnetic Backscatter from the
Ocean Surface: Application to retrieval of wind fields and wind stress by remote
sensing of the marine atmospheric boundary layer. PhD dissertation, Département
d’ Océanographie Spatiale, IFREMER, France.
Engen, G. & Johnsen, H (1995), SAR-Ocean wave inversion using image cross
spectra. IEEE Trans. Geo. Rem. Sens. 33, 1047−1056.
Espedal, H.A., Johannessen, O.M., Johannessen, J.A., Dano, E., Lyzenga, D. &
Knulst, J.C. (1998). Coastwatch ’95: A tandem ERS‑1/2 SAR detection experiment
of natural film on the ocean surface. J. Geophys. Res.: Oceans 103, 24 969–24 982.
Etling, D. & Brown, R. (1993). Roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer: A
review. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 18(3), 215–248.
Fetterer, F., Gineris, D. & Wackerman, C. (1998). Validating a scatterometer wind
algorithm for ERS‑1 SAR. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 36(2), 476–492.
Fu, L.-L. (2007). Interaction of mesoscale variability with large-scale waves in the
Argentine Basin, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 37, 787−793.
Fu, L.-L. & Chelton, D.B. (2001), Large scale ocean circulation, in L.-L. Fu & A.
Cazenave (Eds), Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences. Academic Press, San
Diego, CA.
Gaspar, P. & Florens, J.P. (1998). Estimation of the sea state bias in radar altimeter
measurements of sea level: Results from a new non parametric method.
J. Geophys. Res. 103, 15 803−15 814
Gerling, T. (1986). Structure of the surface wind field from Seasat SAR. J. Geophys.
Res. 91(C2), 2308–2320.
Hasselmann, K., Calkoen, C. & Wensink, H. (1997). Mapping on seabed topography
to and from SAR. Proc. 3rd ERS Symp., Space at the Service of Our Environment,
ESA SP-414, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.1055−1058.
Hersbach, H., Stoffelen, A. & de Haan, S. (2007). An improved C-band scatterometer
ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5. J. Geophys. Res. 112, C03006−18.
doi:10.1029/2006JC003743
Hill, K.L., Robinson, I.S. & Cipollini, P. (2000). Propagation characteristics
of extratropical planetary waves observed in the ATSR global sea surface
temperature record. J. Geophys. Res. 105(C9), 21 927–21 945.
Horstmann, J. & Koch, W. (2003) High-resolution ocean surface wind fields
retrieved from spaceborne synthetic aperture radars operating at C-band. Proc.
2nd Workshop on Coastal and Marine Applications of SAR, Svalbard, Norway.
ESA SP‑565, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.61–67.
Horstmann, J., Koch, W., Lehner, S. & Tonboe, R. (2000). Wind retrieval over the
ocean using synthetic aperture radar with C-band HH polarization, IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Remote Sens. 38(5), 2122–2131.
Horstmann, J., Schiller, H., Schulz-Stellenfleth, J. & Lehner, S. (2004). Global wind
speed retrieval from SAR, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 41(10), 2277–2286.
Johannessen, J.A., Chapron, B., Collard, F., Kudryavtsev, V., Mouche, A., Akimov,
D. & Dagestad, K.-F. (2008). Direct ocean surface velocity measurements from
space: Improved quantitative interpretation of Envisat ASAR observations,
Geophys. Res. Lett. 35(22), 1−6.
Johannessen, J.A., Janssen P., Minster J.F., Robinson, I., Rothrock, D. & Vachon,
P.W. (1998). Preface to special section on advances in oceanography and sea ice
research using ERS observations. J. Geophys. Res.: Oceans 103(C4), 7753. doi:
10.1029/97JC03412
Johannessen, J.A., Kudryavtsev, V., Akimov, D., Eldevik, T., Winther, N. & Chapron,
B. (2005). On radar imaging of current features, Part 2: Mesoscale eddy and
current front detection. J.Geophys. Res. 110, C07017.
221
SP-1326
Johannessen, J.A., Shuchman, R.A., Digranes, G., Lyzenga, D., Wackerman, C.,
Johannessen, O.M. & Vachon, P.W. (1996a). Coastal ocean fronts and eddies
imaged with ERS‑1 SAR. J. Geophys. Res. 101(C3).
Johannessen, J.A., Svendsen, E., Sandven, S., Johannessen, O.M. & Lygre, K. (1989).
Three-dimensional structure of mesoscale eddies in the Norwegian coastal
current. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 19(1), 3−19.
Johannessen, J.A., Vachon, P.W. & Johannessen, O.M. (1996b). ERS‑1 SAR imaging of
marine boundary layer processes, Earth Observation Quarterly no. 46. European
Space Agency Publications Division, ESTEC, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
Katsaros, K.B., Vachon, P.W., Black, P.G., Dodge, P.P. & Uhlhorn, E.W. (2000). Wind
fields from SAR: Could they improve our understanding of storm dynamics?
Johns Hopkins APL Tech. Dig. 21(1), 86−93.
Keller, W.C., Wismann, V. & Alpers, W. (1989). Tower-based measurements of the
ocean C-band radar backscattering cross section. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 924−930.
Kerbaol, V., Chapron, B. & Vachon, P.W. (1998). Analysis of ERS‑1/2 synthetic
aperture radar wave mode imagettes. J. Geophys. Res. 103(C4), 7833-7846.
Killworth, P.D. & Blundell, J.R. (2004) The dispersion relation for planetary waves
in the presence of mean flow and topography. Part I: Analytical theory and one-
dimensional examples. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 34, 2692–2711.
Killworth, P.D. & Blundell, J.R. (2005). The dispersion relation for planetary
waves in the presence of mean flow and topography. Part II: Two-dimensional
examples and global results. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 35, 2110–2133.
Killworth, P.D., Chelton, D.B. & de Szoeke, R. (1997). The speed of observed and
theoretical long extra-tropical planetary waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27, 1946–1966.
Koch, W. (2004). Directional analysis of SAR images aiming at wind direction.
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 42(4), 702–710.
Kudryavtsev, V., Akimov, D., Johannessen, J.A. & Chapron, B. (2005). On radar
imaging of current features, Part 1: Model and comparison with observations.
J. Geophys. Res. 110, C07016.
Kudryavtsev, V., Grodsky, S., Dulov, V. & Bol'shakov, A. (1995). Observations of wind
waves in the Gulf Stream frontal zone. J. Geophys. Res. 100(C10), 20715−20727.
Kurapov, A.L., Allen, J.S. & Egbert, G.D. (2010). Combined effects of wind-driven
upwelling and internal tide on the continental shelf. J. Phys. Oceangr. 40,
737−756. doi:10.1175/2009JPO4183.1
Lehner, S., Horstmann, J., Koch, W. & Rosenthal, W. (1998). Mesoscale wind
measurements using recalibrated ERS SAR images, J. Geophys. Res. 103(C4),
7847–7856.
Le Traon, P.-Y. & Dibarboure, G. (1999). Mesoscale Mapping Capabilities of Multiple-
Satellite Altimeter Missions. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 16, 1208–1223.
Le Traon, P.-Y., Nadal, F., & Ducet, N. (1998). An improved mapping method of
multisatellite altimeter data. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 15, 522−534.
Li, X., Dong, C., Clemente-Colon, P., Pichel, W.G. & Friedman, K.S. (2004).
SAR observations of sea surface imprints of upstream atmospheric solitons
generated by flow impeded by an island. J. Geophys. Res. 109, C02016.
doi:10.1029/2003JC002168
Liu, A.K. (1998). Analysis of nonlinear internal waves in the New York Bight.
J. Geophys. Res. 93, 12 317−12 329.
Liu, A., Peng, C. & Schumacher, J.D. (1994). Wave−current interaction study in the
Gulf of Alaska for detection of eddies by synthetic aperture radar. J. Geophys.
Res. 99(C5), 10 075−10 085. doi: 10.1029/94JC00422
Lorenc, A.C. (1986). Analysis methods for numerical weather prediction, Q. J. R. Meterol.
Soc. 112, pp. 1177-1194,
Mitnik, L.M., Dubina, V.A. & Shevchenko, G.V. (2005). ERS SAR and Envisat ASAR
observations of oceanic dynamic phenomena in the southwestern Okhotsk Sea.
Proc. Envisat and ERS Symp., Salzburg, Austria, September 2004. ESA SP-572,
European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
222
SAR & Altimeter
Monaldo, F., Thompson, R., Beal, D., Pichel, W. & Clemente-Colon, P. (2001).
Comparison of SAR-derived wind speed with model predictions and ocean buoy
measurements. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 39(12), 2587–2600.
Monaldo, F.M., Kerbaol, V. & the SAR Wind Team (2003). The SAR measurement of
ocean surface winds: An overview. Proc. 2nd Workshop on Coastal and Marine
Applications of SAR. 8-12 September, Svalbard, Norway.
Mouche, A., Hauser, D., Daloze, J.-F. & Guerin, C. (2005). Dual polarization
measurements at C-band over the ocean: Results from airborne radar observations
and comparison with Envisat ASAR data, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 43(4),
753–769.
Mouche, A.A., Collard, F., Chapron, B., Dagestad, K.-F., Guitton, G., Johannessen,
J.A., Kerbaol, V. & Hansen, M.W. (2012). On the use of Doppler shift for sea
surface wind retrieval from SAR, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 50, 2901−2909.
doi: 10.1109/TGRS.2011.2174998.
Moum, J.N., Farmer, D.M., Smyth, W.D., Armi, L. & Vagle, S. (2003).Structure
and generation of turbulence at interfaces strained by internal solitary waves
propagating shoreward over the continental shelf. J. Phys. Ocean. 33, 2093−2112.
doi: 10.1175/1520-485(2003)033<2093:SAGOTA>2.0.CO;2
New, A.L. & da Silva, J.C.B. (2002). Remote-sensing evidence for the local generation
of internal soliton packets in the central Bay of Biscay. Deep Sea Res., Part I, 49,
915−934. doi: 10.1016/S0967-0637(01)00082-6
Nilsson, C.S. &. Tildesley, P.C (1995). Imaging of oceanic features by ERS1 synthetic
aperture radar. J. Geophys Res. 100, 953−967.
Okkonen, S.R., Jacobs, G.A., Metzger, E.J., Hurlburt, H.E. & Shriver, J.F. (2001).
Mesoscale variability in the boundary currents of the Alaska Gyre. Cont. Shelf
Res. 21, 1219–1236.
Osborne, A.R. & Burch, T.I. (1980). Internal solitons in the Andaman Sea. Science
208, 451−460.
Portabella, M., Stoffelen, A., & Johannessen, J.A. (2002). Toward an optimal
inversion method for SAR wind retrieval. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (C8). doi:
10.1029/2001JC000925.
Quilfen, Y., Chapron, B., Elfouhaily, T., Katsaros, K. & Tournadre, J. (1998).
Observation of tropical cyclones by high-resolution scatterometry, J. Geophys.
Res. 103(C4), 7767–7786.
Shroyer, E.L., Moum, J.N. & Nash, J.D. (2010). Vertical heat flux and lateral mass
transport in nonlinear internal waves. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L08601. doi:
10.1029/2010GL042715
Sikora, T.D., Young, G.S. & Winstead, T.S. (2006). A novel approach to marine wind
speed assessment using synthetic aperture radar. Wea. Forcasting. 21, 109−115.
Stoffelen, A. & Anderson, D. (1997a). Scatterometer data interpretation: Estimation
and validation of the transfer function CMOD-4. J. Geophys. Res. 102(C3),
5767−5780.
Stoffelen, A. & Anderson, D. (1997b). Scatterometer data interpretation: Measurement
space and inversion. J. Atm. Ocean. Technol. 14(6), 1298−1313.
