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    GRINNELL Capitulo 7

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    Jorge Chavez H.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 45
    i | Chapter 7 : So PIPELINE MECHANICAL DESIGN INTRODUCTION ‘Thischapter applies speciilly tothe design a tee pipeines for tansmission of gas and liquid pexoleam products. snot ntended tobe applied to other peso lines, sich slow pressure, plastic or dismibaton lines CODES AND STANDARDS “The desi, mausiat seeesin, and constracion of pipeline Actes are governed by L codes and Standards that peesicbe minimum requirements, The purpote of the codes tnd standards sro (0 ensure thatthe completed structure will be safe to operate under the conditions fo be used. Some examples of the codes and standards that are commonly used during the design and construction of pipelines have been cited in i Chapter 1, Table Tl Besides these, ether regional, national, or interstional stindaeds my be used in specific simacions, while locl regulations may also app. Individual companies may elect ta develop in-touse stander or specifications, which are more stringeot than the minimum code requirements. Sock standards ae generally ‘developed based on pst experience and are intonded to complement design and operating procedures. Inall cass, faniliaiy vith applicable codes, standards, or specications is required before the design commences. LOCATION CLASSIFICATION ‘The most significant facor contributing tothe failure of a gas pipeline is damage to lhe ine caused by furmn activity. Pipeline damage generally occurs during construction of other serves. These services may include ules, sewage systems or i foad constuction and will increase in fequoncy with larger populations living in the vicinity ofthe pipeline. To account fr the risk of damage, the designer determines a ) i 301 302 ME Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach | ‘ Pipeline Mecharical Design M303 TABLE 7-1 Locsin ction or Noh Asian codes ef CSA 266, 1986 ZLZZZZZEZAZ ZZ) Cidin obo ‘etc Cae aaa eae a) Tag 2G gana esse ie mM lj a Oe ee EO Pp ___. a een Freya iene Seinen a ee ee — [ore ZLLLZZZZZZZZ EL Wat tino ‘heron igure 7 ios 3 Biceps [Notappiable Dwelling mits 46 cued Bvelsn 5 Longin force eit soviet ape Bating 2 tren Bee Jn Figs 7-1, a unit angel force Fi created in the pipe wall dve to the solos eter, applstion of an interal resire, P,atsmed t0 ct on + unit ergth of pipe The Fenton veil free dv t this presi 6 PD, s0 the egulibrating free F inthe pipe wall pst be PDI, Tis ace ats on an ta of pipe wl ,aven bythe product of {be wal hikes and unt depth of pipe. The angen hoop ess Spin the pipe wal Loca clssifcation beset predominantly on population coneceatces. Caradon tod isFU,or ‘Amscan codes fer marpnally in Ge requements for determining a specific locaton clesficton. Table 7-1 recs the requirements of the reevane Non ‘Ameiean eades. =P? o-» PIPELINE DESIGN FORMULA “Ths isthe hoop sess equation, which ean be transposed to yield the famiior Rrlow equation for the wall thickness of the pipe. tne widely used formulae for determing the circumferential and axial sess in Sree raed oe caves Gece is eae oy cacao ‘A similar consideration of the horizontal equilibrium of forces as shown in Foviznat force coulis in Figures tears Reece sa Boe 72 embles an expression for development of longitudinal stress in the ‘The longitudinal feree on the pipe wall caused by the intemal pressure is ppcoximately F=P{xD'Mh, which iz equilibrated by the fore inthe pipe wall. This | force acts on 8 area approximated by #01, 50 the axial sess S, is F Peo" _ PD Fafa" PD. oe SG" aaDi” ae ee 1A more secure repreienation of the axial sess wuld he fund by asing the ) actual tea of pipe wall wssting the longtdinl ressue force, that i P , 2 gaa P a ll 3) tS otpive where D and d ae the onter and ioner dames, rectvly. This is slighty les F F conservative than using the thin-wall approximation, In sme ishio, the, bending seaton meculus Z ofS thin-walled eyinder canbe approximated as Z'5 rr", where ; eee eae Fis te mean rads, or i exact tems: Z=2232[D aD} i 304 BE Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach By way of comparison, consider « NPS 10 schedule 40 pipe subjected ion inter pressure of 1,000 psi. The longitudinal stresses for the exact and the thinsval Approximation are as follows oo 10.02% Braet 5 = phy = HONORE, «6,620 psi in watt 5, = AP = LEIS 9,360 pat cor an 112% variation ‘Simurly te variation in section moduls forthe same pie i fy (l02f IM) = 299 int -7((10:75 + 10.02)/4)'x 0365 = 309 Exact: Thin walk 2 ora 3.494 dierence, ‘The sercentage variations on NPSIO schedule 80 pipe for ongiudnal stress aad section modulus are 16% and $Y, respectively, The degree af conservatism in the thin-wall ‘approximation is worth noting when fhe consideratin is given to the frrulatins inthe various codes. "Note The foregoing i applicable only to thin-wall pipe whece itis resonable 10 assume that the sess is wifOrm throughout the wall thickness. AS a rule of thunb Sveh an assumption is invalid for Dir ratios less thon 16. In thickerwaled pipe {comumonty found in offshore applications, the eadil stress vates fom # mexinum ft the inage surface to 2 minimum at the ower surface and an alternative formulation to Equation (7-1) 15 requited, Figure 7-3 illstates an clement in a thick-walled pipe for tie general case of an interna applied preaure, and seomal peste, imchras (1963), Cough the Use of elsialelsstiiy theory, hs shawn that he following expressions fr rail sess Sand agent sees S apply tothe element at any radius 7 4s) Hea Sine: the nomerstor in Equation (7-48) will always exceed that of Equation (7-4), fellows that the tangential stress will always be lerger tan che cada ‘Considering fist the case where the pipe is subjected only to intemal pressure, Equation (74a) becomes Tor (= 7), Pipeline Mechanical Design I 305 igre 7-3. Target an ales in thew pipe a kin rw esr an adam th tas, te ling G-w)? #25 (8, -)-2 040 (76a) Solving forthe wal thickness, gives: (7-0) Equations (7-5) or (7-56) may be rearanged to determine the bursting presure for the pipe, which occus when the tangential stess equals che ultimate tensile 306M Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach ‘TABLE7-2, Comparison of design factors in Noth American codes (Ref CSA Z662, 1999 and ASME 31.8, 1993) ‘ASIA 83.6.92 (Gad a8 - sa 766296 (Car 8 Uiguin “ashes ice Dosen Factor leation snictnn Gv Ge Gi iat nh Gin? Gos a Siew om ge te a a Ae RG = Be BS ee ' ee BBE ES oe EE cs simile op te te ag ag ee TS = Ws Bs Be : =. BREE EE Ss = BRR EES Ss ier S28 va ae oe om eam es ns tah cis om am ct am + ‘Sttions ass 06h ose O72 O72 O72 OTR nerd tend cing om 05009 o_o oman [sr nt re een cpt ed iu 8 OT tie ‘vopene ne oe bn coepra peor ) The following design formulae are used wo calculnte the wall thickness of a : Peng 2s e a fe p= Brus ics1z662-96) Q , wee P= deign presi 5a apecled minimum yield strength, SMYS ‘= wal thickness De extside diameter of pipe ‘F= design factor = 0.80 (refer o Table 7-2) Pipeline Mechanical Design M307 1L~ location factr (fer to Table 72) J longitudinal joint factor (eter to Table 73) 7 temperature derting factor (eer to Table 7-4, From (ASME B31 1982): 251 Seer os) where, 5, and D ae defined as above and Fs design factor (based on the location catifeaion; refer to Tale 7-2) £E~= longtadina jpn ctor (refer to Tae 73) T= temperature dating factor (refer Table 7-4), And hom (ASME B3I.4 1992) 251 paitee o-9 where F~ design factor 0.72 (ef to Table 72) ££ longinainal jit factor (refer 1o Table 7.3), “The temperature derating ftw is 1.0 provide: ~30°C < Tyne < 120°C (refer to Table — 4) where Joe = Pipe trnpcture ‘The maximum operating pressure (MOF) is used as the design pressure, P. The pected manimu yield srength 5 is chosen either ftom what is stockpiled or fom what is avaiable fom th pipe mills. Commonly available yield atengths are 241, 289, 317, 414, 448, and 4&3 Mpa, which correspond to grades X38, X80, X50, X60, X65, and X70. The higher stengts are generally wilingd on large-diameter pipelines “The pipeline diameter, D, is established during the system planning sage (Fler 10 Chapter 3). Comparison of longitudinal joint factors ik Noh Amescan cad (Ref CSA 62,1999 anf ASME B38, 1993) os 7 ee e ‘tered ag led 100 oer Seat ate 8 tn 308 ME Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach TABLE 7-4 Comparison of temperature dering ctr for Nonh Amatican cokes see ipa) (Ret C54 76852, 1999 and ASME B3-8, 1993) Tenperature Beating Fen, T a aan seme aM me e @ 8 e 2 3 i in e ‘The sation fac, Ln CSA 262, andthe design factor, Fin ASME B31 8, depend on the location classification ofthe pipeline. No equivalent factor is defined in ASME BLA, where an allowable stoss is defined a5 0.72 SMYS. Table 7-2 outlines the iferenos between the location-based factors for the Noth American codes, Code ‘requirements should te ceviewed in detil fr specific exceptions and clarification “The ngitadinal joint factor Jin CSA 2662 and Fin the ASME codes ate generally 0 for commonly uted pipe iypes. However thre are exceptions, Table 7-3 outlines the ‘ition inthe join factor for the North American Codes “The tampersture derating factor, 7s defined oaly in CSA 7662-96 and ASME B38. [ASME B31 4.92 defines a rnge of temperatures for which Equation (7-9) applicable “The range