Module 1 Introduction to the Study of Ethics

Course topic The Moral Agent

Time allotment: 3 ( Schedule e.g MWF,TTH)

Course objectives: Expected outputs:

At the end of the lesson, you shall be able
to; Graded recitation-rubrics

Explain the concept and principles of Quiz

dilemma/ Moral dilemma

Analyze cases of moral dilemmas in

Education

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Getting Started!
Before you proceed, answer first the activity below. Make sure you are ready to share
your answer with your classmates during our online face-to-face discussion.
Activity 1 What’s Wrong with this Picture?
Direction: Look at the picture very diligently and enumerate at least 5 things that you
find wrong with the picture below.

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Answer:

1.________________________________________

2.________________________________________

3.________________________________________

4.________________________________________

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

5.________________________________________

Reminder: Submit your answer in our LMS Discussion Room. Prepare to share your
answer during our virtual classes.

Moral Agent
The main objective of the activity above is to introduce you to the concept of wrong,
inaccurate, or erroneous. If you immediately find things that are wrong in the picture, the
instance will not be the same in real life. What people find wrong, inaccurate, or
erroneous in the society, in how people deal with each other and in how people handle
their affairs, are subjective. Basically, what you find wrong with things in life is somehow
different with other people. What other people find wrong with the color Fuchsia Pink is
not the same as others. Such conception is known as moral relativism and moral
dilemma.

Before you further study the concept of moral relativism and dilemma, it is important to
understand the concept of Moral Agent.

What is a Moral Agent?

The philosophical concept of moral agent pertains to beings which are capable of acting
morally. The three salient features of moral agent are: one, capable of reasoning,
judging, and acting with reference to right and wrong; second, expected to adhere to
standards of morality for their actions; and, morally responsible for their actions and
accountable for their consequences. (Brey, 2014)

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

At this point let us now discuss moral relatvism and moral dilemma.

Moral Relativism
Relativism is the belief that knowledge, truth, and morality
existing in our culture and society are not absolute. We
cannot absolutize knowledge, truth, and morality due to
the human factor. Societies in different parts of the world
does not have the same culture and traditions. Hence, the
assumption of two societies are alike in terms of people’s
way of life is unfounded.

Dilemma is a situation in which a difficult decision must be made between two or more
alternatives. Having more options does not make the instance simple, rather, it makes
the situation much more undesirable. Alternatives or options, in this situation, seems all
correct and suitable to make for the problem at hand. Given the case, your perspective
dictates the course of action or the decision that seems desirable to make as the
remedy for the problem.

Relativism, roughly put, is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong, standards of
reasoning, and procedures of justification are products of differing conventions and
frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving rise
to them. More precisely, “relativism” covers views which maintain that—at a high level of
abstraction—at least some class of things have the properties they have (e.g., beautiful,
morally good, epistemically justified) not simpliciter, but only relative to a given
framework of assessment (e.g., local cultural norms, individual standards), and
correspondingly, that the truth of claims attributing these properties holds only once the
relevant framework of assessment is specified or supplied (Baghramian, 2015).

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

According to Gilbert Harman (2011), moral relativism is the belief that there is not a
single true morality. There are a variety of possible moralities or moral frames of
reference, and whether something is morally right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust,
etc. is a relative matter—relative to one or another morality or moral frame of reference.
Something can be morally right relative to one’s moral frame of reference and morally
wrong relative to another.

Moral dilemmas are situations in which the decision-maker must consider two or more
moral values or duties but can only honor one of them; thus, the individual will violate at
least one important moral concern, regardless of the decision (Kvalnes, 2019).

Moral dilemmas are hypothetical short stories which describe a situation in which two
conflicting moral reasons are relevant; for instance, the duty not to kill, and the duty to
help. By inducing the participants to make a forced choice between these two reasons,
it can be investigated which reason is given precedence in a particular situation, and
which features of the situation matter for that decision (Christensen, 2014).

The Moral Ideas of Lawrence Kohlberg

Lawrence Kohlberg was born on October 25, 1927. His
upbringing took place at Broxville, New York. He was a
renowned American psychologist and an educator. Kohlberg
is known for his theory of Moral development.

His theories on both psychology and education are very

much influential across different fields of study. The theory is
said to be the only one that provided a very detailed explanation regarding the moral
development of children. Behavior is the center of all theories before his ideas and

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

likewise, psychologist was predominantly behaviorist. It was only Kohlberg who broke
the field wide open as he focused on cognitive phenomena. According to Carol Gilligan,
due to its newness, a loophole emerged insofar as to its tendency on ignoring moral
development exhibited by females, thus, his work received criticisms.

Moral relativism is the kind of morality that depends upon one’s particular culture or
society. This great principle of moral relativism was rejected by Kohlberg. He upheld the
idea that there should be a consensus of morality and a consensus of rightness. Hence,
his theory called, “Consensus Theory of Rightness.”

Rightness is the ideal limit of dialogue. In any case, it seemed to me very important that
we have a focus upon the rightness because this is an area where there is a
requirement to reach a consensus about rightness, where there isn’t a requirement to
reach consensus about the good, the ideals of the good and their basis perhaps in
ontology or religion. That is, that regardless of the varying ideals of the good, we still
need to have a consensus on issues of justice, that is where individuals’ competing
ideals of the good come into conflict with another. There needs to be some resolution to
this problem (Kohlberg 1984, 4).

The main exhibition of this theory is Kohlberg’s Heinz Dilemma:

A woman was on her deathbed. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.
The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose
of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told
the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later.
But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.”
So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife.

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

 Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why
not?

Kohlberg posited that the problem of morality is always the question of what universal
moral principle must be used in order to determine what the decision can be made in
every moral situation. We develop our moral thinking, regardless of culture, through
series of set stages. For this reason, moral education should help children develop the
moral thinking toward more advance stages.