Thompson, D. & Beal, R. (2000). Mapping of mesoscale and submesoscale wind
fields using synthetic aperture radar. John Hopkins APL Tech. Dig. 21, 58–67.
Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K. & Fung, A.K. (1982). Synthetic aperture side-looking
airborne radar systems. Microwave Remote Sensing, Active and Passive, Vol. II:
Radar Remote Sensing and Surface Scattering and Emission Theory. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, pp.630–745.
Vachon, P.W. & Dobson, F. (1996). Validation of wind vector retrieval from ERS‑1
SAR images over the ocean. Global Atmos. Ocean Syst. 5, 177–187.
Vachon, P.W., Johannessen, J.J. & Browne, D.P. (1995). ERS‑1 SAR images of
atmospheric gravity waves. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 33(4), 1014−1025.
Vachon, P.W., Johannessen, O.M. & Johannessen, J.J. (1994). An ERS 1 synthetic
aperture radar image of atmospheric lee waves. J. Geophys. Res. 99(C11),
22483−22490.
223
SP-1326
Valenzuela, G.R. (1978). Theories for the interaction of electromagnetic and oceanic
waves: A review. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 13(1–4), 61–85.
Vlasenko, V. & Alpers, W. (2005). Generation of secondary internal waves by the
interaction of an internal solitary wave with an underwater bank. J. Geophys.
Res. 110, C02019. doi: 10.1029/2004JC002467.
Wackerman, C., Pichel, W.G. & Clemente-Colon, P. (2003). A projection method
for automatic estimation of wind vectors with Radarsat SAR imagery, Proc. 2nd
Workshop on Coastal and Marine Applications of SAR, Svalbard, Norway. ESA
SP‑565, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.55−60.
Wackerman, C., Rufenach, C., Schuchman, R., Johannessen, J. & Davidson, K.
(1996). Wind vector retrieval using ERS‑1 synthetic aperture radar imagery.
J. Geophys. Res. 34, 1343–1352.
Wright, J.W. (1978). Detection of ocean waves by microwave radar: The modulation
of short gravity-capillary waves. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 13(1−4), 87−105.
224
→→ New Views of Earth using →
ERS Satellite Altimetry
Altimeter
1. Introduction
The first European Remote Sensing satellite, ERS‑1, launched in 1991, carried a
comprehensive payload including an imaging Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
designed to map the cryosphere, a radar altimeter to measure the height of the
ocean and other powerful instruments to measure ocean surface temperatures
and winds at sea.
Satellite altimetry works conceptually as follows. The satellite transmits a short
pulse of microwave radiation with known power towards the sea surface, where it
interacts with the surface and part of the signal returns to the altimeter, where the
travel time is accurately measured. The determination of the height of the surface
from the altimeter range measurement involves a number of corrections to account
for the behaviour of the radar pulse through the atmosphere (Fu & Cazenave,
2001). In the case of altimetry over the ocean, corrections for the sea state and
other geophysical signals are also applied. (Andersen & Scharroo, 2011)
Some of the most spectacular results of the ERS‑1 mission, such as the
ice sheet topography maps, the global marine gravity field or the global
bathymetry map, were obtained when the satellite was operating in a number
of ambitious mission phases:
—— First ice phase, from December 1991 to March 1992, optimised for Arctic
ice experiments characterised by a 3-day repeat cycle with a ground track
spacing of roughly 930 km at the equator.
—— First multidisciplinary phase, from April 1992 to December 1993, with a 35‑day
repeat cycle with a ground track spacing of around 80 km.
—— Second ice phase, from January 1994 to March 1994, with features identical to
those of the first ice phase.
—— The geodetic phase, from April 1994 to March 1995, in which the satellite
performed interleaved 168-day repeat track cycles resulting in a final ground
track spacing of 8 km.
—— Second multidisciplinary phase, from April 1995 until the end of the mission
on 10 March 2000.
The ERS‑1 168-day interleaved geodetic phase mission was proposed and
designed by the ERS‑1 international science team members, led by Guy
227
SP-1326
Duchossois and Richard Francis. However, the geodetic phase was planned to
last only until the launch of the ERS‑2 satellite in April 1995, giving only 1.5
cycles of 168-day repeat observations. The decision to continue the geodetic
phase and to complete the second 168-day repeat, resulting in a ground-
track spacing of 8 km, was not made until the end of 1994. Shortly before the
December 1994 American Geophysical Union (AGU) meeting there was a launch
failure at Arianespace. During the meeting Anny Cazenave, Dave Sandwell
and Richard Francis drafted a letter to ESA, which was supported by many
scientists at the meeting. In the letter they asked that, if the launch of ERS‑2
was delayed, then perhaps the second 168-day phase could be extended to
completion before resuming the 35-day operations. This was finally approved
by ESA and the scientific community had two complete 168-day cycles before
ERS‑1 was returned to its multidisciplinary phase.
With two cycles/phases of ERS‑1 Geodetic Mission (GM) data, the spatial
density of these data now equalled that of the Geodetic Mission data from the
older Geosat mission, which had been classified by the US Navy. This may
have convinced the US Navy to release all the Geosat GM data in July 1995,
providing a unique opportunity to cross-validate the two datasets and to create
in particular global marine gravity fields of unprecedented accuracy, much
higher than could have been achieved using just one satellite.
ERS‑2 was launched in 1995 to replace the older ERS‑1, and was operated
in a 35‑day repeat multidisciplinary phase throughout the mission. By the
time of the launch of ERS‑2, the original ERS‑1 was still in very good health
and went on to remain in operation until 1999, providing the first tandem
mission altimetry phase valuable to construct climate profiles. ERS‑2 remained
in operation until 2011 and was one of the longest Earth observation satellites
missions ever flown.
228
Altimeter
229
SP-1326
The ERS‑1 Altimeter (Phases A–G) Value-Added GDR Data Product (Berwin,
2001), was jointly developed by Ohio State University, the JPL Physical
Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (JPL PO.DAAC) and the
University of Texas Center for Space Research. Improved orbits, media and
ocean tide corrections have been derived and applied to the data products
(Shum et al., 1993; Anzenhofer et al., 1999; Urban et al., 2001; Ogle, 2003).
230
Altimeter
231
SP-1326
Figure 6. Mean Sea Surface models CLS-SHOM 1998 (left) (Schaeffer et al., 1998) and CNES-CLS11 (right) (Schaeffer et al., 2012).
present. The first European MSS was calculated at CLS in 1998, with funding
from the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the French Navy (SHOM).
In 2001 the CLS01 MSS was computed and in 2011, 20 years after the launch
of ERS‑1, CLS determined the CNES-CLS11 MSS using 16 years of altimetry data
from Topex/Poseidon/Jason-1 and, respectively, 14 years of data from ERS/Envisat,
7 years of data from the Geosat Follow-On (GFO), 3 years of data from Topex/
Poseidon interlaced and the two 168-day non-repeat ERS‑1 subcycles (Fig. 6).
MSS models were also developed at the Danish National Space Center
(DNSC/DTU). The DTU10 Mean Sea Surface is one of the most recent geometric
descriptions of the averaged height of the ocean surface derived from a
combination of 17 years of altimetry data from eight satellites covering the
period 1993–2004 (Fig. 7). This is a truly global MSS derived at 1 min resolution,
and includes all of the Arctic Ocean by including laser altimetry from Icesat
and a sophisticated extension towards the North Pole using the geoid.
232
Altimeter
233
SP-1326
234
Altimeter
Pahemo and Endeavour FZs in the southern Amundsen Sea, all the way to their
intersection with the west Antarctic continent (see McAdoo & Laxon, 1997). These
traces of fracture zones place constraints on the early history (65–80 million years
ago) of seafloor spreading between the Antarctic and the New Zealand micro-
continent and support the existence of a palaeo-tectonic plate, the Bellingshausen.
For tectonics, the gravity field indicates a strong anomaly within the
Ross Sea that may constrain models of recent ice sheet history in the Ross
embayment. It has been suggested that one-half of this gravity low could
be attributed to the effect of the loading of the crust by the weight of a much
larger sheet during the early Holocene, 10 000–20 000 years ago. It has been
proposed that such an ice sheet may have covered the Ross Sea during that
period. The rheology of the oceanic lithosphere in this area is dominated by
the inner distribution of temperature, the lithosphere cooling slowly from the
ridge where it is formed to the old abyssal basins. Owing to the global coverage
offered by satellite altimetry, the equivalent elastic thickness of the oceanic
lithosphere has been investigated on a global scale (Calmant & Baudry, 1996)
and regional anomalies of the thermal structure of the oceanic lithosphere Figure 10. The regional altimetric gravity
in the Central Pacific have been reported (Calmant et al., 2002). Recently, a field for the Arctic Ocean derived from
derivation of retracked gravity anomalies over smaller inland water bodies like ERS‑1 radar altimetry. This is one of the
the Great Lakes was presented by Kingdon et al. (2008). first examples of gravity determined under
the ice-covered Arctic Ocean. (Laxon &
McAdoo, 1994)
5. Bathymetry
A detailed knowledge of the topography of Earth’s surface is fundamental for
understanding most physical processes. On land, weather and climate are
controlled by topography on scales ranging from large continental landmasses
to small mountain valleys. Since the land is shaped by tectonics, erosion and
sedimentation, an understanding of topography is essential for any geological
investigation.
In the oceans, a detailed knowledge of bathymetry is also essential for
understanding physical oceanography, biology and marine geology. Currents
and tides are steered by the overall shapes of the ocean basins as well as by
smaller sharp ocean ridges and seamounts. Recent reports suggest that the
interaction of tides and currents with the rugged seafloor mix the ocean to
provide global overturning. Sea life is abundant where rapid changes in ocean
depth deflect nutrient-rich water upwards towards the surface.
Because erosion and sedimentation rates are low in the deep oceans,
detailed bathymetry also reveals mantle convection patterns, plate boundaries,
the cooling/subsidence of the oceanic lithosphere, oceanic plateaus and the
distribution of volcanoes (Fig. 12). Figure 11. The first complete altimetric
Because it is not possible to map the topography of the ocean basins directly gravity field for the entire Southern
from space, most seafloor mapping is a tedious process that has been carried Ocean derived from ERS‑1 radar altimetry,
out over a 40-year period by research vessels equipped with echo sounders. So including ice-covered seas and extending
far, only a few percent of the oceans have been surveyed at 200 m resolution. to the southernmost ocean limit of 79°S,
It has been estimated that 125–200 ship-years of survey time will be needed i.e. excluding the Ross and Ronne−Filchner
to map the deep oceans, costing several billion dollars. Mapping shallow seas ice shelves (McAdoo & Laxon, 1997; Laxon
would take even more time and funding. Therefore, the geodetic missions & McAdoo, 1998) The southern limits of
such as those of Geosat and ERS‑1 included high-resolution mapping of the ERS, Icesat and Cryosat-2 altimetry are
oceanic domain that has been of primary importance in seafloor mapping and shown by the green, blue and red circles,
seamount detection (Baudry & Calmant, 1996). respectively, overlying the grey Antarctic
In the wavelength band 10–160 km, variations in gravity anomalies are continent.
highly correlated with seafloor topography and thus, in principle, can be used to
recover topography in an inversion process (Baudry & Calmant, 1991; Calmant &
Baudry, 1996; Calmant et al., 2002; Andersen & Knudsen, 2009). For longer and
shorter wavelengths, isostatic compensation and noise are limiting factors.
235
SP-1326
6. Sea Ice
6.1 Arctic Sea Ice Thickness
ERS satellite altimetry has been instrumental in determinining the mean
thickness of Arctic ice and its variability between 65°N to 82°N over the period
1993–2001. The ERS data reveal a high-frequency inter-annual variability
in mean Arctic ice thickness that is dominated by changes in the amount
of summer melt, rather than by changes in circulation. To deduce the ice
thickness from ice elevation, the source of the echoes scattered from snow-
covered sea ice must be determined. Laboratory experiments show that, under
dry cold snow conditions, a normal-incidence 13.4‑GHz radar reflection from
snow-covered sea ice originates at the snow–ice interface. The ERS radar
altimeter measurements of ice elevation therefore provide the level of the
snow–ice interface above the water level, that is, the ice freeboard. The ice
freeboard measurements are subsequently converted to thickness and mass
(Fig. 13).