of temperstures defined by B18 i not as broad ay that inthe other Nom American codes, However, the requirements of BSI are consistent with the cequiemecis ofthe ster codes, Table 74 outinss the varistons inthe temperature-Serating fair for the North American codes. : Bath CSA snd ASME codes speci mininum allowable wall thicknesses for varios pipe dixeter. The intent ts to minimize pipe damage durmg, normal manuenring, Iranling. onstruction, and operation, XPANSION AND FLEXIBILITY Piging hes to be designed to have sufclnt exbilty to prevent thermal expansion oF contain fom causing excesive stresses i the piping material or imposing excessive {rots or toments om equipment or supports. In ay eese, allowable forces and moments fon equipment may be les than those forthe connecting piping. expansion is not absorbed by dec aya compression ofthe pipe, fexbiity should bbe povided by the use of bends oops, ofits, and in eare instances, by meshanial joints cor oupligs In sinple terms, a fenbilty analysis determines a suitable piping lyout 30 a8 ‘minimize pipe stresses. Such an analysis evaluates the range of steses the piping stem ‘wll encoder while undergoing eye loading. The mast common ofthese ranges i the thermal espansion sess range caused by system stp and shut-down conditions. Oe the sires range encompassed by the consideration ofthe cold (Startup) and hot (he down) cenditons willbe sufficient to cover other thermal expansion conditions sich as standby, ¢ vriatons in operating envoiopes, However, any cyclic condition that could result in a significant stress range, inespectve of whether or not the source is thennal expansion, will require evaluation. Henee, any event that could cause relative Aiplacenens between aachor pont, sich a¢ setlement oF seismic disturbance, would Pipeline Mechanical Design M309 {alin this category. Some worked examples of sizing expansion lope ae given later in this chapter. Ate detenniing thatthe piping layout has adsqat lexbility, the designe is fice © use judgement, span tables, of simple forme 10 loeate suitable positions for intermediate supports to carry weiht and ater lads. Te mature of thee suppors willbe dependent ype the magni ofthe Likely pipe displacements their proposed locations, For example, ifhese are very small then a rgidsuppont may be used. Springs or gapped ‘supports may be used to accommodate vertical or eal displacements. The overriding consideration is thatthe suppor ype must offer minimsl zeetaint to the tystemn a1 undergoes cyclic loading, in order thatthe sess range isnot unduly increas. Detaled consideration of fupport spacings and anchoring can be found leer inthis chaps. “There are fundamental differences in Joading conditions for buried or simiscly resuained portons of piping and the above-ground portions no scjected to sobeeni ‘axial sesuaint. Therefore, diferent limits on allowable expansion stresses are necessary. [Note that the ASME B31.8 code does not cleary differentiate between resained oF vonrestined lines, Rather, it te operator's responsibility to define the type of restraint present, determine the louds causing axial sess and limit them appropctely, The ‘ssumpiion is mede in both 331.4 aod B3I.8 that a buried pipeline is restained and an ‘ove ground pipeline is uncanstsined, but this tot always ah appropriate assumption, Restrained Lines Expansion calculations ae necessary for brid ines i sigicant temperature changes are ‘expected. Thema expansion of buried lines may cause movement t points where the line terminates, changes direction, or ehanges 522, The hoop sitess due to design pressure is determined in accordance with Equation oy For a pressurized pipe, the radia! growth of the pipe sil induce an opposite longitudinal Poisson) effec! to that caused hy shermal effets, This ill reduce the compressive stress such that S,= 0S ~ Beal —Ti) (7-10) where $= sesuained longitudinal compression sites [given by Equation (7-2)) ‘= Poisson's ratio E, = cold modus 2felasiciy of stat ‘= linear coefficient of thermal expansion 1, maximam operating temperature 1, = ambient temperature a ime of rectaint wall thickness, and af OF ST 5-51 £0095 xT o- ‘where $= specified minimum vei strength remporaue desing factor 310 ME Pipeline Design anc Construction: A Practical Approach Note hat this formula doesnot apply iS, 8 positive (Le tension). For hse portions of restrained pipelines that are fcely spanning or sported above round, th combined ste is limited by ASME BSL.B in accerdance with the following formula: oa SiS, £5y $0098 x7 o-1) where Sp" absolute resultant value of beam bending stresses caused by dead and live Toads ating in and ou of plane onthe pipe, ands given as flows: Sy [orsiag) H07siemeyem] /s — @-1) Note that My My. and M; are the in plane, out of plane, and torsional momen, respectively, acting on the pipe and Zs the section modules. The terms and fer othe in and outof plane tess ntensication factors that have been identified for various critical ining components, usually by experiments means, Thay can be found for variety of ‘omponerts such as elbows, mines, and fibricated tes in Appendix ‘E” of ASME B318 (1982) Equations (7-10) srough 7-13) apply for both CSA 2662 and ASME 831.4, with one ‘exception ASME B31 doesnot nce atempersture dering for, but mits the range ‘of applicable temperatures to under 120°C. It should also be noted that ASME B318 does not distinguish between restrained! and unrestrained lines. Unrestrained Lines ~ Expansion calculations for above-ground line have ro account for dberna changes 8 well ts beam bending nd the possible ease instabity of the pip and its supports (ue 10 Tongitudieal compressive teres). (CSA 2662, ASME B31.8, nd ASME B34 segregate requirements for combining stresses in terms of unrestrained lines. However, the reuirements vary slighly beewecn the tho codes and will thorefore be addessed separately Inboh CSA 2682 and B38, he stresses due to thermal expansion far those porons ‘ofpipeline systems without axa resins are combine and limited in accordance with the following formule: 2 For bending iy Ea “0 5 =i ao) where slant bending stress {= stress intensification factor 1M, = reultant bending moment Z = section models of pipe. For isting 7 —15) sah (7-15) where 51s the torsional ses and 4 he ewising moment Pipeline Mechanical Design BL 311 ‘The combined thermal expansion swesses can be combined as follows: se=(sea) = where Sz combined thermal expansion stress However the combined thermal expansion stress snot permite to exceed 0.72 ofthe speifed minimum yield stress times the temperature dering factor, In ASME B31.4, the bewling stresses doe to thermal expansion for those portions of pipeline ystems without axe restraint have tobe combined and limited in accortence with ‘Bqtion (7-17) (or tempersturs les than 120°C) 5o= {want react) /s o-m were Sp resultant beating stress 1M, = the in-plane bending moment {the sues inensification factor fr bending in the plane ofthe member ‘My = bending monent out of, or wansverse to, the plane of the member ‘G-=stess intnsicaion fcr for outoFplane bending ‘The fellowing limiting cases must als be said 0554 + Sno) $0588 Gas) Whore Sag" absolle value of beam bending compression sess resuking fom desd loads A Santer mization is ezusel hy the ation of lve Ioan that SEAS. +SHogn SS @-19 where loagitudnal eress PDVMt and S, + Spo + 1» $ 0.858 Saws 4) = absolute Value of longindinal bending stress ffom both deed end live loading Both CSA and ASME codes specify minimum allowable wall thickness for various pipe diameters. The intent i to minimize pipe damage during normal manufacturing, handling, construction, and cperaton izing an Expansion Loop Before the widespread use ofeompute-baed methods of tctural analysis designs had to rely on hand caleulations end a numberof simplifying assumptions in onder estimate Pipe flexibly. The ASME E.31 code only deemed such calculations, or mode esting, 0 ‘be necessary in those crcursances where some doubt existed ft the adequate lexblty ‘ofthe proposed syste. The codes indvate that adequate exbity may be assumed fa piping system is: + of uniform size 1 has two anchor pints 312 ML Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach «+ hus intermediate restraints and satisfies the following approximate criterions by 305, ceo i‘ Go < Fe For fous metals his simplifies to: P* < 0.05 (Lnperial) or < 208.3 (St unis) @-ay ao) where (1.25 $, +025 59) ‘B= seminal pipe size in inches (man) ‘Y= thermal expansion of the pipe inches (em) S.= 0.57 ST the minimam temperature specified minimum yield stress developed (otal) Kent of pie, feet (9) distance betveen anchor, ft (mn) ‘cold modulus of elasticity, psi (MP), Figue 7-4 shows a simple layout illustroting these paamater. Use of the above formule may be unconservative for pipe having a large Dit rao and should also be checked © ensire thatthe anchor reactions are safictory. “Conser te sizing ofan expansion loop requiced for a NPS 16 pipe of API SLX6O material supported aween anchor point 60 m apart (Figure 7-4). 