Stages of Moral Development

The stages of moral development, according to Kohlberg, is divided into three (3)
distinct levels each with two (20 sub-stages, to wit:
1. Pre-Conventional Stage
2. Conventional Stage
3. Post-Conventional Stage

Heinz should steal the drug, Heinz should not steal the drug,

# Level Stage
because because

1 Pre- It is only worth $200 and not how

Conventional much the druggist wanted for it; He will consequently be put in
Obedience Heinz had even offered to pay for prison which will mean he is a
it and was not stealing anything bad person.
else.

Self-interest He will be much happier if he Prison is an awful place, and he

saves his wife, even if he has to would more likely languish in a
serve a prison sentence. jail cell than over his wife's

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

 death.

Stealing is bad and he is not a

criminal; he has tried to do
His wife expects it; he wants to be
Conformity everything he can without
a good husband.
breaking the law, you cannot
blame him.

2 Conventional His wife will benefit, but he should

also take the prescribed
punishment for the crime as well
Law-and- as paying the druggist what he is
The law prohibits stealing.
order owed.
Criminals cannot just run around
without regard for the law; actions
have consequences.

The scientist has a right to fair

Social
Everyone has a right to choose compensation. Even if his wife is
contract
life, regardless of the law. sick, it does not make his
orientation
actions right.
Post-
3
Conventional

Universal Saving a human life is a more Others may need the medicine
human fundamental value than the just as badly, and their lives are
ethics property rights of another person. equally significant.

Pre-Conventional Stage is also called the Self-Focused stage since it has the
tendency to fixate with concrete consequences to individuals and pursuing the concrete
interest while avoiding sanctions. This usually includes 9 years old and under. This
stage is further subdivided into:
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation or the Instrumental-Purposive Orientation

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Conventional Stage is characterized as the Group-Focused stage. Its main concern is
the fulfillment of a role expectations, as well as the maintenance and support of the
social order. This level involves mostly of adolescent and adults. Authority is
internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to
which the person belongs.
Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance Orientation
Stage 4: Social Structure Orientation

Post-Conventional Stage is focused mainly of the individual judgment being assessed

through self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and
justice. As far as Kohlberg is concern, this is as far as a human being can get. Only 10
to 15% of people are capable of grasping the abstract thinking necessary for these
stages.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle

These stages served as proof that human person is capable of making moral decisions
and such decisions can benefit not only the one’s self but also other people.

Activity 2 Group Activity

Direction. Your class will be divided accordingly. This will be posted in LMS NEWS.

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

In this activity, we will have an intellectual discussion about the short narration of facts
and issues provided below. Using of profane words are prohibited.

The State, through its Congress, has the power to grant or renew legislative franchises
among media companies for continuous operation in the Philippines. ABS-CBN’s
congressional franchise expired on May 4, 2020. However, due to ABS-CBN’s alleged
issues on tax avoidance, unjust labor conditions, and foreign ownership, the Congress
Committee on Legislative Franchise decided to deny its application for renewal to
operate. Critics to this issue stated that more than being a press freedom issue, the
denial of such application is untimely and uncalled for. The role of the media sector, like
the ABS-CBN, in news and public affairs, becomes a vital public need considering the
ongoing pandemic that the country is experiencing. According to ABS-CBN, its denial
even placed the job security of its 11,000 employees in jeopardy adding only to the
continuous rise of unemployment rate in the country. However, the Congress believed
that the network committed numerous violations of the terms of its old franchise calling
for its denial - a denial of a privilege granted by the State because the applicant was
said to be seen as undeserving of the grant of a legislative franchise. Therefore, the
ABS-CBN Franchise renewal then became a polarizing issue for the entire Filipino
nation. Across the archipelago, encompassing every demography, the effect of the
issue is evident. A pressing question resonates through, regardless of age, gender and
political leanings: Is the decision of the Congress just, and right?

Activity 3 Simple Recall

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Using Kohlberg’s Stages of Morality, try to formulate answers based on every level.
Recall a specific event in your life, and immerse yourself to a certain stage and think as
if you are part of the said stage. Post your answer in LMS discussion room.

Stage 1:
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Stage 2:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Stage 3:
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Stage 4:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Stage 5:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Stage 6:
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Relativism is a causal of dilemma and vis-à-vis. Human’s action towards each other and
various instances at hand depends on their own perspective whether it is good or bad
based on the situation. A steadfast and universal rule governing our cultures and
traditions is an illusion. It does not exist. Rituals and gestures akin to different cultures
are just mere coincidental. We cannot absolutize culture and tradition, hence, culture
and traditions accustomed to a certain society cannot be the same with others,
therefore, its applicability is unfounded.

Kohlberg did not subscribe to relativism; thus, he formulated his own theory to prove
otherwise. His theory of the Stages of Moral Development posits that our judgement
depends, not with culture and/or behavior, but with a certain moral stage he/she is in.

Despite of criticisms, Kohlberg’s work was still a great value since it was able to connect
psychology and philosophy while establishing moral perspective on human behavior or
character.

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE

Resources

Works Cited
Brey, P. (2014). Retrieved from
https://ethicsandtechnology.eu/wp-content/uploads/downloadable-content/Brey-2014-
Structural-Ethics.pdf

Boghossian, Paul: “The Maze of Moral Relativism,” in: New York Times. July 24, 2011.
https://www.princeton.edu/~harman/Papers/Moral%20Relativism%20Explained.pdf

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/

Christensen JF, Flexas A, Calabrese M, Gut NK and Gomila A (2014) Moral judgment
reloaded: a moral dilemma validation study. Front. Psychol. 5:607. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00607

THIS INDEPENDENT LEARNING MATERIAL IS NOT FOR SALE