236
Altimeter
Figure 13. Left: Average winter Arctic sea ice thickness from October 1993 to March 2001 from ERS altimeter measurements of the
ice freeboard. Right: Comparison of satellite altimeter- and submarine-derived ice thicknesses in the Beaufort Sea during the 1990s.
Submarine thicknesses are shown for each of the 50-km segments gathered during four missions during the 1990s. Altimeter thickness
estimates are generated from observations within 15 days and 100 km of the submarine draught sections. The submarine thicknesses
exclude thin ice (0.5 m) and open water, because (owing to difficulties in discriminating thin ice from open water) progressively more
altimeter data are excluded once the ice thickness falls below 1 m. The error bars show uncertainties in altimeter thickness due to
measurement errors and snow depth variability.
237
SP-1326
238
Altimeter
Figure 15. Complete elevation map of the Greenland ice sheet derived mainly from ERS‑1 altimetry data. Left: The topographic relief has
been spatially filtered to highlight the shorter-wavelength features in the ice sheet and to illustrate ice sheet dynamics. (Bamber et al.,
1998). Right: Topographic relief map of the Antarctic ice sheet (Bamber et al., 2009).
239
SP-1326
to the flow direction have been found but have not yet been explained. In
the same way, undulations at the 10 km scale wavelength with a metric scale
amplitude seem to be the main ice sheet surface features. They have been
attributed to ice flow above an irregular bedrock. Up to now, they have been
modelled as symmetrical dome-shaped features. Their spatial characteristics
may allow a better understanding and modelling of these structures; they have
been found to be elongated, frequently with an orientation of 45° with respect
to the flowline direction. The 10 km scale seems to be a characteristic scale of
ice flow processes, as discussed in section 8.
240
Altimeter
241
SP-1326
242
Altimeter
Figure 20. The ACE-2 model. Over the oceans the elevation model has been supplemented with altimeter-derived bathymetry. (Smith et al., 2007)
reprocessed using the Berry expert system to retrack the waveforms (Smith et
al., 2007).
Over 11 billion pixels from the SRTM dataset have been adjusted using this
unique network of control arcs of altimeter-derived height data. In addition, an
extensive investigation over the rainforests has shown that the altimetry data
are returning ground values whereas the SRTM signal bounces off somewhere
within the canopy. Therefore, areas of rainforest in both the Amazon and the
Congo have been completely replaced by altimetry-defined surfaces.
243
SP-1326
satellite orbit calculations. Satellite altimetry coverage over land surfaces has
also been greatly improved by ESA’s inclusion of additional tracking modes on
the ERS and Envisat altimeters, which enable the instruments to track rapidly
changing surfaces. This has led to substantial advances in altimeter research
over ice, land and inland water bodies (Frappart et al., 2006).
Several teams around the world are now involved in satellite altimetry
over inland water bodies, including those led by C. Birkett (NASA, USA),
A. Cazenave (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, CNES, France), P. Berry
(De Montfort University, DMU, UK) and J. Santos da Silva (Universidade do
Estado do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil). At DMU, the team has studied the land
surface response to the altimeter pulse, and this has allowed characterisation
of the relationship between the underlying terrain and the individual echo
shapes (Figs 21 and 22).
Because of the ERS and Envisat missions it is now possible to obtain decadal
time series over a number of targets globally. These targets are often large
enough to present Brown model waveforms and therefore ocean retracking can
be performed. However, the vast majority of inland water bodies do not return
these types of signal.
The use of retracking means that it is possible to monitor a significantly
larger number of targets. Even so there are a number of factors that limit the
capability of an altimeter to obtain the correct heights. The current generation
of databases, such as ESA’s River and Lake database and the LEGOS Hydroweb
(Cretaux et al., 2011c), have hundreds of targets where the results are deemed to
be of high enough quality. The current system can obtain results globally from
both rivers and lakes throughout the year.
Satellite altimeter data provide water resource planners with an additional
source of information about remote areas such as Africa, for which the
availability of in situ data is limited. One example of a lake time series is that
for Lake Kainji in western Nigeria (Fig. 23). This important lake is fed by the
Niger River and its water levels have knock-on effects along the length of the
river, which is the main source of water in the area.
An altimeter can perform just as well over rivers as over lakes, although
more complicated processing is required. A major benefit is that it is possible
to obtain time series from along the entire length of a river system to provide
as complete a picture of water flow as possible. As an example, Fig. 25 shows
the ERS–Envisat time series of the Brahmaputra River that flows through India
and Bangladesh.
244
Altimeter
Figure 23. Lake Kainji in western Nigeria (left) and joint ERS-2−Envisat time series of lake levels, 1995−2008 (right). (Berry et al., 2005)
245
SP-1326
246
Altimeter
Figure 27. The major tidal signal in the Southern Ocean. The largest semidiurnal constituent M2 (left) and the largest diurnal constituent K1
tides (right) determined using multiple satellite altimetry data. (Yi et al., 2004, 2006)
247
SP-1326
11.2 Tsunamis
Tsunamis are waves triggered by earthquakes and landslides or, rarely,
unusually large seafloor volcanic eruptions. A large tsunami can generate huge
waves that endanger people and damage property in low-lying coastal areas.
The Indian Ocean tsunami, on 26 December 2004, killed more than 200 000
people and left millions homeless.
The radar altimeters on the Jason-1, Topex, Envisat and Geosat Follow-On
satellites obtained profiles of sea surface heights along transects across the
Indian Ocean between two and nine hours after the earthquake (e.g. Song et
al., 2005; Scharroo, 2007; see Fig. 29). Such data are usually received hours to
days after the event, and so are too late to be used in the detection of tsunamis
or to issue warnings.
248
Altimeter
249
SP-1326
250
Altimeter
11.4 El Niño
The radar altimeters on the ERS satellites measured sea surface heights between
July 1991 and 2011. One area of interest is the equatorial Pacific Ocean where the
famous El Niño roars every few years (Fig. 33). El Niño events are characterised by
a relatively high sea level along the west coast of Central America accompanied
by radical changes in the regional climate with heavy rainfall. At the same time,
the sea level drops in the western equatorial Pacific, where extreme droughts
devastate crops. The opposite extreme is called La Niña.
References
Alsdorf, D., Birkett, C.M., Dunne, T., Melack, J. & Hess, L. (2001). Water level
changes in a large Amazon lake measured with spaceborne radar interferometry
and altimetry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28(14), 2671−2674.
Andersen, O.B. (1994). Ocean tides in the northern North Atlantic Ocean and
adjacent seas from ERS-1 altimetry, J. Geophys. Res. 99(C11), 22557−22573.
Andersen, O.B. (1995). Global ocean tides from ERS-1 and TOPEX/POSEIDON
altimetry, J. Geophys Res. 100(C12), 25 249−25 259.
Andersen, O.B. & Knudsen, P. (1998). Global marine gravity field from the ERS‑1 and
Geosat Geodetic Mission altimetry. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 8129–8137.
Andersen, O.B. & Knudsen, P. (2009). The DNSC08 mean sea surface and mean
dynamic topography. J. Geophys. Res. 114, C11. doi: 10.1029/2008JC005179
Andersen, O.B., Knudsen, P. & Beckley, B. (2002). monitoring long-term changes in
sea level using ERS satellites. Phys. Chem. Earth 27, 1413–1418.
Andersen, O.B., Knudsen, P. & Berry, P. (2010). The DNSC08GRA global marine
gravity field from double retracked satellite altimetry. J. Geodesy 84(3). doi:
10.1007/s00190-009-0355-9
Andersen, O.B. & Scharroo, R. (2011). Range and geophysical corrections in coastal
regions, in S. Vignudelli, A. Kostianoy, P. Cipollini & J. Benveniste, J. (Eds),
Coastal Altimetry. Springer, Berlin.
Anzenhofer, M., Shum, C.K. & Rentsh, M. (1999). Costal altimetry and applications,
Tech. Rep. 464, Geodetic Science and Surveying. Ohio State University, Columbus,
USA.
Bamber, J.L., Ekholm, S. & Krabill, W.S. (2001). A new, high-resolution digital
elevation model of Greenland fully validated with airborne laser altimeter data.
J. Geophys. Res. 106(B4), 6733–6745.
Bamber, J.L., Gomez Dans, J.L. & Griggs, J.A. (2009). A new 1 km digital elevation
model of the Antarctic derived from combined satellite radar and laser data.
Part I: Data and methods. Cryosphere 3(2), 101–111.
Baudry, N. & Calmant, S. (1991). 3-D modelling of seamount topography from
satellite altimetry, Geophys. Res. Lett. 18, 1143–1146.
Baudry, N. & Calmant, S. (1996). Seafloor mapping from high-density satellite
altimetry. Marine Geophys. Res. 18, 135–146.
Becker, M., Llowel, W., Cazenave, A., Güntner, A., Crétaux, J.-F. (2010). Recent
hydrological behaviour of the East African Great Lakes region inferred from
GRACE, satellite altimetry and rainfall observations. C. R. Geosci. doi: 10.1016/j.
crte.2009.12.010
Berry, P.A.M., Garlick, J.D., Freeman, J.A. & Mathers, E.L. (2005). Global inland
water monitoring from multi-mission altimetry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 (16),
L16401.
Berry, P.A.M., Freeman, J.A., Rogers, C. et al. (2007). Global analysis of Envisat RA-2
burst mode echo sequences. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 45(9), 2869−2874.
Berwin, R. (2001). ERS‑1 (Phases A−G) Altimeter Value-added GDR Data Product,
Version 1. JPL DVD-ROM, generated by Ohio State University (C.K. Shum and
Yuchan Yi), JPL (R. Berwin, R. Benada and V. Zlotnicki), and the University of
Texas Center for Space Research.
251
SP-1326
Birkett, C.M. (1994). Radar altimetry − A new concept in monitoring global lake level
changes. Eos Trans. AGU 75(24), 273–275.
Birkett, C., Murtugudde, R. & Allan, T. (1999). Indian Ocean climate event brings
floods to East Africa's lakes and the Sudd Marsh. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26(8),
1031–1034.
Calmant, S. & Baudry, N. (1996). Modelling bathymetry by inverting satellite
altimetry data: A review. Marine Geophys. Res. 18, 123–134.
Calmant, S., Berge-Nguyen, M. & Cazenave, A. (2002). Global seafloor topography
by least-squares inversion of satellite altimetry and shipboard bathymetry.
Geophys. J. Int. 151, 795–808.
Calmant, S. & Seyler, F. (2006). Continental surface waters from satellite altimetry.
Géosciences 338, 1113–1122.
Cazenave, A., Bonnefond, P., Dominh, K. & Schaeffer, P. (1997). Caspian sea level
from Topex-Poseidon altimetry: Level now falling. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24(8),
881–884.
Cretaux, J.-F., Jelinski, V., Calmant, S., Kouraei, A., Vuglinski, V., Bergé-Nguyen,
M., Gennero, M.-C., Nino, F., Abarco Del Rio, R., Cazenave, A. & Maisongrande,
P. (2011). SOLS, a lake database to monitor in near real time water level
storage variations from remote sensing data. Adv. Space Res. doi: 10.1016/j.
asr.2011.01.004
Cretaux, J.-F. & Birkett, C. (2006). Lake studies from satellite altimetry. C. R. Geosci.