1s assumed that he installatin tempertue is 15°C and the operating temperate is BO"C. o LLZ ™ Le. Figure 74. Expansion oop Pipeline Mechanical Desien IL 313 For a carbon or low ally see the eate of thermal expansion for the piping between 13°C and 80°C is approximacly 75 mm/100 em. The restned anchor movernenty is therefore 25x15 700 ~~ 100 ‘Subsinting D, £, Uy andy into Equation (720) and noting that E= U+2 4 ‘Aa atemative method of alelation involves treating each leg ofthe expansion loop ‘as guided contfevess of eng hand assuming that each cantilever absorbs hate thennal ‘expansion betwen the anchcr (Figue 7-5). "The Nexibiltystess indeed in the cantilever dve to en off Ys found in Roark and Young (1975) 0 be 2 sy 5; we $42 ng /128 5602859) = tonto Sr Sct th shor a abn ee Sree 5 LIES <5, dnp oe -2) Figure 7-5. Outed cenleverend dplcerent 314 I Pleline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach Pipcline Mechanical Design W315 ‘8 speifed minimum yet ses of material (60,009 psi 4.14 MPa inthe SR38585 ea RERRERE| om re sess derting fctor dve to temperature (Table 75) a= eg length of he loop {> U0 fora syston with les than 7,000 cycles Since T= 1.0 for this steel over the temperature range of 1S-80°C, So Sy hence Sa = 1.0{(1.25 0.67 60,000 x 1.0) + (025 x 6.67 x 60,000 1.0)} 60,000 peters. A MPA. 4 Hee Paseaber . 2 Note thatthe resrsint movement wil be al tha computed provious (Le, 22.5 mm). Suiting Egan 7-2) a lig fr Dyke 406% 22.5 x 208 & i BDy 342252085108 4 a ceeaeeaeee : foe which b= 3.690 For a fully restained line the longitudinal svess in the pipe is made up of two components: a tensile stress duc tthe Poisson effeet fom the intemal pressure and 2 a| gasezaa compressive sess eased by temperate chmge can be determined fom the follwing 3] FaTTy reson 5-222 goar o-2) 4) BRRSEES| where Y= Poiana (0.3 fr sted) 2 = modules of esti. psi (MPa) 200 x 19" MPa forsee pipe) ‘x bine eoetficont of thermal expansion (1.7 = 10°" menionn ©) AT= temperature exange, °C. RD and f ae the inerel pressure, the inside diameter, and the wall thickness of the pipe, respaively. Av negative sign for S, indicates that the pipe {S in compression, which wil generally be the case fora pipe operting sta trmperure eater than that prevailing a he time ofinstlation The maximum effective stest Ser on the pipe occurs when the absolute largest vale is obizincd rom the following equation: HS. 0-4) where Sy= the boop srs in the pipe. This comesponds to &muximm shear stress Ft pressure pipoines ep Sor Pes Anchoring and Support Reinforeed-concrete blocs ate often used to serves anchor, However, depending on soi conditions, other types of anchoring, such a tel ple and bracket, mey be employed, All above-ground piping barrel, and valves must be adeqxtely supported. Supports vsusly bese on footings, bs, ar pilex The piping must be restrained fiom lateral ‘movement. The suppors mus be insulated fom he piping to isolate the facility elecally| from ground feu. ‘Steises and deflections occur in pipetines atthe transition from the below-ground (Gly ressined tothe aboveground (unrestned) condition, An analysis ofthe sreses and deflections i transition aeas, resulting from items pressurstempersture changes, i TABLE 7-5. Summary oe forces fo 51X60) {316 Ml Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach necessary fo detemine anchor Block requirements ind pipe size, Longitudinal deflections aye used tc check ifan anchor black isrequired. Te forces reguird a muntin he pipe ina ‘lly restnined condition are then used to size the anchor block, ‘Case 1 No Anchor ‘Consider length of pipe capped atC, a8 shown in Figure 7-6, The section upto Point Ais fully resined, while he portion immediatly to he right oF Bis unrestrained. Between A, and B ther isa transiin from being ested to unrestrained. Note hat filly retained ie taken to mean a condition of zero longitudinal stain, [As ths line is pressurized and heed the pipe will elongute and end B will move to te right a2 amount AL from some point of complete xy, A, which i ata distaee L, fiom B. “his distance, L), 10 the point where the line con be considered Gxed is a funtion ofall ofthe parameters in Equation (7-23) plus the sol ition or resistance to pipe movemert, nthe unrestrained poston of the pipe, B-C, the longitudinal sess cased by the internal pressure will behalf the hoop ses, less hat duet the Poisson effet, The strain in the longiina detion due to internal pressure i therefore ton eS ov SL 7-25) ‘while the stain caused by any change in temperature AT is given by em =0T ‘The net ongitinal sain a Poot B will therefore be co=aars Haw (7-25) ‘The easton of ress and strain beeen Points A and Ii sumed fo Vary 984 lines function of length, £, as shown in Figure 7-7 In oréer to establish the lenat,Z, over whieh the transition oecurs, the longitaioal resisance of the soil must be krown, A simplifying assumption sto consider the Rowe Pvedxe sharp eles reduoes pressure losies as well as eliminates potential tess risers. The tnderigag concept, whether for sngle or muhipe penis 8 tat of ace reinforcement, Figure 7-15 (Adapled ffom ASME B31.) shows that the area removed from the carer pipe bas o be compensated and this may involve the addition of full excitement reinforcing materi ‘Genenlly reinforcement is not reuied ifthe opening is less than 2.5 inches (6033 rm) outsde diameter, although, since these types of openings are ofen subject to Dutsating ibraton, epproprite suppor shouldbe provided. Teble 7-7 shows the spel equtemens needed for branch connections. Fabricated fees are ofen used and the following worked example illstates the necessary steps 10, ensure an adequate Example ‘An NPS & branch connection isto be welded to an NPS 16 carer pipe. The carice pipe trate ic APISL x 46 with a wall thickness of 0406 inch, The outlet mera is API SL {Grade B (Seamless) Schedule 40 wit awallhikness oF 0.322 inch. The working pressure {s 1450 pig andthe working temperate is 125°F The pipe is being used ina Cast 1 Disision 2 Tacation, Moe A 1, Design factors: F=0:72, 7=10, and €= LO (fom Tables 7-2, 73) 2. Syecify the branch pipe wal thickness For Grade B $35,000 psi Po 1,450 x 8635 PD____1ASO*8638___ 9248 inc autficieat p> SBFEF ~ 505,000 O7Ex TXT ~ 0748 ne se i Note: Schedule 40 provides a wall thicknes of 0322 inch ISFEF ~ Te R000 x OT TT Pineline Mechanical Design W327 Unreinforced Fabricated Tee Reinforced Fabricated Tee Welding Tee Half-Coupling Branch Connection L. Ls L A Figure 7-14, Typical banc onnsetins 3. Specify the cartier pipe wall thickness 450° L450 16 135 inch < 0.406 inch specified 328M Pipeline Desigr and Construction: A Practical Approach ae 3 aid ast f 4.—__ tt me - AVA, FASE AR , = inside diameter of branch dd; = 1/2 width of reinforcing zone = dy LL, — height of reinforcement 2one Ag= required area of reinforcement = ten Figure 745, Concep fare iam 44. Required reinforcement Area ded X tn 625-~2 «0.322 = 7981 inches dy = 1.981 0.35 2.763 in? 5. Esra area in carrie pipe wall - Ay (see Figure 7-15) A (tytn) xd Where Tp the specified wall thickness = (0406 ~ 0.35) x 7.981 447 ig? Pipeline Mechanical Design Ml 329 TABLE 7-7, Special reqviemens, branch connections taken from ASME 831.8, Clase ebta2) ‘il of tanch Dame Ran Olaneter ai of Seto ese han 6 st nan is rts i olen han 2 HEE foes. "br may andor Hoye mae al etequ Yor see Sevmgured fee spee Solin tit ‘lee ce Rice gees ‘heh 2096 bat Caan oot eM riicemeat re Tne Soherios Sect eepnaes ‘gid tome S55h, ander ‘Sevetement ih atienent site wid yoo spel el Giteceten pee foe tan Sai tai lS Somme ip if recement te. Yat pod ade, of gud wih special ‘ure sny'yge of wean" per” ely oprng ae ‘ferent pe ssp wile an Mane and ‘ed el pal Srl peed 6, Exe ara in ranch wall = Ay Ay = 2Ta Nb ‘Where Tis the specified branch wall thickness Laisthesmallerof2 ~ Tp/2orTo/2 4M rv Mis he acta or nonin thickness of added reinforcement 2 Tp/2 = 2-0406/2 = 1.197 inches = 0.322 /2 +M = (1839+ Af) inches 1.797 ines to determine Hence use 4 A 2(0.322 ~ 0.248) « 1.7997 256 in? 7. Additional seintorement area equised 4s Ay dy (dy Aa) 163 ~ (0-442 + 0266) 055 in! For 2 class {location the ASME B31-8 requirement (clause 831.42) calls forthe reinforcement to be ofthe fll encirclement type 330 M_ Pipeline Desion and Construction: A Practical Approach 18. Determine the sickness ofthe rsinforeement -"h(™ “The wel og length i isthe smallest of Ta, Mor 3/8 inch 4, <0.322 iach, Mor 0375 inch, say 0322 inc since is unknown Gen) =r (22.00) r= 3.69 inches 4 =2(1/a8 +) 205: 2yarcosn x sou) M = 01266 inch Since the specified caer and branch pipe thickness are substantilly larger than needed fer the operating pressure, a reinforcing ring of 0.27 inch wil be adequate Tei important a note tht whea the rato ofthe sizeof opening tothe diameter ofthe peat pipe becomes lage the curent methodology of aca replacement specified by the ‘various cades can lead to lower factors of safer than anpated (Hersey tal. 1999). This ispatcu arly the case with hot appin, where the branch pipe is "ipped” into an existing pressunzed or "hot" maa Tne. Hot tipping hes the obvi henett of not requing the train cari pipe t be empty or depressuized, thus there is no los of product nor interuption to production, (Many hot taps are performed on pipelines a ful line pressure and fil fw conditions). These demanding conditions however require carefil messures to ‘cnsure high inepity welds. The flowing prodvet canes away hest from the weld zone, hence high cooling ates are experienced and itis impossible to maintain a level of preheat inthe carer pipe. ORen hott connections are mado with an oler pipe, which may bavea high carbon equivalent content. isthe susceptibility to hydrogen cracking eaused by the combiaaton of high eatbon equivalent material and high cooing cates that can cause prcblems particularly ifthe thick-walled branch connection i used Fr this oason Horsey fetal (1909) commends that the material in the branch should be of as high » grade as proetiesl 0 thatthe pipe wll as thin ws possible Piping Vbration ‘The minimum recommended mechanical natural frequency for piping components is 30 het Inaidtion, he predicted mechanical natural frequencies should ntl within 20% of primary excitation frequencies. ‘Typed primacy excitation frequencies at reciprocating compressor sites include? 1, Fest and second harmonics of the relprocaing equipment speed range for piping closet the equipment Pipeline Mechanical Design Il 331 2. First harmon ofthe rotating equipment run speed range for piping close 10 the equipment. 3, Fist harmonic ofa reciprocating compressor ran speed range frpping exposed to compressor pulstcns when only single-eting load steps are part of operating conditions, First andsecond harmonies of reciprocating compressor ran speed range ‘when duble-eting lad steps aro present. [Note thatthe term “ease to the equipment” refers to piping for which significant, ‘eansmissbity exists betwzen the piping and mechanical exettion, Acoustical Guidelines Allowable Pressure Pulstion Puisation levels in piping shoul mect the following guideline (API 618 - 3.92.7) 1.255% 2, Pp Px Des where Fp linesde ping guideline pulsation level, in kPa (peak to peak) average sbofue line pressure, KPa inside pipe dimeter, meters “f pulsation fequeney, benz. (7-56) Pulsation levels at eeiprocating compressor valves should meet the following pideline (APT 618 - 39.223): Pry = 003 x PL XR. os were P..=rexirecatng compressor valve eudelne pulsation level. kPa feak to ek) = average absolute ine pressure, KPa {2 rai of absolute discharge pressure over shsolt suction pressure forthe stage to wich the valve belongs. Allowable Acoustical Shaking Forces Shaking fret in above-ground piping shold meet the flowing industry acepted suidtine: 28M 10 (poy ‘where Fp iping shang fore guideline in Newtons peak (upto 2,000 Newtons peak a) 1 = inside pipe diameter, meters (greater than 0.254 m then use 0.2541) J shaking foe frequency, her (i less than 30 Hz, then use 30 Hi). fy (7-58) Shaking fee in vse shuld mest he Following guideline: 2,000 (po = vessel shaking force guideline, Newlons pesk (up to 2,000 Newtons peak maximum) “fe: Shaking force fequersy, hen 59) 32 Pipeline Design and Construction: 4 Practicat Approach Allowable Pulsation-Induced Meter Error Meter enors caused by pulsstions ae calculated for orifice and tubine rypes of moter. The maximum predicted metering efor should be reduced t0 one percent oc lower ‘Orifice plate metering ero evaluated as follows (150 3313): n=l @oey” | x10 -a) where = ore pie metering ror, percent = volume velocity a th oie, cube meters por second peak (Q- swal mean ow rote teu the orifice, cable meters pe secon Performance Guideines Allowable Pressure Drop : Recfprocsiag compres pulsation suppression devzes should mest the flowing sudsine (API S18 3.9.2.2 1.67/81) o- p= le 0-9 where Py saximum pressure drop based on steady low through a pulse suppression device expressed 263 prcontage ofthe absolut average Tne press atthe inlet ofthe device; che minimum guideline pressure drop is 0.25% > ratio of absolute dischage esse absolute suction pressure fr the stage {fo which the pulsation suppression deviee belongs. Pipe Soil Interaction From the cri discussions on codes and sandars in Chapter its apparent that in oder to ensure fe stu integrty ofa pele system, the codes must also recognize design conditions othr than those of pressure and empeature In geotechnical desi slopes, faut ‘movements afe important considerations while seitmic-related eanh movements thaw Setlements, and ost heave may ako bear consideration. All ofthe foregoing a posed Seformations sith regard to the pipeline and would ordinarily eesult in « localized, ‘nonlinear response, which isnot epecficelly covered in the codes, Rather, the designer fequred © deteamine what supplemental design enteia wil be needed to provide an adequte ‘sponse 10 these imposed deformations. Longiudial srein has often been chosen as tbe quantity upen which to establish the governing extra forthe following 1. Te loads ensuing from imposed deformations ate selfliiting in nature, because they are developed by the constant of adjacent material or by the selF-constaint of the pipeline. That i 0 Say, secondary sirestes are developed, which sasy stain sipacement compatibility within the pipe or between the pipe and the supporting mativm. Local yielding and minor dstorions may zesult from these sesondsty stresses bu they wil generally not couse failure in and of themselves. Under these Conditions, deformations of sans, rather han loads, are the quanti that contol the response of the pipe, | Pipeline Mechanical Design 333 2, Allofthe types of excund movement noted above will ussally be sufiently large "sto cause the pipe to deform into the elastoplastic regime of the matenal. Hee, he most at stress-tan charcteristic of pipeline steel means that sain He the Sensitive quantity When conskering the egiibium sate of the pipeline 5, itis eseatial to note hat itis stain and not tess that cousessuctural failures, If ‘he longitudinal strain sufficiently large ia compression, then neal buckling ofthe pipe wall wll esule. Convery, thee i sso Tinit on the magnitude ofthe ensile Tonginadinal strain sme in combinations with te hoop stan ina pressurized line, the material could readily become inelasic, A commonly wsed erterion for the ‘maxima tensile stan inthe longitudial direction s 05%, though in genera, this is 2 conservative vale. Usually, the maximum acceptable value of compressive Taagitudinal sin hat which will bring about tho onset of local buckling of the pipe wal, even thouch there are number of documented instances where severe omugaton ofthe pipe has taken place withou the ination ofa rupture (yikes 1996). The conservatism here is due 10 the unstable posuckling behavior of ‘yndrical thin shel structures. Generally the lose-arrying capacity of such shells fal off damatcally ance local bucking is intated, However, fra buried pipeline road-carying capaciy is not a signiiest factor, hence a comparatively lage simount of deformation ca occut before the pipeline wil lose its capacity to cary ena pressure Pipe Lowering Stresses, ‘On occasion, such as when tere hasbeen severe toptoll exesion or when a line needs tobe relocated at new road or rad erasing, it becomes necessary to lower th iil straight pie. This action wil cause two new stress onthe pipe the st bending tess duet the Change in diection, and the second an exousion stess cased bythe longer path length it esd to follow. ‘Canssytlly the Tne lowering profile consito of series of iform radive trends. Considering the segment shown in Figure 7-16, t ean be deduced from the rinsiple of intersecting ass that (GR ~ h/2)bf2 = (2/4418) 7-0) where R= radius of eurature, ‘n= is the lowering depth €is the span length over which lowering occurs, a Figure 7. Lie owerog pote 334 M_ Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach From which [0-0] “9 ‘The bending sess induced is found from Er oy aFE ‘where_ ri the enteral radius ofthe pipe, ad Young's modulus of elastic. ‘The change in length of the pipe due to axial staining can be shown to be approxi: feat 324 . (5 34) foe sand since tie sigs usa ation othe lowered length the second term can be neglested, ‘The axial stress inthe pipe can then be writen: s=%()" 3 ‘The combined longitudinal sues due to ine lowering isthe sum ofS 80d Se thats be (0 fi Soon = +5 (2) (7-66) Allowable Diferetl Setemeat — implied Method ‘snp, appreciation ofthe slowsbe drt pie selene ncn be develope by sing the Bator of te pipe renin in comaet wh th sa The expected si defrmation maybe resented aa sine ven wich ese ie 7.170) iat fe dich boton profile Abou he fetal stint is devel wg et thse ays the model ao inarvte fran cast ae From he Engines They of Simple Bening (67) where = applied bending momen 'E~ mesulisof elasticity = nals of curvature T= Second moment of aes For a ine cave - 8 (7-68) where balfpan or halwave length = deflection amplitude = 2a = total pipe deflection. Pipeline Mechanical Design ML 335 Figure 7.470. Dies selene. the curvature @ylde* at midpan is realy deduce to be: ey Fy 7-89) a : beace a= =/2R, However, A = 2a and L= 2,50 the wal pipe deflection A becomes: 0-7) Differential Settlement Anahsis ‘A mire aeeueat, though complex means of determining whether the cxtical “pipe” curarure has been exceeded ca be obained by modeling the pipe as acontinum of “Finite Clements,” supported by a aovlineer soil foundation. Inthe enlyss, the pipe profil i ‘ermited to deviate from the dtch Notem profile fortwo reasons 1. The soll under the pipe deforms under its weight andthe overburden. 