338, 1098–1112. doi:10.1016/J.crte.2006.08.002
Deng, X., Featherstone, W.E., Hwang, C. & Berry, P.A.M. (2002). Estimation of
contamination of ERS‑2 and POSEIDON satellite radar altimetry close to the
coasts of Australia. Marine Geodesy 25, 249–271.
Flament, T. & Rémy, F. (2012). Dynamic thinning of Antarctic glaciers from along-
track repeats radar altimetry. J. Glaciol. 58(211), 830–840.
Frappart, F., Calmant, S., Cauhopé, M., Seyler F. & Cazenave, A. (2006). Results
of ENVISAT RA-2 derived levels validation over the Amazon basin. Rem. Sens.
Environ. 100, 252–264.
Fu, L.L. & Cazenave, A. (2001). Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences: A Handbook of
Techniques and Applications. International Geophysics Ser. 69, Academic Press,
San Diego, CA.
Hernandez, F. & Schaeffer, P. (2000). Altimetric Mean Sea Surfaces and Gravity
Anomaly Maps Intercomparisons. AVI-NT-011-5242-CLS, CLS Ramonville St Agne,
France.
Hwang, C., Hsu, H. & Jang R. (2000). Global mean sea surface and marine gravity
anomaly from multi-satellite altimetry: Applications of deflection-geoid and
inverse Vening−Meinesz formulae. J. Geodesy 76(8), 407−418.
Kingdon, R., Hwang, C., Hsiao, Y.S. et al., (2008). Gravity anomalies from retracked
ERS and Geosat altimetry over the Great Lakes: Accuracy assessment and
problems. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci. 19(1−2), 93−101.
Knudsen, P., Andersen, O.B. & Tscherning, C.C. (1992). Altimetric gravity anomalies
in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea: Preliminary results from the ERS‑1 35-day
repeat mission, Geophys. Res. Lett. 19(17), 1795–1798.
Kouraev, A.V., Semovski, S.V., Shimaraev, M.N. et al. (2007). Observations of Lake
Baikal ice from satellite altimetry and radiometry. Rem. Sens. Environ. 108(3),
240−253.
Kuo, C. (2006). Determination and Characterization of 20th Century Global Sea Level
Rise. Geodetic Science Report No. 478, Ohio State University.
Laxon, S. & McAdoo, D.C. (1994). Arctic ocean gravity field derived from ERS‑1
satellite altimetry. Science 265, 621–624.
Laxon, S. & McAdoo, D.C. (1998). Satellites provide new insights into polar
geophysics. EOS Trans. AGU 79(6), 69–73.
Llubes, M., Lanseau, C. & Rémy, F. (2006). Relations between basal condition,
subglacial hydrological networks and geothermal flux in Antarctica. Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 241, 655–662.
252
Altimeter
Manzella, G.M.R., Borzelli, G.L., Cipollini, P., Guymer, T.H., Snaith, H.M. &
Vignudelli, S. (1997). Potential use of satellite data to infer the circulation
dynamics in a marginal area of the Mediterranean Sea. Space at the Service of our
Environment, Proc. 3rd ERS Symp., Vol. 3. ESA SP-414, European Space Agency,
Noordwijk, the Netherlands pp.1461–1466.
Maus, S., Green, C.M. & Fairhead, D. (1998). Improved ocean-geoid resolution from
retracked ERS‑1 satellite altimeter waveforms. Geophys J. Int. 134(1), 243–253.
McAdoo, D.C. & Laxon, S. (1997). Antarctic tectonics: Constraints from a new ERS‑1
satellite marine gravity field. Science 276(5312), 556–561.
Medina, C.E., Gomez-Enri, J., Alonso, J.J. et al. (2008). Water level fluctuations
derived from ENVISAT Radar Altimeter (RA-2) and in-situ measurements in a
subtropical water body: Lake Izabal (Guatemala). Rem. Sens. Environ. 112(9),
3604−3617
Morris, C.S. and Gill, S.K. (1994a). Variation of Great Lakes water levels derived from
Geosat altimetry. Water Resources Res. 30(4), 1009–1017.
Obligis, E., Desportes, C., Eymard, L., Fernandes, J., Lázaro, C. & Nunes, A. (2011).
Tropospheric corrections for coastal altimetry, in S. Vignudelli, A. Kostianoy. P.
Cipollini & J. Benveniste, J. (Eds), Coastal Altimetry. Springer, Berlin.
Ogle, J. (2003). Orbital Error Analysis for ERS‑1 and ERS‑2. Geodetic Science Report,
Ohio State University, USA.
Rémy, F. & Minster, J.F. (1997). Antarctica ice sheet curvature and its relation with
ice flow and boundary conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 1039–1042.
Rémy, F. & Parouty, S. (2009). Antarctic ice sheet and radar altimetry: A review.
Rem. Sens. 1, 1212–1239. doi: 10.3390/rs1041212
Rémy, F.D., Shaeffer, P. & Legresy, B. (1999). Ice flow physical processes derived
from the ERS‑1 high-resolution map of the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets.
Geophys. J. Int. 139, 645–656.
Sandwell, D.T. & Smith, W.H.F. (1997). Marine Gravity anomaly from Geosat and
ERS‑1 satellite altimetry. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 10039–10054.
Sandwell, D.T. & Smith, W.H.F. (2005). Retracking ERS‑1 altimeter waveforms for
optimal gravity field recovery, Geophys. J. Int. 163, 79–89. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-
246X.2005.02724
Sandwell, D.T. & Smith, W.H.F. (2009). Global marine gravity from retracked Geosat
and ERS‑1 altimetry: Ridge segmentation versus spreading rate. J. Geophys. Res.
114, B01411. doi: 10.1029/2008JB006008
Santos da Silva, J., Calmant, S., Seyler, F., Rotunno Filho, O. C., Cochonneau, G. &
Mansur, W.J. (2010) Water levels in the Amazon basin derived from the ERS -2
and ENVISAT radar altimetry missions, Rem. Sens. Environ.114, 2160–2181.
Schaeffer, P., Faugère, Y., Legeais, J.F., Ollivier, A., Guinle, T. & Picot, N. (2012).
CNES_CLS11 global mean sea surface computed from 16 years of satellite
altimeter data. Marine Geodesy. Special Issue on Jason-2, 35, 3–19.
Schaeffer, P., Hernandez, F., Le Traon, P.-Y., Mertz, F. & Bahurel, P. (1998). A mean
sea surface dedicated to ocean studies: Global estimation, Poster Session,
European Geophysical Society, Nice, France.
Scharroo, R. (2007). Tsunamis, in M.D. King et al. (Eds), Our Changing Planet: The
View From Space. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp.196–201,
Scharroo, R., Leuliette, E., Lillibridge, J., Neije, M., Schrama, E. & Andersen, O.
(2012). Experiences with the use of RADS for Cal/Val and data distribution.
Presented at the S3 CalVal meeting, Frascati, Italy.
Scharroo, R., Smith, W.H.F. & Lillibridge, J.L. (2005). Satellite altimetry and the
intensification of Hurricane Katrina, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(40), 366.
Scharroo, R. Visser, P.N.A.M. & Mets, G.J. (1998). Precise orbit determination
and gravity field improvement for the ERS satellites. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C4),
8113−8127.
Shepherd, A. & Peacock, N.R. (2003). Ice shelf tidal motion derived from ERS
altimetry, J. Geophys. Res. 108, 3198. doi: 10.1029/2001JC001152
Shepherd, A. & Wingham, D. (2007). Recent sea-level contributions of the Antarctic
and Greenland ice sheets. Science 315, 1529–1532.
253
SP-1326
254
→→ 20 Years of ERS →
Interferometry
SAR Interferometer
F. Rocca
257
SP-1326
2. SAR in Milan
2.1 Phase Preserving Focusing
Meanwhile, in Milan, we had developed interferometry algorithms to a
satisfying extent. Our studies of SAR had started in 1983 when Fulvio Marcoz
and Alfonso Farina of Alenia proposed that our department participate in
a European research project on SAR, named Adaptive Real-time Strategies
for Image Processing (ARTS‑IP). Alenia had a good experience with radar; in
Milan, together with Claudio Prati who had just graduated, we had experience
in signal processing and our colleague Maria Giovanna Sami, who managed
the team, was an expert in digital design. A team at Imperial College London
also participated in the research. It is interesting to note that the SAR system
we wished to design at the time does not exist even now, even if it starts being
considered. The idea was to design a naval search machine: the onboard
antenna would squint forward to image ships at low resolution. Then, an
onboard focusing system would focus data in realtime; adding fantasy to
science, we proposed to have a realtime pattern recognition system (the task
of the Imperial College team) to detect ships. After, the very same antenna
was supposed to be squinted aft to zoom in on the detected ships and finally
downlink the result.
We learned that SAR was a complex system, and that paper satellites
were not adequate. However, we also learned that SAR technicians, owing to
their realtime habits, had their own approximate way to focus SAR data. We
258
SAR Interferometer
proposed to focus the data as geophysicists did, i.e. using the exact transfer
function that could even be written in a closed formula (Cafforio et al., 1991),
the ω −k approach. Among other things, I had developed this algorithm for the
Italian oil company AGIP back in 1977. The technique is efficient, but as the
appearance of a SAR image would not change much, at the time the innovation
was not considered essential. However, as it is precise and phase preserving,
the technique proved to be an important tool for advancing interferometry.
259
SP-1326
Systems, and duly rejected, and was then presented at the International
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) meeting in Vancouver in
1989. But later, at the Washington IGARSS meeting in 1990, I remember a very
enjoyable talk on SAR focusing with Richard Bamler and Helmut Runge; they
understood the ins and outs of the question, and together we started discussing
and proposing the phase preservation tests that would thereafter characterise
all ESA processors, making focusing transparent to interferometry users. The
paper by Bamler comparing ω −k and range Doppler focusing systems appeared
in 1992 (Bamler, 1992). Chirp scaling also followed, as noted above. But we
were still short of funds, and desperately needed another contract, and it could
only be from ESA and on something new that could not be anything else than
interferometry. Stefano Bruzzi was approached and was finally convinced to
give us all the information we needed to be able to simulate the raw data from
ERS‑1, yet to be launched, and a contract. So, by the end of the commissioning
phase, in the summer of 1991, we were ready.
Figure 1. The Gennargentu data (August 1991). Left: amplitude; right: interferogram. The Su Gurruppu gorge is visible at top right.
260
SAR Interferometer
forests were dark, towns bright, and so on, adding an invaluable new tool for
researchers who wanted to classify radar images. Luckily enough, the revisit
interval was just three days, and the coherence very high.
The second surprise was the precision with which we could estimate the
baselines, and the first, indeed approximate, DEMs. We discovered in the data
(no Google then) and later on maps, the Su Gurruppu gorge and the Grotta del
Bue Marino in Sardinia, and then the Patagonia and the Norway data, the fjords
and the shores, and so many views of the Etna and of the Vesuvius, at all times.
We derived the baselines from the data themselves, as the orbital data were not
available and not precise enough. We were able to tell the timing of the orbit
corrections as we could measure from the interferogram DEMs the changes in
the baselines in successive passes and see their parabolic behaviour, just like
a bouncing ball. Not gravity pull but solar wind push, not ground bounces but
orbit corrections: anyway, intersections of parabolas.