2. The pipe will span shor depressions inthe sil profile, “The key sep in the analysis is to represent the pipe soil interaction by a fnitecleent ‘adel io which the pipe is discetzed into a numberof one-dimensional beam elements interconnected at thei end poits (nodes) Pipe siffess,taneverse cads, ats] loads, and foundation "spring™ sine are sggregued at these node poins to frm ast of algebraic equations, which can easly be solvedona computer The mode is subject tothe usual assumptions of beam theory, thats: the defections ae small, plan sections remin plane, shear deflections are ignored, et “The interaction of the beam cl and the soi is defined at each nade point using a Toad efleeion curve, such as that show in Figure 7-17). In this fgute 5 represents the 136 I Pipeline Design nd Construction: A Practical Approach Figure 7170). Loud detection eure the approeces fo ive eroesings. In onder to mann the integrity of the pipeline and minimize slope disturbances, all such sites have to be investigated and, iTnecessary subilized prior to commissioning he line, The analysis ofthe slow movement of slopes isiavariably based on continuum mechanics an usually consider the following aspects: 1. A limit ste forthe ap (ee later setion on “Reliability Based Design”). ‘The frst type of model involves examining the equlirium conditions along number ‘of potential failure surfaces. The rato of the available frees providing equllosum (he shear strength ofthe material along the flare surface) to the forces tending to cause movement (ravityoriontl seismic forces) i defined a the factor of sary. A condition ‘of incipient failure is postsod slong a continuous slp arice of kcwn, or atumes, shape. A quantitative estima ofthe fictr of safety ofthe slope, with respect t the sheat strength ofthe soil to that rered to meinain equilibrium, is obtained by examining the foil equlbeium above the potential ropture surface, ‘This exercice is repeatel for each potential file surface, and the failure surface resulting in the lowest ctor of safety is considered the most ritcal. Normally, for ease of compuiaton, circular shape failure sursces are analyzed; however, whete geologic Conditions indicate the posstlity ofa significantly noneirular erie Tle surface, seh Jeilure surfaces are also analyzed. An example ofthe later case would be that ofa specific ‘weak plane in otherwise move competent sil ‘A Frequently used mode (Bushy «tal, 1996) inthe cose of limit equilibria (aspect 2, above), uses the Coulomb Mote failure eitenon alysis Tog Tem =e + (0~ pa) ta oom where Tag = value ofthe applied shear stress due to load Tim Shear strength ofthe material and 2 = cohesion std frition angles ofthe sil pore pressure (oti) = curent vate ofthe normal effective sess A limit equilib condition ata point inthe soit may occur whenever there i an Increase in the shear sts rg ue to additional external loads or through a decrese in ‘he sil shear strength Tay Depending onthe coastcuive law describing the suesssain haracteristc ofthe si, defamation will oceuras the stress sate in the sol approaches the ‘lure condition, For shallow types of fires, here ia general understanding ofthe filure mechanism, hich enables the stability of the slopes to be analyzed. Shallow fuilues on the right-of ‘ray oF inthe ditch backfill above the pipe will nat drety threaten the incegty of the Pipeline. However, they may iit setface water erosion, which could ultimately alec Pipe stabil. Deep-seated flue can be analyzed using conventional slope stability analysis provided suficiet fed ata is available. The necessary dus are: the slope geometry, oil ‘conditions, ground-water cordtions, statigraphy, shea strength properties of the sol, and ‘hermal properties ofthe soil ifthe Tocation is such that soit eezing can oceut. A failure 338 M_ Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach involving sil movement oa depth greater than 2-3 m (8-10 fet) is considered tobe deep. seated, In ander to determine which slopes along the proposed pipeline route may be ‘suscepible to 8 deep-sected failure, a close ingpection of aerisl photography and site inspection fee Chapter 2) ie required, This will enable the general slope and ground ‘conditions be assessed, particularly nthe viii of those areas whet his type of failure fas ocurred inthe past, ‘Whereslopes on or adjcont othe sight of-way are considered to be marginally sable, sand where slope failure may affect the integrity ofthe pipe, cause unacsepiable erosion, some form of Hope stabilization becomes necessiry. Common methods for stabilizing slopes are lased of ove ora combination ofthe following techniques + Reduce the Toads causing flue Incase the intemal soil resistance through reduction of the pore-water presure ‘+ Increase the resisting forees by oe loading Incr the resisting forces by stuctral means Generly speaking, preventive measures involving gravity drainage earthworks wail prove to be the most suitable and eostetfestiv, though 1 may’ Be Necessary to reso 10 het pling and grading, hich are both more expensive. Reducing -oads Causing Failure Flstonings margsaly stable slope by cutting o graingitto a later angle one means of stabilizing 0 prevent ether shallow cr deepseate flue, However, it should not be used inazeas of rmafiost because the removal of he top layer of ce-ch sol wil elsorxmove the insult it provides, Thus thawing wil be greatly sceleated and tis cou Fado shallow sanping Lowering ihe Ground-Water Level This mete is particularly effective in preventing deep-seated fares It nvolveslowenng the groundwater levelin the "driving" a active ea pressure area of a poentilor existing slide this euing the hydrscate loading and increasing the sol shearing resistance tis felatively inexpensive to achieve where desinage canbe acomplished by a grovity system. Wis poctlly used in conjunction wih a diversion system fo the control of ground water (se Shapter 9) Reduction of Pore-Water Pressures Improving Surface Drainage ‘The improvement of surface drainage by reducing the flow of water on or near the surface of slope, noreaser the sollshearng resistance by recueing the pore-vates pressures 2s ‘well ae the lond-causing feilre, The method refered to in Lowering the Ground Water Level is applicable to imuprovement of surface drainage. In addition, the use of shallow rretch crane down the right of way slope will contr downslope drainage by channeling the flow ina gavelfiled wench. Those methods ate most efetive in stabilizing slopes susceptible to shllow-type flue, Internal Cranage Ineral dain such as horizontal bored dein, blnket drains, and vera sand drains ae ten used to refuce excess porewter pressure and thereby increase the sol shearing resistance. It is imporsnt to know the pore pressure regime in the soll since itis the ‘vavation in hisregime that ukimatoly causes defernatio, For instance, negative pressures Jn the pore fui (suetions) produce an increase inthe soil’ shea suength (Bughi ta 1996). Tis can be seen in Equation (7-7), Pipeline Mechanical Design M339 Revegetation Revegestion is a favored me'hod fr slope erosion conto, but normally it becomes flly effective several years afer onstruction “Foe Loading i Tae equilisrum ofa sabe slope can be upset iy te adtion fnew overloads atthe top of 3 Slopect elseby erosion athetse. Both oftheseetfet will alert value of the applied heat stress. Incaseswhereaslopeisdeemediobe marginally able, and priully where heres ‘evidence of active erosion a the oe, oe lading or earth butreses may be used to provide stabilization. Compacted earth buttresses placed on a slope, or berms placed onthe lower potion ofa potential sideare: and beyond the oe, should consstf fee draining waters so astoeacourage drainage fom he slope. Thismethod applies equally welltoboth shallow and eep seated types of fallure. When earth fils are used to stabilize slopes at iver erossings, ‘hey havetoesutably armored o provide protection agains eresvezctin framriver flows Structural Methods Stabilization of a potenti or existing side aet may be accomplishod by stucturl metheds such a5 the use of raaining walls, eanh anchors, verical pls, or sheeting. Since these methods require that resistance to mse movement be obtained from below the side tea itsmst be determined where potetial or exiting failure plane is locted, This will tnully require detsiled field investigation in order ta determine the ground condition £0 that the extent an typeof slope stabilization can he detenined, Grading of solo rock spes is cccasionally underaken to increas soil strength orto decrease compressibility or permeability. However itis generally quite costly and only justified when she more coavental, simpler procedures described previously are ‘unsuccessful Seismie Effects Pipelines in seismic regions are vulnerable to earthquake fonds, which could cause significant damage, Most exthquakes have theit origin in tecionis, that is the e causing the motion i producal from the tearing an grinding ofthe material asocited with 4 ippage movereat within an active feultsystem. A consideration ofthe gelogy along the Dipline route, is therefore pertinent 10 an assessment af potential earthquake activity. ‘would be appropriate, for example, fe consider hat the makimum magnitude of earthquake ‘would occu either on an exising Fale system or relativaly closet where supplementary fuking might develop, However 38 one moves away from sich a rogion i reasonable 0 assume that somesbat smaller magnitudes of earthquake aze likely to be developed than along the rain ful system, Associated wits the rognitde isthe Toa tensity fl at the Pipeline ofan earthquake center deep inthe eath Beneath he pipeline, or some distance ‘eay oszoatlly But atthe same focal depth, Ip general, lage earthquakes vecur at focal ‘epi of 70 to 80 kan or greater, while tone smalls in megitad have a depth of feus of approximately 50 km, The ground wave atenuates with distance; Eseva (1970) concluded that the analysis of several strong motion accelerogzaph records “indicates that the ‘redominant pa of strong earthquake ground motions is represented by surface waves.” Hence inorder to take account of eariguakes centered some distance away, ether directly below the pipeline or offet rom i, an appropriate ateruationcelationshp for the region shouldbe used. While fot mandated, the Canadian Code for Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems 2662-86 (1996), in an Appendin, states thatthe deteminatin of eartbguake loads end Pipeline displacements fom around motion dat shall be bated on the response spect retiod he time history mebod or equivalent metbods, ASME B31.8 while addressing the subject of soil liquefaction (where the sol hehe ikea fd having est its shear strength due to intense dynamic cyclic loading), states tha the seismic design conditions 340 ME Pipeline Design and Constuction: A Practical Approach ‘sed to predict Hiquetietio shall have the same recurrence interval as that used to detesmine ‘the operating desig stength. On ths bass he availabe historical data he reeumence rates ‘of earthquakes and thei intnsty can be assembled for numberof predetemined sections ‘or “links” of the pipeline. The seismic risk atong the pipeline route can be desrbed in statistical terms as w Poisson proces, snd the stlecuation law for assesing the greand ‘motion intensity ata given location ofthe pipeline is writen a funtion ofthe eahquake ragoitud, route to ste distance, nd the local soll conditions. "The eflect of earthquakes on the pipelines mulifacted, The shaking Som the certhguak> induces adcitional stress ino the pipe and additonal forces into the anchor in the above-ground stucures. In ation, the earthquake waves traveling through the round inpore bending, tension, and comprestion stresees i buried pipe. Shaking of the round can cause liquefaction oF compaction of some granular materials. The ground fscceleratins Goring an earthquake aso adc the gravity and ground-water seepage forces, Which contribute to slope faues, ‘The shaking ofthe ground also causes dynamic movements inthe above-ground pipe and supports, Shaking perpendiculr tothe pipe causes the pipe to sway back endfor, thereby inducing bending sresees inthe pipe between anchot supper. In addition, the Jongitudiral shaking ofthe pipe induces adatonal forces onthe anchors. The stresses and forces become greater asthe slope slong the pipeline becomes greater “The eaveling seismic wave will induce stresses within the buried pipeline a6 itmoves with the ound. The pipe though is suffieeniy flexible ia bending to sccemmodate the farge radhs af curvature that the ground movemen will produce; thus, the induced ‘bencligsresses will be quite small For example, the carvature ofthe ground caused by an curthquake ig approximetalythe rao ofthe maxim ground aceleation to he square of the wave propagation velocity ofthe surface waves (Newmark 1970). Suppose during 2 severe eathguake the ground acceleration has «value of 033g while the surface wave ‘velocity is 760 2,500 1), The ground curvature will be ofthe arder of 00000016 Gnd the induced bending sess in 2-44 inches diameter pipe wuld he apgeewimatey 10 ps whit is negligible. However, consigeraby arg compression and eile stresses can bbe produced by direct ground strains during the earthquake since the pipe is very rid with respect to longituinal stains [At the surface ofthe sil, compressional waves ate of negligible amplitude, However, the surface waves can have appreciable amplitudes. These waves will reduce stains within the pipline when thei dcoton of propagation is at an ane to the pipeline. The rmaximure effct in the longitdinal direction of the pipe occurs when the wave i Propagating at an angle of 45° toi, with shearing mation covurring indirection at right tngles the propagation direction. Under tese conditions the Jongitdinl stain in the Pipe is approximately given by qq _Baviowm ground velocity "Ti wave propagation velo For apipe velocity ofsay 3 fs, and a wave velocity of2,500 fs the longiteina stan in the pipe willbe 0.0006, which comesponds to longitudinal tes of 1800 psi. In realty the pipe mill nt move entizey in sympathy withthe col thot the oii al eaibeod wil rove Taser than the pipe, and hence te longitude seess calculated above wil be conserva Neverheles, it mus be included in addition to other effets thar cause Stresmes inthe pipe in order to entue its stractol adequacy. A reasonable criteria for permisstte deformation to avoid ruptie isto limit strain to 2% a any section except at ‘tres concentrations where it cul double, Pipeline Mechanical Design MI 341 Seismic liquefaction: This occurs most commonly in fine-grained loose gr tmatrals tat are saturated chs situation the grins of soi ace loosely stacked andl of the void spaces ae filled with water. Upon occurence ofa seismie event, shaking causes the grains of sel to lose contin an aterapt to dnsiy. During that period of time when the waters slemping to dsinout so ast allow the densification of he soil grains, the soi ruass takes onthe cburactersics of @ dons viscous liquid. When the sol atthe base of a lope liquetes the slope will ecome unstable, and in places where this asthe potent to ‘occur, the pipsine shoud eer be rerouted if possible, or the sol suitably sbilzed to reduce th risk of slumping. ‘With above-ground piping the dynamis motion is applied to the bare of the anchor blocks and supports and hance thir Mexblty and fresdom to rotate of Uk must be considered. The ground motion can be expressed either as a tine history that enables ‘maximum accelerations and velocities to be determincd oF as response spectra. This infomation, in either frp, cn be ued a8 the forcing function in a dynamic analysis of 3 ‘inteclement represetation ofthe above-ground pipework. Finally, consideration must also be give, for both busied and shove ground pipelines, othe relative motion mt ful ‘rosing the pipoine, [tie net uncommon to have vertical o horizontal displacements of ‘several fet Where faulting occurs. These of themeelves will not cause the pipeline 10 rplure (Dykes 1996) if it hs been designed to accommodate sich movements, Relative movement of 4 tS fect canbe sustained without failure by 2 propery suppoced above round pipeline although on or wo supports may loge contact withthe pipe, With buried Pipelines such Wsplacements might cause severe distotions or misalignment but not necessarily rupture of collapse. Reliability-Based Design “The pupose of mechanical engineering design is to ensure the safety and performance of | _gnen pipeline, vera gwen fenod of time and uncer specie loasing consition, Unce it is ascepted tha the loading snd the structural strength ofthe pipe ate known only in an approximate manner it becomes clegr that absolute safety i an untenable and impractical ‘objective becence ofthe numer of uneerntes involved, There uncertainties may be Cue to andomness of leading (bth intemal and external othe pipe), simpliying assumptions in the strength analysis, material properties, dimensions, et. (Guedes 1997). However, by ‘expressing hese uncertainties in stastical(probabifsie tems, aratonal measurement of talety can be obtained from the estimated probability that some predetemined flare ‘terion has been exceeded (hat is, some prescribed limiting condition for the pipe as been violated. In this manver we can init dhe risk of unacceptable consequences, The imajar benefit of reliability based design upprozchs thatthe designer can erat a pipeline structure tht is both efficient and safe to th lovel spaciiad, Cunently five diferent Pipeline codes permit the use of probiblisie approach Yo design, namely NNorsok & DNV(96) —_— Nonvay/Otfhore SA 2682.96 = Canada NEN 3650 = Netherands HEN 1594, Annex G— Europe (preliminary) Jn order to ewer undestand the discussion of rliabliy-based design later inthe chapter, afew concep willbe ouined and some terminology introduced at this point In tener, the structural relay of pipeline ean be considered a¢ a supply and demand problem, Failure occurs whenever the resistance or strength of the pipe (supply) is exceeded 342, ML Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach by the loating placed upon it (the demnd), Wardenicr (1982) has denied four diffrent levels f ty analyses, which can be categorized in accordance with the mature and extent of fformation one has cbout the problems Level 0= Worhiig stress appre [Level 1- Patil safety fst approach [also know as Load Resistonce Factored Design (LRED)] Level? A semiprobabilistic method Level “A filly" probabilistic method Geneslly sping, this hierarchy represents th increasing amount of knowledge (the tess anceraity) one hes about the problem, In eeence, the level apprczc stat taken tele in he chapter and is both prey deterministic snd routinely wed. The uncetinty ‘hat exstsin Equation (7.1) concerning the intereal pressure loud onthe pipe and ts bility ‘owitstand its embodied in the safety factor” represented bythe fetors FE ad Tal ‘of which have been assessed slelyon te basis of experience and engineering jue ‘The safety equation in such an approach is writen simply ‘Design strength = Maximum lifetime lod» factor of safety With such an approach, the actual level of safety is unknown Load Resstance Faclored Design