261
SP-1326
The DEMs that could be derived using multiple baselines to solve unwrapping
problems as well as atmospheric biases would be comparable with and, some
believed, exceed in quality those yielded by the much more expensive SRTM,
to be carried out five years later. There were doubts, voiced by an eminent
researcher, that the two local oscillators and the different orbits could create
unwanted unacceptable fringes. They did, but it was an easy correction to
carry out. Further, the lifetime of ERS‑1 could be impaired if it had to follow
ERS‑2 (maybe the same, one said). But the experiment was carried out
successfully, and the very first joint interferogram was published on the ESA
website in May 1995, a few days after the end of the Commissioning Phase of
ERS‑2. Our only problem was to adapt for different pulse repetition frequencies
(Fig. 2), but the fact that tandem operation was not easy was confirmed by the
following comments that appeared in an ESA Bulletin (Duchossois & Martin,
1995; emphasis added):
‘The passes of the two satellites over the ground receiving stations last
about 10 min. The reconfiguration of the stations between the end of one
satellite’s pass and the beginning of the pass of the next takes about 15 min;
since the orbital period is approximately 100 min, the time interval between
the two satellites has to be between 25 and 75 min. With the current orbital
configuration, ERS‑2 follows ERS‑1 with an approximate delay (called the
orbit phasing of the two satellites) of 35 min. Because of this delay and Earth’s
rotation, the ground-track patterns of ERS‑2 are shifted westwards with respect
to those of ERS‑1. The orbit phasing has been adjusted to ensure that ERS‑2’s
track over the Earth’s surface coincides exactly with that of ERS‑1 24 h earlier.
Within the repeat cycle of 35 days, the opportunity to observe any point on the
ground under identical conditions (altitude, incidence angle, etc.) is therefore
doubled during the tandem operations. Different ground-site revisiting intervals
can be achieved by changing the orbital phasing of the two satellites.’
262
SAR Interferometer
263
SP-1326
264
SAR Interferometer
Parizzi and Bénédicte Fruneau, then a PhD student with Josè Achache, but for
a time in Milan, observed the first landslide fringes in February 1992. They had
just three images. Then the 3‑day repeat phase in winter 1992 provided the data
needed to separate the topographic from the motion fringes. The atmospheric
effects were reduced by the fact that the motion was local. The splendid
interferogram of the co-seismic motion of the Landers earthquake in California,
published by Massonnet et al. (1993, 1994; see Fig. 6) generated considerable
interest among seismologists.
That paper was exemplary, in that not only was the interferometry part
significant but also the seismological analysis was very detailed. Co-seismic
motion indeed proved to be easy to see, and many other examples followed.
But glacier motion was also made visible as the many beautiful examples by
Gilles Peltzer and Lawrence Gray showed. But then came the real questions:
ok for co-seismic motion, glaciers, etc. but how about pre-seismic motion? Is
it there, can we see it? Where are the signatures of the faults in motion? Could
this information be useful for understanding earthquakes?
265
SP-1326
266
SAR Interferometer
267
SP-1326
Figure 9. Italy’s Permanent Scatterers from ERS ‑1, ERS‑2 and Envisat data. (TRE)
After that, the technologies of PS, SBAS, and that of interferogram stacking
proposed by Sandwell & Price (1998) provided many results all over the world
(Fig. 9). ERS, and then Envisat and Radarsat‑1, provided so many datasets that
all researchers could fulfil their subsidence dreams.
268
SAR Interferometer
applications of radar data, which is still used primarily for intelligence and
security applications. ESA had supported the creation of a market for PSI
applications from the beginning and financed several projects based on PSI
products and services. Among them, it is worth mentioning Terrafirma, an ESA
GMES project, managed by Fugro NPA, which aims to create ‘a pan-European
ground motion hazard information service’ (www.terrafirma.eu.com).
In order to speed up the expansion of PS applications, ESA focused on two
key concepts, validation and standardisation, neither of which turned out to be
at all easy to reach. The former is needed to fulfil the need to involve different
scientific communities and create a common language for comparing results.
The latter is needed for the simple reason that this time there was indeed a
market (!) for this technology, and differentiation rather than standardisation
is a must in any marketing plan.
Looking back over the last 10 years, both lines of action by ESA were
successful, since they forced all actors involved in PSI to improve the quality
and reliability of PS results, figure out any possible applications of PS data, and
learn how to speak in layman’s terms about this remote sensing technology.
We conclude this section by pointing out, once again, the importance
of SAR data availability and data acquisition policies for the development of
SAR interferometric technologies/applications. All PSI algorithms owe much
to ESA’s ERS missions. The ERS‑1 and ERS‑2 satellites were uncomplicated
and manageable using simple acquisition policies. Since interferometric data
stacks were available over many areas of the world, with dozens of image
acquisitions, the development of the second-generation DInSAR algorithms
became possible. The existence of an up-to-date archive of speculative
scheduled raw data acquisitions has helped to build the confidence of the
user community in using InSAR. Also, the market potential of speculative
scheduled SAR has encouraged satellite owners and distributors to become
interested in such programmes.
269
SP-1326
The future will tell if systematic global monitoring will become operational,
but there are many indications that it will. Microwaves will do their job
illuminating targets that beams of light cannot penetrate, and scientists will
find other interesting topics to study. The adventure of interferometry as a
science is basically concluded, and it is now an industrial and commercial
engineering activity.
References
Bamler, R. (1992). A comparison of range-Doppler and wave-number domain SAR
focusing algorithms, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 30(4), 706−713.
Bamler, R. & Hartl, P. (1998). Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry, Inverse
Problems 14, R1–R54.
Cafforio, C., Prati, C. & Rocca, F. (1991). SAR data focusing using seismic migration
techniques. IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. 194−207.
Costantini, M. (1998). A novel phase unwrapping method based on network
programming. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 36(3), 813–821.
Curlander, J.C & McDonough, R.N. (1991). Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems and
Signal Processing. Wiley, New York.
Duchossois, G. & Martin, P. (1995). ERS‑1 and ERS‑2 tandem operations. ESA Bulletin
83, 54–60.
Engdahl, M., Borgeaud, M. & Rast, M. (2001). Use of ERS-1/2 tandem interferometric
coherence in the estimation of agricultural crop heights. IEEE Trans. Geosci.
Rem. Sens. 39(8), 1799–1806.
Ferretti, A., Monti Guarnieri, A., Prati, C., Rocca, F. & Massonnet, D. (2007). INSAR
Principles: Guidelines for SAR Interferometry Processing and Interpretation. ESA
TM-19, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
www.esa.int/esaMI/ESA_Publications/SEM867MJC0F_0.html
Ferretti, A., Prati, C. & Rocca, F. (1999). Multibaseline INSAR DEM reconstruction,
the wavelet approach. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 37, 705-715.
Ferretti, A., Prati, C. and Rocca, F. (2000). Nonlinear subsidence rate estimation
using permanent scatterers in differential SAR. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38,
2202–2212.
Ferretti, A., Prati, C. and Rocca, F. (2001). Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry.
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 39(1), 8–20.
Franceschetti, G. & Lanari, R. (1999). Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Fruneau, B, Achache, J. & Delacourt, C. (1996). Observation and modelling of the
Sant- Étienne-de-Tinée landslide using SAR interferometry. Tectonophysics 265,
181–190.
Gatelli, F., Monti Guarnieri, A., Parizzi, F., Pasquali, P., Prati, C. & Rocca, F. (1994).
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 32, 855−865.
Ghiglia, D.C. & Romero, L.A. (1996). Minimum Lp-norm two-dimensional phase
unwrapping. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 13(10), 1−15.
Goldstein, R., Zebker, H. & Werner, C., (1988). Satellite radar interferometry: two
dimensional phase unwrapping, Radio Sci. 23(4), 713–720.
Graham, L.C. (1974). Synthetic interferometer radar for topographic mapping. Proc.
IEEE 62(6), 763−768.
Gray, A.L. & Farris-Manning, P.J. (1993). Repeat-pass interferometry with airborne
synthetic aperture radar. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 31(1), 180−191.
Hanssen, R.F. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis,
Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
Massonnet, D., Feigl, K., Rossi, M. & Adragna, F. (1994). Radar interferometric
mapping of deformation in the year after the Landers earthquake. Nature 369,
227−230.
270
SAR Interferometer
Massonnet, D., Rossi, M., Carmona, C., Adragna, F. , Peltzer, G., Feigl, K. & Rabaute,
T. (1993). The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar
interferometry. Nature 364, 138–142.
Pasquali, P., Stebler, O., Small, D., Holecz, F. & Nuesch, D. (1998). SAR polarimetric
interferometry experiments. Workshop on Advances in Radar Methods, Progress
in Electromagnetics Research Symp., Baveno, Italy, 20–22 July.
Prati, C. & Rocca, F. (1993). Improving slant-range resolution with multiple SAR
surveys. IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. 29(1), 135−144.
Prati, C. & Rocca, F. (1994). Process for Generating Synthetic Aperture Radar
Interferograms. US Patent No. 5 332 999.
Prati, C., Rocca, F., Guarnieri, A.M. & Damonti, E. (1990). Seismic migration for SAR
focusing: Interferometrical applications. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 28(4),
627−640.
Prati, C., Rocca, F., Monti Guarnieri, A. & Pasquali, P. (1994). Interferometric
Techniques and Applications. ESA Study Contract Report. Contract No. 3- 7439/92/
HGE-I.C.
Rosen, P., Hensley, S., Joughin, I., Li, F., Madsen, S., Rodriguez, E. & Goldstein, R.
(2000). Synthetic aperture radar interferometry. Proc. IEEE 88(3), 333–379.
Rosich, T.B. & Laur, H. (1996). Phase preservation in SAR processing: The
interferometric offset test. IGARSS 1996, Lincoln, NE, USA, May 1996.
Rott, H. & Siegel, A. (1996). Glaciological studies in the Alps and in Antarctica using
ERS interferometric SAR. Proc. Fringe 1996, ESA SP-406, vol. 2, European Space
Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.149–159.
Sandwell, D.T. & Price, E.J. (1998). Phase gradient approach to stacking
interferograms. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 30 183−30 204.
Santoro, M., Wegmüller, U., Strozzi, T., Werner, C., Wiesmann, A. & Lengert, W.
(2008). Thematic applications of ERS–Envisat cross interferometry. IGARSS 2008.
Schmullius, C., Holz, A., Marschalk, U., Roth, A., Vietmeier, J. & Wagner, W. (1999).
Operational readiness of ERS SAR interferometry for forest mapping in Siberia.
Fringe 99, ESA SP-478, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: Mapping the World in Three Dimensions.
http://srtm.usgs.gov/
Wegmüller, U. (1997). Soil moisture monitoring with ERS SAR interferometry. Proc.
3rd ERS Symp. ESA SP-414, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands,
pp.47-52.
Zebker, H.A. & Goldstein, R.M. (1986) Topographic mapping from interferometer
synthetic aperture radar observations. J. Geophys. Res. 91(B5), 4993–4999.
271
→→ ERS SAR over Land
SAR Image Mode
T. Le Toan
1. Introduction
With the launch of the first Landsat in 1973, mapping of land surfaces from
space became a reality. In the late 1970s, following increasing concerns that
human activities are starting to affect the ecological balance of the planet,
environmental monitoring and conservation became major objectives, to
be addressed by global and repeated observations. After the short Seasat
mission in 1978, it was clear that radar missions were needed to undertake
measurements of areas not covered by existing missions. The first European
Remote Sensing satellite, ERS‑1, launched in 1991, was designed primarily to
monitor the sea state, surface winds, ocean circulation and sea/ice levels. All-
weather imaging of ocean, ice and land was regarded as an additional benefit.
However, the land community was very interested in using Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) for land observations, primarily because imaging radar
was the only means available for mapping areas under persistent cloud cover
and for monitoring land surface changes. To assess the use of SAR data for land
applications, research was undertaken well before the launch of ERS‑1 to develop
methods of land surface mapping and monitoring land surface parameters.
Following the launch of ERS‑1 in 1991 and of ERS‑2 in 1995, ERS data were the
basis of many scientific projects and operational services, which continued with
Envisat’s Advanced SAR (ASAR) and will continue with Sentinel-1.
This chapter recounts the journey from the era before ERS until today,
outlining the scientific and operational achievements and their impacts
on the public, and on new developments. This chapter is not intended to be
comprehensive, but focuses on the use of ERS and Envisat SAR for agriculture
and forest research. The observations and opinions presented here are also
subjective since they represent a personal view of the history of ERS.
275
SP-1326
276
SAR Image Mode
Fung, University of Kansas) and random medium models (J.A. Kong, MIT).
Modelling studies were later undertaken by teams at the University of Rome Tor
Vergata, Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden, and the CESR (now the
Centre d’Etudes Spatiales de la Biosphère (CESBIO) in France.
In parallel, several European teams intensified their activities devoted to
SAR image processing, including those at the Marconi Research Centre in the
UK (S. Quegan), the University of Stuttgart in Germany (P. Hartl), and at CESR
(A. Lopes, R. Touzi) and IRESTE in France (J. Saillard, E. Pottier), to name but a
few. Their achievements included the development of methods for calibration,
speckle filtering, and geometric and radiometric correction. SAR polarimetry,
first demonstrated in mid-1980s, was capturing the interest of an increasing
number of researchers. However, beyond a few applications, polarimetry
for land did not lead to the full development of applications as many had
predicted. In contrast, interferometry, which in the mid-1980s had been
regarded as a tool only for topographic mapping, became an indispensable
observation technique for many land applications (see Rocca, this volume).
It is interesting to note that in 1981, before the era of SAR satellites, the first
International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) was devoted
to radar remote sensing, and attracted over 400 participants from 20 countries.
277
SP-1326
scale effect in in situ measurements for providing model inputs. The measured
roughness correlation length with 3 m profiles differed from the measurements at
the SAR spatial resolution, as found by measurements with a longer profiler (>10
m), for which a specific setup was developed (Mattia & Le Toan, 1999; Davidson et
al., 2000). To assimilate the soil moisture estimates in a flood forecasting scheme,
a model inversion of ERS data based on a priori knowledge of the roughness state
was proposed (Bach & Mauser, 2003; Davidson et al., 2003). However, we know
that for agricultural and hydrological applications the most important requirement
is the data short repeat cycle. With such repeated data over a few days it would be
possible to track changes in soil moisture, since the changes in other parameters
(surface roughness, vegetation structure and biomass) take place at longer
temporal scales. This was later demonstrated with data from the Envisat Advanced
SAR (ASAR) wide-swath mode in a 3-day repeat cycle, which showed changes
in soil moisture content at a coarse spatial resolution (1 km) (e.g. Vista GmBH).
Overall, the lack of systematic data acquisitions was a serious limitation on the use
of ERS (and later Envisat) SAR data for estimating soil moisture for applications
such as agricultural monitoring and hydrological modelling.
For global observations, methods based on change detection using dense
time series and coarse-resolution data such as ERS scatterometer data had
already been developed and used in process models (W. Wagner). More
recently, the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission (SMOS) mission was
launched in 2009 for global soil moisture monitoring (Y. Kerr). But for many
applications in agriculture and hydrology, which require higher spatial
Figure 2. Left: ERS‑1 image of the agricultural area of Gharb, Morocco. Irrigated and non-irrigated fields, and fields where irrigation was under
way can be identified. Right: ERS backscattering coefficient as a function of soil moisture for fields at two types of roughness status (old and new
fallow bare fields of the same rms height s with different surface correlation lengths, l). (Le Toan et al., 1993, in Massonnet & Souyris, 2008)
278
SAR Image Mode
resolution, expectations are now focused on the Sentinel-1 mission, which will
provide an opportunity to put to effective use the knowledge accumulated and
methods developed so far (Satalino et al., 2003; Balanzano et al., 2011).
279
SP-1326
Quite soon after the beginning of data acquisition, it was recognised that the
multitemporal ERS data provided more valuable information than single images.
Methods based on time series data for speckle filtering and for change detection
were developed and used for deforestation mapping (e.g. in Sumatra by CESBIO
and ESA in 1998). To assess the use of SAR data for monitoring forests, the EU’s
European Forest Observations by Radar (EUFORA) project (fourth Framework
Programme, 1996−98) brought together several teams to work on a collaborative
basis (Le Toan et al., 1998). Many of the project’s findings, including the
application of multitemporal ERS data to forest mapping (Quegan et al., 2000)
and methods based on SAR interferometry, are still being used.
While the most striking land applications of SAR interferometry have been
measurements of terrain displacements following earthquakes and subsidence
monitoring, the findings for other applications have received much less attention.
In the EUFORA project, for example, J. Askne and his team from Chalmers
University assessed the potential of interferometry for forest applications (Askne
et al., 1997). The Swiss company Gamma Remote Sensing (Wegmüller & Werner,
1997; Strozzi et al., 2000) initiated the operational use of interferometric coherence
in land use and forest mapping. The coherence is a measure of the unwanted
phase noise of the interferogram when dealing with terrain displacements. But
as an interesting point for vegetation observations, the coherence decreases with
volume scattering and temporal changes in the target area. Water and forests
show low coherence, while bare soil and urban areas show high coherence,
and agricultural fields intermediate coherence. Figure 4 presents one of the first
examples of the simplest and most popular method of land surface mapping
using backscatter intensity and interferometric coherence.
Beyond forest mapping using interferometry, the next step involved the
retrieval of forest parameters. The idea was simple: the volume scattering and
temporal changes due to the motion of scatterers increase with the number
of scatterers in a forest canopy. Hence the interferometric coherence was
expected to decrease with forest biomass. Experimental results relating ERS
280
SAR Image Mode
repeat pass coherence at different time intervals have been reported. The
sensitivity to biomass was found to decrease after a certain value of biomass
was reached, e.g. 40−60 t ha−1 for a temperate forest (Le Toan & Floury, 1998),
or for the Siberian forest (Wagner et al., 2003). Some exceptions were observed
in boreal forests in winter conditions, where the sensitivity can remain high
with biomass values up to 300 t ha−1 (Askne et al., 2003).
The interferometric phase information from ERS SAR was also examined
as a possible source of information to derive forest canopy heights. When the
height of the phase centre in a forest canopy was compared with the canopy
height (Floury et al., 1997), however, it was found that more information was
needed to retrieve both the canopy height and the ground topography. This
was later realised with single-pass interferometry for ground topography
with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and the emergence of
the polarimetric interferometry (Pol-InSAR) technique, based on Spaceborne
Imaging Radar SIR-C/X-SAR data (S. Cloude and K. Papathanassiou).
Building on the use of interferometric coherence and intensity, the SAR
Imaging for Boreal Ecology and Radar Interferometry Applications (SIBERIA)
project, led by C. Schmullius, was one of the largest remote sensing campaigns
conducted in Europe. It used three satellites to acquire data for the central
Siberian taiga, an area of global ecological importance. In an unprecedented
joint effort involving the German DLR, ESA and the Japanese National Space
Development Agency (NASDA), ERS‑1/ERS‑2 and the Japanese Earth Resources
Satellite (JERS‑1) were used to acquire data over an area of more than
1.2 million km2 during autumn 1997 and summer 1998. The project generated
96 maps (100 × 100 km) of forest cover and biomass (Fig. 5), enabling Russian
foresters to update their information on the status of central Siberian forests.
More recently, in the ESA and the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology
(MOST) Dragon programme, coordinated by Y.-L. Desnos and Li Zeng Yuan,
the archived ERS‑1/ERS‑2 tandem data were used to generate forest cover and
biomass maps of China, in a forestry project also led by C. Schmullius.
The SIBERIA-1 data were later used to test a process-based dynamic global
vegetation model. Such models attempt to capture the best representations of
ecosystem processes, estimate the global spatial distribution of carbon fluxes and,
when coupled to a climate model, predict current and future carbon and water
fluxes. The model results and measurements in Fig. 6 show differences in both
the range and spatial distribution of biomass values (Le Toan et al., 2004). The
differences were suggested to be partly the result of forest disturbance contained
281
SP-1326
in the data but not considered by the models, and the saturation in model values
as being due to incorrect assumptions about tree mortality). It was clear that the
model needed to be improved by taking into account the reality revealed by such
biomass maps, and that global maps that cover a much wider range of biomass
than the SIBERIA-1 data are required for testing the model across all biomes. Such
work paved the way for ESA’s future Biomass mission (Le Toan et al., 2011).
282
SAR Image Mode
70% by 2025. At the same time, growing populations and the rapid pace of
economic development are leading to a decline in the rice-growing area. Changes
in the distribution of rice paddies and in farm management towards more
intensive production systems (multi-cropping, water management, fertilisers
and high-yield cultivars) are likely to intensify over the coming decades. These
changes in the rice-growing area and farming practices are likely to have
significant impacts on the global climate, since irrigated rice fields are among
the major sources of methane emissions. Estimates of seasonal changes in
atmospheric methane concentrations based on observations by the SCIAMACHY
instrument on Envisat (Fig. 8) clearly show the importance of methane emissions
from the rice-growing regions of Asia (Schneising et al., 2009).
One of the first ESA–China Dragon projects was ‘Rice monitoring in China’
in 2003. China is the world’s largest rice producer, accounting for 32–35%
of global production in 2000. This makes China the preferred country for
Figure 8. Seasonal column-averaged methane mole fraction from Envisat/SCIAMACHY in 2003. The highest atmospheric methane
concentrations were observed over Asian countries during the rice-growing season. (Schneising et al., 2009)
283
SP-1326
studies of rice production systems and their impact on global climate change.
The area harvested has declined since the mid-1970s, and at the same time,
the increased demand for rice has been met by raising yields and improved
farming practices. China has introduced novel rice irrigation techniques that
allow the paddy fields to dry out intermittently, reducing water consumption
without reducing yields. The shift from continuous flooding to midseason
drainage water management has resulted in a significant reduction in methane
emissions from China’s paddy fields (Huang et al., 2004). Figure 9 shows
the model calculation of methane emissions from rice fields based on recent
statistics and input data on irrigation systems and farming practices). A major
objective of the Dragon project has been to develop and improve remote sensing
methods to derive model input data to refine the model calculation results.
Methods using the Envisat ASAR Alternating Polarization Precision (APP)
and wide-swath mode to map rice fields, rice varieties and irrigation status
over a study region have been developed (Le Toan et al., 2005) to provide
inputs for methane and CO2 emission models. Figure 10 shows a map of rice
fields in China, where flooded rice and drained fields can be distinguished.
However, the increasing interest in the Envisat data (and increased conflict
data requests) in China has limited the availability of data to test the methods
for the entire rice-growing season in the regions under study.
To demonstrate large-scale rice mapping, studies were conducted in
Vietnam in 2007, where the demand for ASAR data was much less important.
Mapping rice over large areas (regional to continental scales) would require
the acquisition and processing of a daunting amount of high-resolution data.
Instead, the wide-swath sensors on Envisat (and the future Sentinel-1 system)
have opened the way to the adaptation of these methods to medium resolution
(50–100 m) mapping for regional statistical and environmental studies.
Figure 11 (left) shows a map of two rice seasons in the Mekong delta in Vietnam
in 2007 (Bouvet & Le Toan, 2011). The map can be compared with the salinity
map of the region (right), indicating a general correlation between salt-free soil
and areas under rice cultivation. However, local exceptions could be observed,
either by use of irrigation water, or by change of rice into aquaculture.
Studies are under way to gain an understanding of the overall environment
of the Mekong delta and the impacts of human activities and climate change.
Sentinel-1 will be a major source of data for such studies.
284
SAR Image Mode
Figure 11. The Mekong delta, Vietnam. Left: Rice map (one and two crops a year in 2007) derived from Envisat ASAR data.
(Bouvet & Le Toan, 2011) Right: Soil salinity map of the same period. White, no salinity; magenta, through blue, green to red: decreasing
salinity. (Southern Institute of Water Resources Research, Vietnam, 2009)
285
SP-1326
286
SAR Image Mode
4. Conclusions
ERS‑1, launched in 1991, carried an imaging SAR and other instruments to
measure ocean surface temperatures and winds at sea. ERS‑2 was launched in
1995 with an additional sensor for atmospheric ozone research. In March 2000,
ERS‑1 finally ended its operations, after far exceeding its planned lifetime, and
in July 2011 ERS‑2 was retired.