In recent years, there has been significant inceaso in Knowledge related to both the “taistieleserption ofthe cstibutions ofthe varisles infivening pipeline stength and inthe mebeds avalible for incerporating these uncertainties, ip artional manne, into arial ficors of safery approach. This preach i generally fered i asa Level or load Pipeline Mechanical Design 343, Equation (7-72) generaiedin the code to take account ofa numberof other factors inching a safety class factor, 5 tat, for example inthe Caradin Limits States Design sppeoach (CSA 1998), one finds O82 yoeG-+ 0g Q+asE+ 04d) o-n) Where = resistance uength) paral safety factor 9) [Re characters resistance or strength 17 safety els fetor 00; 20, 26, a4 = load pata safety factors for G, Q, By and A loa effects G. QE, A permsnent operational, enviconmental, end accidental load effets respectively Figure 7-18 dopcls the font states design methodology wsed ia the Canadian Code (Appendix C of CSA 1996). The safety class factor s given in Table 7-8 andthe parti load factor in Tele 7 Safer class factors are related to the consequence of fire or human exposure to the hazard presented. Theit varius values are set to ensure that higher consequence failures have a lower prabebiity of occurence, For this reason the ‘iss factors are Based upor both the location of the pipeline and iis contents, The safety class ficior can therefore vary along the length ofthe pipeline. Zimamerman et al, 1996 in 2 diseusion of CSA. Z-S62 Appendix C presents in pictorial form (igure 719) 2 posible retionship between safety class fctor, human exposure, and ‘esistancefitored design (CRED) method. The term “paris refers heft that more cenamis than one for sued inthe definition ofthe sey equeton eae 7 S : é “Thus uncertainties are grouped together as either partial load or material factors, These ee a pant saey factors ate associated with “caret” toad and resisiance effets, he {efiton ofthe characterise values being cen perceniles ofthe load and resistance Sala probability functions. The characteristic values of load parameters are generally chosen to Setet Lod Factor Gg Chass be on the high side, that i, say 2 98% probably of being exceeded, wheres on he Beta Fasor suengih se the characteris valves ae usally those with a 2-84 chance of being cxceded The values ofthe paral factors are developed (eaibrate) using the bigher ort eve 2a 3 approaches with the abet of proving» consent Ive fs or cto acted Desir Tern aeabrna -losely silat designs (See Inte seton on ealivatng LRFD facts) i “The elected design format shoud be asimplied representation ofthe acta King condition under considertion and conan the most significant variables. Equation (7-72) Baste Pas fxpresieza representative load resistance factored design format, Conduct Analysis ak Catt Sections Awe eScx te Sor STE q-7y ‘Stresses and Stains see and Rear the chances od efit and reste rhe ire made being Cove Limit States opore] [ecing] [Bucking] [Farne considered. The subscrpted y's are the patil safety factors tobe calbrted, and the Subserip €and F denote environmental leads and functional loads, respectively (nte tht ‘hese em both ti combination). Figure 748 LSD etiod [Rel C34 2662, 1999] 344 B_ Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach : Pipeline Mechanical Design I 345 TABLE 7-8. Safety cls factors for ulimate iit states (Ref CSA 2662, 1999) ‘las cu my ‘vr and 1 ation Sour Serve (wows cor we target values of snnual relisbliy, Similarly Soberg et al, (1997) have relted scceptable flue probabilies to safely classes and the various generic types of limit states dscussed next In erderto perform a stuctucl reliably alysis, a mathematical model relating the Jad andresstnce needs tobe devited, Tie eationship is expeessed inthe form ofl state firtion, Which ean be theoreti, semiempirical, o flly empirical innate. I does 1 free however predict the onset of flrs ofthe pipeline, For pipalines, hit states ae defined in sovordatce with three specific dsignreguiements (Dinoviter el, 1999): ‘The timate Hint ste ‘The servicnbiy imi tate Expo (etn et frye) ‘The service mst stato “The vlimate Himit sate (ULS) isthe state at which the pipe cannot coatan the Mid ie is caring. This limit state cleidy has safeyy and environmental implications Sate es N veya keg ay AL 2 » 200 ‘0 igare 749,_ fey les factor este to urge su lily [Zimmerman et a 1996) generally associated with failure modes invoiving defects. The serviceability limit state Example: See eran eee ae ee ee but is sill able to contain the fluid. In short, it is not fit for purpose, e.g., it cannot ‘four basic quantities D, f, F, and S, as: ee cee eee cereals wees aes deformation doe to denting or ysidiag. ‘The serviceability Timit ste is| generally tssociatd with fadure modes of defect fee pipe “The service limit states ae those tht develop slowly during the operating fe ofthe stracare, such a fatigue failure. ~ Seeng limit satefainate| Limit states design ecquirs tha all potential failure modes be investigated though Radial pessure-yeldng bursting, facture fia ‘n the ase of pipeline design i is posible to conceive of some limit states where the Axial loading plasie collapse, tacture, bucking fate of knowledge is f0 incomplete (eg, sess corrosion cracking) that Gey are Fexura load-yelding, tue, eal buckling, wrinkling rently ot suited for inclusion in such a design format. Table 7-10 contains a ist of Combieaton of above with surcharge or thermal effects pertinest pipeline design limit states, he first of which, radial yielding, will be used 38 fn example of the LRFD approach Deforinaion Limit States/Serviceabilry ‘+ Excessive cross-section deformation» ovalzaion ‘TABLE 7-9, Load ond essence factor values of Rel CSA 2662, 1999) Appendi C + Freessve bea-eolumn deformation ~ curvature * Resonance atthe natal Gequency with posed loading {ad Factors aia Progressive Degradation Limit States/Service sad Ceinatons ec Promure Other ay i + Fatigue failure due to fuctating intemal Jods GAS Ee peng wu Bm 8 + fatigue flare due to external (surcharge) ods EIS} Aeenl| i 1 1» ®, to + Fallue due to comosin fatigue G34 Rise Hi 8 ef 1 Failure ve to crack propagation ‘Corrosion-induced failure Geakge) 346 M_ Pipoine Design and Construction: A Practical Approach ‘where Pis he intemal pressure, D the mean pipe diameter, isthe actual wal thickness ‘ny pot in the pipe, and S, isthe actual value ofthe yield sess at he sore pint. "The four-dimensional basic quanlty “space” i sit ato wo regions by te equation “eat pre where Z<0 is called the “failure region” while the potion defined by 220 is dented the safe region. The sarfe defined by 2 = 0 is zefeced to a the fale ‘Surface oF faire boundary. Introducing the quantity Sy = PDI2, that ste applied hoop steest, be failure function can be rewritten as 21S. Su) = Su — Sy o~15, The problem is now reduced to two quantities, one dessribing the foal (Sp) and he ‘other reesenting the pipe stength o resistance (S,). A pictorial representation ofthe RL isalso normal based on (2) 10 the left of 0, a5 shown in Meet erga == SD. of Sey Marge 0,5, 73 Prebaiyof atore Figure 7.23, Disibuton of sty margin 350 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach ‘ne assurption of independence. Fx ith value ofthe cumulative density function (ed) ‘omespoading © Z= 0, Thus for normal distributions ove can write be on~ hs 2080, = 04 +2, Fumeror, the standardized safety margin (2 2! is normally distebuted with 2 zero mean and a Mandard deviation aque to one, The probability of file is computed as follows Py = Fe(0) = 8m for) ‘where is the standond normal CDF. It can be seen thatthe probability of fue i & function ofthe rai. = yglaey which is usually called the Comell safety inder. Thus pa ab Hence if one knows these quantities for he load snd resistance dstibutions hen the sary index is eoily found, Forlognormal quanties (which often are sed to desribe the variables that make wp f and A), tis easier consider z=RiL (7-90) Let the means’ and costiiens of variation be denoted fig ti 200 brs bus respectively, whete $x = jnlcr, tat is the ratio of the mean value and the standard (deviation of the distsbution. Then the logan of 2 is nommallydisinbutes wan a mean and varsnce equal 19 een murals os (+8) a Ra men(r eee) (i 482) 7 o-n) eee ae pa Fon Rj) = Padtez <0) om) which is the value of the normal cumulative frequency distibution at &Z-0. The hnommal nd tog normal distsbutions adequately describe the variability in the paramcers of interest in pipeline design Go that Equations (7-78) and (7-83) are mest fea ized to determine the probably that a limit sta has been violated, ic, the probability of fie. The sefety or reality index and the probebilty of falar fre uniguely related and since is a quansty defining the safery of the pipeline Pipeline Mechanical Design M351 TABLE 7-11. Corresponding values of the lore probaly Pyand the reliability index * ania 2 # se sf B 2 Ag nA Ef strat, itis often used asthe target measure of structural perfomance. Table 7-11 ‘vides some coresponding vats of Py and fofer values may be found fom the Sandaed tale fr the curlative nonnal detetion Having determined a tugs eaity index sy 0 ~ 3.719 with « conespnding probability of failure of 1%, the necesay values of the paticular factors are found by the tiaband-cloop depicted in Figue 7.22. VALVE ASSEMBLIES Block Valves - Purpose Block valve assemblies ae used to isolate sections of raiaine oF Tong laters when ‘noltion i quired im the even of line break orifmaintenance ina section of te ine is sce. Required Components “The fllowing ae the air components sequted for a block valve assembly: + A gue or ball valve the size ofthe mainline tallow passage of pigs 4+ Two blowdowns (gas ony), either remote from or directly connected 1 the ‘natin, interconnected for equaling the pressure on both sides of the Block valve ‘+ Arner on cach side ofthe Block valve wo provide 2 power supply fora hydezulio Peumatie operator, or for taking fuid samples, connecting restive gauges oF perfomning flow tess. Location Code requirements for manimum block valve spacing vary with eas locaton as shown ia ‘Table 7-12: Ease of access and ste conditions should always be evaluated when selecting 2 Jocition fo a valve assembly Side Valves Purpose “Theside valve asemblyis-equited toilet lateral rom the msiline i situations where ‘Tine break may accu or shen maintenance af the Ieral may be necessary. '352 BI Pipeline Design and Constwuction: A Practical Approach, “TABLE 7-12, Code equtemens for maximum block valve spacing Rel CSA 2662, 1999 and ASME SSI. 1995) CANICSA 562 cae ee ive we > ast ton nines pines Pyne aha 2 ¥ Me aie 3 ie xe ithe x it Required Components A side valve usembly consists ofthe fllowing components + A gute o Ball valve the size ofthe Intra + A check valve and bypass line (Uo exept laterals) + A blowdown with eppropriat valving (gas only) + A flange and insulation seo separate the lateral electrically fom the maintine 1 Test ends ftom the mainline andthe lateral [Note thatthe purpose of check vale in the assembly ie to prevent reverse low It will leo prevent bw from the mainline into the inflowing ater] when the pressure in the tral {less than that nthe meine, Check valves are aot required on sales (offake) laterals. Location ‘These assembles ae located on the lateral immediatoly adjacent tothe mainline Compressor Station Ti Purpose ‘Te main pups of compressor stain insist direct the fw either trough the compressor ston (by opening the side valves and closing the Black valve) or pst he Staton (y clsing the side ales and opening he Block vee). Tee vaves allow the ston 10 be ioe i a emergency o for maintenance) witout stopping the ow of Ti. Required Components ‘The main conponcts required fr side valves and block valve fore eompresior sation Ans “+ A maialne block valve + A suction and a discharge valve (ball or gate) + Power operators, normally ted int the station automation Valve Operators 7 Opentors re chosen aecotding 10 ease of operation and economies. Typleal operator configurations include: + Directhandwheet or wrench-operted valves for NPS 4 valves and smaller ‘+ Handbeel gear -operated for NPS 6 ) NPS 12 valves Pipeline Mechanical Design M353 + Power operators for sl NPS 16 valves and larger, and for smaller valves in meter and compressor stations that are designed for remote or automatically controlled operation Possible modes of operation include: + Paeumatc controls wit 2 choice of high pressure, low pressure or rate of pressure drop line break contzos “+ Remote electronic sige operation, generally used: 1. To shutin a meter station when sour ga is detected. 2 When ® meter sation is remotely opemted by a contal gas consol facility. Blowdowns (Gas Only) Bowdowns are used to ven: gas to atmosphere, w expel air during purging, sod t0 book up a pull-down compressor (used to conserve the gat rather than veating t tmsphe) ‘When locating a valve essombly with blowdown, itis important to choose an ares thst tas 20 buildings immediately downwind, cotuins no source for igniting vapours, and is cexily accessible. All blowdowns and valve assemblies shouldbe enclosed in fenced area to protet them from Vandalism or damage "The blondown size is govemed by the ie avaiable to depressurize the section of tine. Operation requirements forthe particular line will govern the tims requirement Common practice recommends a 30-60 minute ieline when two blowdowns ar open on on iclatd cotion, ‘Thote are numerous methods of calculating blowdown sizes. A quick formate for cleulming the blowdown Geis ooseepl Gi? pine. Sete ae eee 2 whee T= Blowdown ting minutes Fi ital takin pressure, pig (G= specific gravity of gas DID of trunklie, inches length of tutkine being Blown dow, miles d= ID of blowdcwn sak, inches = choke fhewe + ideal nozzle = 1.0 fallpor gate valve = 1.6 reduced pat gate valve = 1.8 regular pltg valve = 20 ‘Venturi plag valve = 32 ‘A beter formulation for Blowdown time calculation or blowdown facilites sizing is provided in th folowing section, 354 M_Pipoline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach Blowdown Analysis ‘The nomenc sire used herein is. Fallows A» rose setional flow area, square inches A = smallest cross-sectional area of blondown assembly (including vale, rice, ‘2, square inches Cy coefficient of discharge to convert to effective low are, dimensionless opis contr 322, hm st Iatio of specific heats, Cp/Cy, dimensionless m=mass, Ib ‘M= molecular weight ‘P= pressure of interal gas in sytem being blown down, pia, R= gas constant, 1,545 mol. w. Sp specific sravty of gas, dimensionless 1 = temperate of gas in system being blown down, R ‘= blowdown time, see. = point velocity, tee system volume invelved in Blowdown, cu. 8. W= mass flow rate out of system duting Blowdown, 1b/s, Z= compressibility factor of gue, dimensionless p= density Ibveu. 8 = property at point where gas reaches sonic velocity 1 = Inia system condition for time interval being considered 2 final system condition for time interval being considered ‘The follwing analysis develops a lowdown cine formulation for Mowing down a section of gai pipeline with volume F" (Figure 7-24), vou y —— beech J ‘Ay. (enatesteosesaton ares) Ne d= content acer Figure 7-24. Blowdown pressure conpustion Pipeline Mechanical Design M355 Mass How rat: Wea pAgum pu Cahn ay From Boyle's law of ternodynamies: (r= 88) Therefore, the mass flow mt is Be TREX Cad (7-86) where Fy = sonic velociy As long as te inital pressure is much higher than etmosphere pressure, rtcal flow can be assumed to exist thicugh the Blowdown valve so that Y= Veel@RT (sn Substinting for Yin Eyation (7-86) Wa ZA Cade aE, (7-88) ue anca(ch)" Te tt Bava - Open Psion (te Valve «Opes Pasion Figure 7-28. Gate valve andl valve (Coatry Daniel Industries Cans] se Pipeline Design anc Construction: A Practical Approach and (a) Substitirg into Equation (7-8), the above expressions for Zs, Ty and Pe one obtains a) (7-9) faa gue 6) i A= Rr t= Pash = ee —P o-% Pe ones ahs matte (23) arm] o-m Pipeline Mechanical Design M357 ‘Assume de expression ia square brackets If the adsbatc index # = CC, bracketed tem X'ean be writen as: then d= VIPXAP. 1.13 (overage value for netual gs), then the can saoineray | 0-3 var singing = Lm bln ifahec ehh sn come ss¥(n gn SO) LF aPe get o-99) Note Problem: Detarmine the blowdown stack sss rquied to evacunalblowdown in one hour 8 section of NPS 36 Grade 358 (« 7) pipeline designed to ANSI 600# flange rating, The line ‘wll be omally operating at 7,000 KPa (1,000 pi) ands designed fo clas location Ge, Gistance between blowdown valves will be 32 km). The following gas composition is aopieable + Mettene— 95.3% Ethane — 1.1% Carbon dioxide — C01 Assumption: Cy 06 Pipeline gas emapercture = ground temperature = 20°C Valve Selection for Pipeline Application Mainline isolation valves fli dee basic functions: sectonalizing, diverting, ond segregating. Sectionlizing ot dividing up the pipeline into smaller segments that fan be isolated, is required to minimize and contain the environmental effects of line rupture, Where pipelines sre inferconnected, valves are required to diver product’ flow to meet production needs, Finally, valves provide the means to segregate of isolate indivdual process equipment such as seraper taps and, on = 158M Pigeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach broader level, entire plants for safety, maintenance, of operating reasons. Mainline valves must be of a throughoonduit or though-bore design 10 accommodate the serapers. Gate and ball valves are generally utilized far fhid transmission pipetine spplications (Figure 7-32) ‘Thetis 0 single valve and setutor combination thal is comeet fr every pipaine very application, Variables that must be considered and specifically evaluated foreach valve installation include the folowing: # Operatag characteristics > Fastin © Locatien * Fluid service = Materials options «Space wailable + Maintenance + Repair capebiity * Delivery schedule + Coss, Operating Characteristics ‘The majority of regular sab gate and ball valves axe specified with soft seats that are capable of providing a bubblevight shutoff Ther temperature limit generally around 120°C. Both pes of valves have two seats end ae considered to be “double block and bleed” by the lose definition that their tghtaess can be verified by opening the vent Foeween the sents. Metabseated valves are also availble for use in abrasivetbigh temperature splicatons Ina ball vale, the balls mounted on fixed trunnions andthe eat are fee mave. At ‘ery low pressres, te spring tore provides the sal and as Tine pressure increases it forces ‘seat against che ball proporioeally. In most designs, if the upareem seat leaks, the

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