At their time of launch the two ERS satellites were the most sophisticated
Earth observation spacecraft ever developed by Europe. They collected a
wealth of valuable data on Earth’s oceans, polar ice caps and land surfaces.
The initial objective of land surface observations was to map cloud-covered
regions. But most of the achievements have been based on the capability of the
data to monitor changes in land surfaces used either for agriculture or forestry,
and to monitor natural disasters such as severe flooding or earthquakes in
remote parts of the world.
Twenty years after the launch of ERS‑1, followed by ERS‑2 and Envisat, we
have learned a great deal about how SARs see land surfaces, and how to make
best use of the data for applications and science. Some unexpected techniques
also emerged, such as the use of interferometry for land observations, as well
as outstanding applications such as rice monitoring, and use of the data for
flood monitoring operations. We have gained a better understanding of how
to use Earth observation for environmental monitoring and conservation. The
achievements of ERS have clearly paved the way for further investigations of
how future missions can benefit both science and applications. In the future,
moving from case studies to the global environment will require missions with
global coverage, systematic data acquisition and short repeat cycles, coupled
with the provision of long-term data. This will be achieved with the missions
such as Sentinel-1.
Acknowledgements
This chapter reflects many years of research during which I have had the chance
to work with and learn from many friends and colleagues. My very special thanks
go to the CESR-CESBIO members who worked with me on ERS SAR research
programmes: Henri Laur, Eric Mougin, RidhaTouzi, André Beaudoin, Florence
Ribbes, Nicolas Floury, Ghislain Picard, Jean- Michel Martinez, Francesco
Mattia, Jean Claude Souyris, Malcolm Davidson and Alexandre Bouvet.
References
Aschbacher, A., Pongsrihadulchai, S., Karnchanasutham, C., Rodprom, D., Paudyal,
R. & Le Toan, T. (1995). Assessment of ERS‑1 SAR data for rice crop mapping and
monitoring. IGARSS, Florence, Italy, pp.2183−2185.
Askne, J., Dammert, P.B.G., Ulander L.M.H. & Smith, G. (1997). C-band repeat-pass
interferometric SAR observations of forest. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 35(1):
25−35.
287
SP-1326
Askne, J., Santoro, M., Smith G. & Fransson, J. (2003). Multitemporal Repeat Pass
SAR interferometry of forests. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 41(7), 1540−1550.
Attema, E.P.W. & Ulaby, F.T. (1978). Vegetation modeled as a water cloud. Radio Sci.
13(2), 357−364.
Bach, H. & Mauser, W. (2003). Methods and examples for remote sensing data
assimilation in land surface process modeling. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens.
41(7), 1629−1637.
Badji, M. & Dautrebande, S. (1997). Characterisation of flood inundated areas and
delineation of poor drainage soil using ERS-1 SAR imagery. Hydrol. Processes 11,
1441−1450.
Balenzano, A., Mattia, F., Satalino, G. & Davidson, M. (2011). Dense temporal series
of C-and L-band SAR datafor soil moisture retrieval over agricultural crops. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 4(2).
Beaudoin, A., Le Toan, T. & Gwyn, Q.H.J, (1990). Observations and modelling of the
C-band backscatter variability due to multiscale geometry and soil moisture.
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 28(5).
Borgeaud, M., Attema, E., Salgado-Gispert, G., Bellini, A. & Noll, J. (1995). Analysis
of bare soil surface roughness with ERS‑1 data. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Retrieval of
Bio- and Geophysical Parameters from SAR Data for Land Applications, Toulouse,
France.
Bouvet, A. & Le Toan, T. (2011). Use of ENVISAT/ASAR wide-swath data for timely
rice fields mapping in the Mekong river delta. Rem. Sens. Environ. 115(2011),
1090−1101.
Blyth, K., Biggin, D.S. & Raga, R. (1993). ERS‑1 SAR for monitoring soil moisture and
river flooding. Space at the Service of our Environment, Proc. 2nd ERS‑1 Symp.,
Hamburg. ESA SP-361, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands,
pp.839-844.
Davidson, M.W.J., Le Toan, T., Mattia, F., Satalino, G., Manninen, T. & Borgeaud, M.
(2000). On the characterization of agricultural soil roughness for radar remote
sensing studies. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(2), 630−640.
Davidson, M.W.J., Satalino, G., Verhoef, N., Le Toan, T., Borgeaud, M. & Louis, J.
(2003). Joint statistical properties of rms height and correlation length. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 41(7), 1651−1658.
De Roo, A., van der Knijff, J., Horritt, M., Schmuck, G. & De Jong, S. (1999). Assessing
damage of the 1997 Oder flood and the 1995 Meuse flood. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on
Operationalization of Remote Sensing, Enschede, the Netherlands.
ESA (1998) ERS and its Applications. BR-128/11, Remote Sensing Exploitation
Division, ESRIN.
ESA (2008). Candidate Earth Explorer Core Mission − Biomass: Report for Assessment.
ESA SP-1313/2. European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/SP1313-2_BIOMASS.pdf
Floury, N., Souyris, J.C., Bruniquel, J. & Le Toan, T. (1997). A study of SAR
interferometry over forested areas: Theory and experiment. Proc. IGARSS 1997,
Singapore, pp.1868−1870.
Henry, J.B., Chastanet, P., Fellah, K. & Desnos, Y.L. (2006). Envisat multi-polarized
ASAR data for flood mapping. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 27(10), 1921−1929.
Huang, Y., Zhang, W., Zheng, X., Li, J. & Yu, Y. (2004). Modelling methane emission
from rice paddies with various agricultural practices. J. Geophys. Res. 109,
D08113.
Kurosu, T., Masaharu, F. & Chiba, K. (1995). Monitoring of rice crop growth from
space using the ERS‑1 C-band SAR. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 33, 1092−1096.
Laur, H. (1989). Analyse d’images radar en télédétection: Discriminateurs
radiométriques et texturaux. PhD thesis, Université P. Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
Le Toan, T. (1982). Active microwave signatures of soil and crops: Significant results
of three years of experiments. IGARSS 1982 Digest, vol. 1.
Le Toan, T., Askne, J., Beaudoin, A., Hallikainen, M., Quegan, S., Ulander, L. &
Wegmüller, U. (1998). EUFORA – European Forest Observations by Radars. FP4
Project, final report.
288
SAR Image Mode
Le Toan, T., Beaudoin, A., Riom, J. & Guyon, D. (1992). Relating forest biomass to
SAR data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 30, 403-411.
Le Toan, T., Bouvet, A., Tan Bingxiang, Li Zengyuan, He Wei, Li Bingbai, Zhang
Pingping & Bondeau, A. (2005). Rice Monitoring in China. ESA Dragon Project
Mid-term Report.
Le Toan, T. & Floury, N. (1998). On the retrieval of forest biomass from SAR data.
Proc. 2nd Int. Workshop on the Retrieval of Bio-Geophysical Parameters from SAR
Data for Land Applications. ESA SP-441, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the
Netherlands, pp.595−600.
Le Toan, T., Laur, H., Mougin, E. & Lopes, A. (1989). Multitemporal and dual
polarisation observations of agricultural vegetation covers by X-band SAR
images. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 27(6), 709−717.
Le Toan, T., Quegan, S., Davidson, M., Balzter, H., Paillou, P., Papathanassiou, K.,
Plummer, S., Saatchi, S., Shugart, H. & Ulander, L. (2011). The BIOMASS mission:
Mapping global forest biomass to better understand the terrestrial carbon cycle.
Rem. Sens. Environ. 115, 2850−2860.
Le Toan, T., Quegan, S., Woodward, I., Lomas, M., Delbart, N. & Picard, G. (2004).
Relating radar remote sensing of biomass to modelling of forest carbon budgets.
J. Climatic Change 67, 379−402.
Le Toan, T., Ribbes, F., Wang, L.-F., Floury, N., Ding, K.-H., Kong, J.A., Fujita, M.
& Kurosu, T. (1997). Rice crop mapping and monitoring using ERS‑1 data based
on experiment and modelling results. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 35, 41−56.
Le Toan, T., Smacchia, P. & Souyris, J.C. (1993). On the retrieval of soil moisture from
ERS‑1 SAR data. Proc. 2nd ERS‑1 Symp., Hamburg. ESA SP-361, European Space
Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, pp.883−886.
Liew, S.C., Kam, S.-P., Tuong, T.-P., Chen, P., Minh, V.Q. & Lim, H. (1998). Application
of multitemporal ERS‑2 synthetic aperture radar in delineating rice cropping
systems in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 36,
1412-1420.
Massonnet, D. & Souyris, J.C. (2008). Imaging with Synthetic Aperture Radar. EPFL
Press, Lausanne, Switzerland.
Mattia, F. & Le Toan, T. (1999). Backscattering properties of multiscale rough
surfaces. J. Electromagn. Waves Applic. 13, 491−526.
Mattia, F., Le Toan, T., Picard, G., Posa, F., D’Alessio, A., Notarnicola, C., Gatti, A.M.,
Rinaldi, M., Satalino, G. & Pasquariello, G. (2003). Multitemporal C-band radar
measurements on wheat fields. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 41, 1551–1560.
Mattia, F., Le Toan, T., Souyris, J.C., De Carolis, G., Floury, N., Posa, F. &
Pasquariello, G. (1997). The effect of surface roughness on multifrequency
polarimetric SAR data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 35(4), 954−966.
Moreau, S. & Le Toan, T. (2003). Biomass quantification of Andean Wetland forages
using ERS SAR data. Rem. Sens. Environ. 84(4), 477−492.
Picard, G., Le Toan, T. & Mattia, F. (2003). Understanding C-band radar backscatter
from wheat canopy using a multiple scattering coherent model. IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Remote Sens. 41, 1583–1591.
Quegan, S., Le Toan, T., Yu, J.J., Ribbes, F. & Floury, N. (2000). Estimating temporate
forest area with multitemporal SAR data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(2),
741−753.
Rémondière, S. & Laur, H. (1998). The use of ERS SAR data for land applications: an
overview of ESA ERS Announcement of Opportunity achievements. Proc. 2nd Int.
Workshop on the Retrieval of Bio-Geophysical Parameters from SAR Data for Land
applications. ESA SP-441, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands,
pp.27−33.
Ribbes, F. & Le Toan, T. (1999). Rice field mapping and monitoring with Radarsat
data. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 20, 745−765.
Rudant, J.P., de Hauteclocque, H. & Penicand, C. (1997). Potential of radar image
maps: The example of French Guiana. Bull. Société Française de Photogrammétrie
et de télédétection 148, 44−56.
289
SP-1326
Satalino, G., Mattia, F., Davidson, M., Le Toan, T., Pasquarello, G. & Borgeaud,
M. (2003). On current limits of soil moisture retrieval from ERS SAR data. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 40(11), 2438−2447.
Schneising, O., Buchwitz, M., Burrows, J.P., Bovensmann, H., Bergamaschi, P. &
Peters, W. (2009). Three years of greenhouse gas column-averaged dry air mole
fractions retrieved from satellite, Part 2: Methane. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9(2),
443−465.
Strozzi, T., Dammert, P., Wegmüller, U., Martinez, J.M., Askne, J., Beaudoin, A. &
Hallikainen M. (2000). Land use mapping with ERS SAR interferometry. IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 48(2), 766−775.
Tholey, N., Yésou, H., Battiston, S., Clandillon, S., Allenbach, B., Belabbes, S.,
Uribe, C., Caspard, M., Montabord, M. & De Fraipont, P. (2011). Exploitation
of middle to very high resolution SAR data for emergency flood mapping and
monitoring. Geophys. Res. Abstr. 13, EGU2011-8625.
Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K. & Fung, A.K. (1986). Microwave Remote Sensing, Active and
Passive. Artech House, Dedham, MA.
Wagner, W., Luckman, A., Vietmeier, J., Tansey, K., Balzter, H., Schmullius, C.,
Davidson, M., Gaveau, D., Gluck, M., Le Toan, T., Quegan, S., Shvidenko, A.,
Wiesmann, A. & Yu., J. (2003). Large-scale mapping of boreal forest in Siberia
using ERS tandem coherence and JERS backscatter data. Rem. Sens. Environ.
85(2), 125−144.
Wang, L.F., Kong, J.A., Ding, K.-H., Le Toan, T., Ribbes-Baillarin, F. & Floury, N.
(2005). Electromagnetic scattering model for rice canopy based on Monte Carlo
simulation. Progr. Electromagn. Res. 153−171.
Yésou, H., Chastanet, P., de Fraipont, P., Dossmann, P., Stock, N. & Béquignon J.
(2001). Mapping floods in France. Backscatter 12(3), 23−26.
Wegmüller, U. & Werner, C.L. (1997). Retrieval of vegetation parameters with SAR
interferometry. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 35(1), 18−24.
290
→→ Annex
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ACE Altimetry Corrected Elevation CCRS Canada Centre for Remote Sensing
ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (Japan) CCT Computer-Compatible Tape
AGU American Geophysical Union CCU Central Control Unit
AGW Atmospheric Gravity Wave CDN Content Delivery Network
AirSAR Airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar CEOS Committee on Earth Observation
ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite (JAXA) Satellites
AMI Active Microwave Instrument CERN Organisation Européenne pour la
AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Scanning Recherche Nucléaire / European
Radiometer for EOS Organization for Nuclear Research
AO Announcement of Opportunity CERSAT Centre ERS d’Archivage et de Traitement
AOCS Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystem / ERS Processing and Archiving Facility
AOD Aerosol Optical Depth (IFREMER, France)
AMAS Advanced Millimetre Wave Atmospheric CESBIO Centre d’Études Spatiales de la Biosphère
Sounder / Centre for the Study of the Biosphere
AMF Air Mass Factor from Space (France)
AMS American Meteorological Society CESR Centre d'Etude Spatiale des
AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Scanning Rayonnements / Centre for the Study of
Radiometer for EOS Radiation in Space (France)
APS Atmospheric Phase Screen CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
ARC Active Radar Calibration CFRP Carbon-Fibre-Reinforced Polymer
ARC ATSR Reprocessing for Climate project CInSAR Cross-interferometry SAR
ARTS-IP Adaptive Real-time Strategies for Image CLAES Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon
Processing (EU) Spectrometer
ASAP Austrian Space Application Programme CLS Collecte de Localisation Satellite (France)
ASAR Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
ASCAT Advanced Scatterometer (MetOp) (France)
ASCAT-SG ASCAT Second Generation CNR/IREA National Research Council, Institute
ASI Italian Space Agency for Electromagnetic Sensing of the
ATLAS Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications Environment (Italy)
and Science COASTALT Coastal Altimetry Project (ESA)
ATMOS Atmospheric Trace Molecule COMSS Coastal Ocean Monitoring Satellite
Spectroscopy project System
ATSR Along-Track Scanning Radiometer CR Corner Reflector
AU Accounting Unit (ESA) CSTARS Center for Southeastern Tropical
AVHRR Advanced Very-High-Resolution Advanced Remote Sensing (Miami, USA)
Radiometer
AWDP ASCAT Winds Data Processor DARA Deutschen Agentur für
Raumfahrtangelegenheiten /German
BAS Bathymetry Assessment System Aerospace Agency (now DLR)
BDDN Broadband Data Dissemination Network DEM Digital Elevation Model
BIRA Belgisch Instituut voor Ruimte- DEOS Delft Institute for Earth-oriented Space
Aëronomie / Belgian Institute for Space Research
Aeronomy DGM Delft Gravity Model
BRGM Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et DIA Discrete Interaction Approximation
Minières / Bureau of Geological and DInSAR Differential Interferometric SAR
Mining Research (France) DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und
BMFT Bundesministerium für Forschung und Raumfahrt / German Aerospace Center
Technologie / German Ministry of Science DLS Dynamic Limb Sounder
and Technology DNSC Danish National Space Center
BUV Backscattered Ultraviolet DOAS Differential Optical Absorption
Spectroscopy
Cal/Val Calibration and Validation DOD Differential optical density
CARABAS Coherent All RAdio BAnd Sensing DTU Technical University of Denmark
CATGAS Calibration Apparatus for Trace Gas DUE Data User Element
Absorption Spectroscopy
293
SP-1326
294
Acronyms and Abbreviations
IMGA Istituto per lo Studio dello Metodologie MAPS Measurement of Air Pollution from
Geofisiche Ambientali / Institute for the Satellites
Study of Geophysical and Environmental MARISS Maritime Security Service project (GMES)
Methodologies (Italy) MARSAIS Marine SAR Analysis and Interpretation
IMR Imaging Microwave Radiometer System
INGV Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e MARSEN Marine Remote Sensing Experiment
Vulcanologia (Italy) MASL Mean altitude above sea level
InSAR Interferometric SAR MERIS Medium-Resolution Imaging
IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Spectrometer (Envisat)
Commission MIPAS Michelson Interferometer for Passive
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Sounding
Change MLS Microwave Limb Sounder (Aura)
IR Infrared MODIS Moderate-Resolution Imaging
IREA Istituto per il Rilevamento Spectroradiometer (NASA)
Elettromagnetico dell'Ambiente / MOST Method of Splitting Tsunami model
Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of (NOAA)
the Environment (Italy) MoU Memorandum of Understanding
IRESTE Institut de Recherché et d'Enseignement MPI Max Planck Institute (Germany)
Supérieur aux Techniques de MRSE Microwave Remote Sensing Experiment
l’Electronique (France) MSLA Maps of Sea Level Anomalies (Aviso,
ISAMS Improved Stratospheric and mesospheric France)
Sounder MSS Mean Sea Surface
Ispra Institute for Environmental Protection MSSL Mullard Space Science Laboratory (UK)
and Research (Italy) MWR Microwave Radiometer
ISW Internal Solitary Wave
IT Information Technology NASA National Aeronautics and Space
IUP/UB Institute of Environmental Physics, Administration (USA)
University of Bremen NASDA National Space Development Agency
(now JAXA, Japan)
JERS‑1 Japanese Earth Resources Satellite 1 NERC Natural Environment Research Council
JGM-3 Joint Gravity Model 3 (UK)
JPL PO.DAAC Jet Propulsion Laboratory − Physical NERSC Nansen Environmental and Remote
Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Sensing Center (Norway)
Center (USA) NIVR Nederlands Instituut voor
JRC Joint Research Council (EC) Vliegtuigontwikkeling en Ruimtevaart
/ Netherlands Institute for Aerospace
KNMI Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Programmes
Instituut / Royal Netherlands NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Meteorological Institute Administration (USA)
NOC NWP Ocean Calibration
LASP Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space NRCS Normalised Radar Cross-Section
Physics (Boulder, USA) NRT Near-Realtime
LASS Land Application Satellite System NSCAT NASA Scatterometer
LBR Low Bit Rate NWP Numerical Weather Prediction
LED Light-emitting diode NWP SAF Satellite Application Facility for
LEGOS Laboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Numerical Weather Prediction (Eumetsat)
Océanographie Spatiales (France)
LIMS Limb Infrared Monitor of the OCM Ocean Colour Monitor
Stratosphere ODS Ozone-depleting substance
LRIR Limb Radiance Inversion Radiometer OII Optical Imaging Instrument
LRR Laser Retroreflector OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument
LRTAP Convention on Long-Range OSI SAF Ocean and Sea Ice Satellite Application
Transboundary Air Pollution Facility
LST Land Surface Temperature OSTIA Operational Sea Surface Temperature
and Sea Ice Analysis (UK Met Office)
MABL Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer OTD Optical Transient Detector (NASA)
MAC-Europe Multisensor Airborne Campaign Europe OVOC Oxygenated volatile organic compound
(NASA/ESA)
295
SP-1326
PALSAR Phased Array type L-band Synthetic SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Aperture Radar (USA)
PAN Peroxyacetyl nitrate SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
PAMIRASAT Passive Microwave Radiometer Satellite SARLab Synthetic Aperture Radar on Spacelab
PARSA Partition Rescale and Shift Algorithm SARSat Synthetic Aperture Radar Satellite
PB-EO Programme Board for Earth Observation SASS SeaSat-A Scatterometer System (NASA)
(ESA) SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet experiment
PB-RS Programme Board for Remote Sensing (NOAA)
(ESA) ScanSAR Scanning Synthetic Aperture Radar
PFC Polyfluorinated compound SCD Slant Column Density
PI Principal Investigator SCIAMACHY Scanning Imaging Absorption
PIPOR Programme for International Polar Ocean Spectrometer for Atmospheric
Research Chartography (Envisat)
PISTACH Prototype Innovant de Système de SCIAS Scanning Imaging Absorption
Traitement pour l’Altimétrie Côtière et Spectrometer
l’Hydrologie / Coastal Altimetry project SCR Selective Chopper Radiometer
(CNES) SDP SeaWinds Data Processor
PLSO Post-Launch Support Office (ESTEC) SERTIT Service Régional de Traitement d'Image
PMD Polarisation Measurement Device et de Télédétection, University of
POEM Polar Orbiting Earth Observation Mission Strasbourg (France)
POLDER Polarisation and Directionality of the SHOM Service Hydrographique et
Earth’s Radiance (France) Océanographique de la Marine /
POLIMI Polytechnic University of Milan Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service
Pol-InSAR Polarimetric Interferometric SAR (France)
PRARE Precise Range and Range Rate Equipment SIBERIA SAR Imaging for Boreal Ecology and
PS Permanent Scatterer Radar Interferometry Applications
PSC Polar Stratospheric Cloud project (EU/ESA/NASDA)
PSI Persistent Scatterer Interferometry SIR Spaceborne Imaging Radar
PSIC4 PSI Codes Cross-Comparison and SLC Single-Look Complex
Certification SLSTR Sea and Land Surface Temperature
PU Phase Unwrapping Radiometer
SMAP Soil Moisture Active Passive mission
QC Quality Control (NASA)
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying SME Solar Mesosphere Explorer (NASA)
QWG Quality Working Group SMEs Small and medium enterprises
SMOS Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission
RA Radar Altimeter (ESA)
RADS Radar Altimetry Database System SMMR Scanning Multichannel Microwave
RAL Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (UK) Radiometer
REAPER Reprocessing of Altimeter Products for SMR Sub-millimetre Microwave Radiometer
ERS (Odin)
RESPAG Remote Earth Sensing Programme SOAZ Système d’Analyse par Observation
Advisory Group Zenithale
RIVM Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid SODETEG Société d’Études Techniques et
en Milieu / National Institute for d’Entreprises Générales
Public Health and the Environment SPOT Système Pour l’Observation de la Terre
(the Netherlands) SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research
rms Root mean square SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
ROSIS Reflective Optics System Imaging (NASA)
Spectrometer SSAG SCIAMACHY Science Advisory Group
RSAHG Remote Sensing Ad Hoc Group SSHA Sea Surface Height Anomaly
RSPP Remote Sensing Preparatory Programme SSI Solar Spectral Irradiance
SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager
SAG Science Advisory Group SST Sea Surface Temperature
SAGE I Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas SSBUV Shuttle SBUV
Experiment I STS Space Transportation System (NASA)
SAM Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement SWH Significant Wave Height
SAMS Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder SWM SAR wave mode
296
Acronyms and Abbreviations
297
ESA Member States
Austria
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom