MCE 4805 Power Plant Engineering

Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boilers

Introduction
Fluidized-bed technology as an alternative method for combustion of coal gained
popularity in the 1950s when researchers started looking for ways to reduce
atmospheric pollutants such as SO2 and NOX. During the second half of the 1980s,
fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) rapidly emerged as a viable option for stoker-fired and
pulverized coal-fired units for the combustion of solid fuels due to following:
i. Rise in cost of conventional fuel and demand for multi-fuel firing
ii. Fuel flexibility
iii. Stringent SO2 and NOX emission regulation
iv. Availability of only low-grade coal for firing in boilers in some countries
v. High combustion efficiency
vi. Low combustion temperature
vii. High heat and mass transfer
viii. Low time of reaction
ix. Less capital investment compared to that required to install pulverized coal-fired
boiler
x. Less operating costs leading to more profits
xi. Reduced auxiliary power consumption
Introduction
Supercritical CFB boiler for which a detailed boiler design for up to 600 Mwe CFB is
now ready for first implementation with steam conditions 27 MPa/853 K/873 K and
economizer inlet feedwater temperature 563 K. The world’s largest sub-critical
circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) with a capacity of 250 MW was
synchronized on October 29, 1995, and is in operation at Provence Power Station,
France. The largest supercritical CFBC plant is the 460 MW Lagisza plant in Poland. It
started at the site in February 2006 and the project was commissioned in June 2009.
THE TECHNOLOGY
Fluidized-bed combustion is a process in which solid particles are made to exhibit fluid-
like properties by suspending these particles in an upwardly flowing evenly distributed
fluid (air) stream.
Combustion takes place in the bed with high heat transfer to the furnace and low
combustion temperatures.
When at rest the fluidized bed resembles a uniformly distributed bed of solid particles,
e.g., sand tacked on a perforated plate of fine mesh at an intermediate position of an
enclosed vessel (Figure 5.1). The perforated plate facilitates uniform distribution of
fluid (air) flow through the bed. At the bottom of the plate pressurized fluid is
supplied.
THE TECHNOLOGY
When this pressurized fluid is allowed to pass upward through the bed of solid
particles the bed tends to offer resistance to low fluid velocities such that the particles
remain in contact and stay stagnant. This bed is called a fixed bed (Figure 5.2 and
Figure 5.3). With an increase in fluid velocity the particles offer less resistance and
tend to expand. With further increase in fluid velocity a situation occurs in which
particles are unable to remain in contact and start separating, resulting in bubble
formation, vigorous turbulence, and rapid mixing. The motion of bubbles in this bed
resembles the motion of bubbles in a liquid, and the bed of solid particles looks similar
in appearance to a boiling liquid.
THE TECHNOLOGY
At this point the drag force exerted on particles counterbalances the gravity force of
the particles, thereby causing the fluid-solid mixture to behave like a fluid. This is
called the minimum fluidization condition of the bed (Figure 5.4) and the bed is called
a fluidizing bed. The increase in the fluidizing-bed volume is insignificant when
compared with the fixed bed. The transition from fixed bed to fluidized bed caused by
the changes in air pressure with an increase in fluid velocity through the solid bed is
shown in Figure 5.5.
The transition from fixed bed to fluidized bed caused
by the changes in air pressure with an increase in
fluid velocity through the solid bed, denoted by vm,
and it depends on the following factors:
i. Particle diameter
ii. Particle density
iii. Particle shape
iv. Density of fluid
v. Viscosity of fluid
vi. Void fraction, etc
THE TECHNOLOGY
THE TECHNOLOGY
THE TECHNOLOGY
A further increase in the fluid flow causes the bed to become less uniform,
bubbles of fluid to form, and the bed to become violent. This is called a
bubbling fluidized bed (BFB), which is shown in Figures 5.6 and 5.7. The
volume occupied by the fluid-solid mixture increases substantially. For this
case, there is an easily seen bed level and a distinct transition between the
bed and space above.
THE TECHNOLOGY
By increasing the fluid flow further, the bubbles become larger and begin to
coalesce, forming large voids in the bed. The solids are present as
interconnected groups of high solids concentration. This condition is called a
turbulent fluidized bed (Figure 5.8).
THE TECHNOLOGY
If the solids are caught, separated from the fluid, and returned to the bed
they will circulate around a loop. This type of system is called a circulating
fluidized bed (CFB) and is shown in Figures 5.9 and 5.10. Unlike the bubbling
bed, there is no distinct transition between the dense bed in the bottom of
the container and the dilute zone above. The solids concentration gradually
decreases between these two zones.
THE TECHNOLOGY
A commercial fluidized bed is comprised of sand, limestone, or sorbent,
refractory along with only 3-5% coal.

Above the fluidized bed there is provision for sufficient free-board height to
prevent excessive elutriation of bed material or unburned carbon at the
operating fluidizing velocity.

The main feature of a fluidized bed is that throughout the combustor a

homogeneous temperature is maintained at around 1073-1223 K. Thus,
sintering of the bed is avoided, which takes place once the temperature
exceeds 1223 K while burning coal.

The above temperature range also suggests that combustion should take
place at a minimum temperature of 1073 K below which combustion
efficiency declines.
THE TECHNOLOGY
In most fluidized-bed boilers a low excess air level is achieved by providing an in-bed
tube bundle designed to extract the heat released in excess of the heat removed by
the gas.
The majority of the heat in the gas is recovered in convective heat transfer surfaces.
A fluidized bed of particles is capable of exchanging heat very effectively with
fluidizing gas because of the very large surface area exposed by the particles.
With its relatively low heat capacity the gas will rapidly approach the temperature of
the solids it is fluidizing.
It is the temperature of the solids that dominates the bed thermal behavior because
of its high heat capacity.
Fuel flexibility and reduced emissions are the benefits utilities can gain by adopting
FBC.
FBC is appropriate for firing a variety of solid fuels, e.g., coal, petro-coke, biomass,
wood, coal washery rejects, etc., with varying heating value, ash content, and
moisture content in the same unit. The calorific value can be as low as 7.5 MJ/kg.
THE TECHNOLOGY
In FBC, pollutants in products of combustion are reduced concurrently with
combustion - much of the ash and hence the particulate matter is removed
during the combustion process, including sulfur.

In addition, FBC occurs at much lower temperatures than the combustion

temperatures of 1573-1773 K required in pulverized coal-fired boilers, thus
resulting in lower production of NOX.

This reduced combustion temperature also helps avoid slagging problems

with inferior grades of coal. The resulting ash of this boiler is less erosive in
nature.
CATEGORIES OF FBC
There are two basic categories of FBC: atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion
(AFBC) and pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (PFBC).

NFPA 85 defines AFBC as “a fuel-firing technique using fluidizing-bed operating at

near-atmospheric pressure on the fire side”.

The AFBC option is further comprised of two types: bubbling fluidized-bed

combustion (BFBC) and CFBC.
In AFBC, steam is generated for power production using the conventional Rankine
cycle.
A fluidizing bed in which the fluidizing velocity exceeds the terminal velocity of
individual bed particles and in which part of the fluidizing gas passes through the
bed as bubbles is called a bubbling fluidized bed.

In a circulating fluidized bed the fluidizing velocities substantially exceed the

terminal velocity of the individual bed particles where the bed and the free board
above the bed cannot be distinguished and become a uniform fluidized bed.
CATEGORIES OF FBC
PFBC units operate at 1.0-1.5 MPa pressure and offer the potential of smaller
boilers in comparison with AFBC.

In a PFBC boiler, the combustion gas temperature at the exit of the boiler is in
the range of 1088-1143 K, which is further used to drive a gas turbine.

PFBC boilers are normally used in combined cycle units. Combustion

efficiency of PFBC is better than that of AFBC. As with AFBC, two
configurations, i.e., bubbling bed and circulating bed, are also possible in
PFBC.

Out of above four configurations of FBCs, atmospheric CFBC finds the widest
application globally.
Advantages
The advantages of FBC boilers over conventional boilers are:
1. Combustion efficiency of FBC is comparable to that of conventional boilers because of effective
contact among heated bed material, gas, and solid fuel even though the bed temperature is low.
2. An environmentally attractive feature of FBC is that sulfur dioxide (SO2) can be removed in
the combustion process by adding sorbent (e.g., slaked lime (CaO) or limestone (CaCO3) or
dolomite (CaCO3 . MgCO3)) to the fluidized bed.
3. Compared to the combustion temperature of conventional boilers, approximately 1573-
1773 K, the combustion temperature of a FBC is quite low. Combustion at lower
temperatures has several benefits:
i. Lower temperature minimizes sorbent requirements because the required
Ca/S molar ratio for a given SO2 removal efficiency is minimized in this temperature
range.
ii. Bed temperature of 1023-1223 K is well below the ash-fusion temperature of
most fuels so the fuel ash never reaches its melting point. The slagging and fouling
characteristic of pulverized-coal units are significantly reduced, if not eliminated.
iii. Lower temperature reduces NOX emissions.
Advantages
iv. FBC can be designed to incorporate the boiler within the bed, resulting in
volumetric heat-transfer rates that are 10-15 times higher and surface heat-
transfer rates that are 2-3 times higher than a conventional boiler. A fluidized-bed
steam generator is therefore much more compact than a conventional one of the
same capacity.
v. In addition, reduction in SO2 (and SO3) in the flue gas means that lower stack
gas temperatures can be tolerated because less acid is formed. Lower stack-gas
temperatures result in an increase in overall plant efficiency.
vi. With a suitable ash cooler, bottom ash is available at a comparatively lower
temperature, enhancing boiler efficiency.
vii. Variation in moisture content in fuel does not cause problems as in the case of conventional
boilers. When introduced into the bed fuel gets immediately mixed with the bed
material and the water of fuel gets vaporized and superheated on admission. As a
result, the dried fuel particles reach the ignition temperature and burn in
fluidizing air.
Advantages
viii. Flexibility to use a wide range of fuels in the same boiler. Some of the fuels
that can be successfully fired in FBC boilers are coal, peat, washery rejects, lignite,
sludge, wood waste, bagasse, straw, husk, bark, paper waste, petroleum cake, biomass,
etc.

ix. Even with low-grade fuel FBC boilers will generate rated output.

x. Fine coal of size below 6 mm, which are difficult to burn in conventional boilers, can
be efficiently burnt in FBC boilers.

xi. Due to high turbulence in the bed quick start-up and shut down are feasible

xii. The boiler is more compact and thus less expensive

xiii. Maintenance cost is low since routine overhauls are infrequent.

Disadvantages
Some of the typical problems experienced during operation of FBC boilers
include:
i. Size and shape of the particle plays a vital role. Over-size particles result
in improper fluidization and impair the combustion process. Thus efficiency
of boiler gets reduced. Too large a particle may lead to smoldering.

ii. In the event coal particles become under-sized, some of them may escape
the free-board (firing) zone, resulting in burning of fine carbon particles
around the cyclone, consequently there will be excursion of flue gas beyond
the furnace zone.

iii. Fluidizing nozzles sometimes get plugged, inhibiting proper fluidization

of the fuel bed.
Disadvantages
iv. It is very important to maintain optimum fluidizing velocity. In the
event that velocity is inadequate incomplete combustion will result. When the
fluidizing velocity exceeds the limit, the heat transfer coefficient drops, causing
the bed-wall heat transfer to fall. Erosion may occur in superheater and
convective heat-exchanging surfaces.

v. Gradual and undetected wear of boiler parts.

vi. At times, bed ash gets accumulated when removed manually, and bed
height exceeds the permissible limit. A higher bed height may increase bed
resistance, resulting in improper fluidization of the bed. As a result, the bed
temperature may exceed the recommended upper limit, causing sintering of bed
ash and associated problems. A higher bed height also enhances bed pressure.
BUBBLING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (BFBC)
BOILERS
In a bubbling fluidized-bed unit the fluidizing velocity is low (1.2-3.7 m/s). As a
result, the particles are held mainly in a bed that has a depth of 1 m or so and has a
definable surface.
The combustion of heat is absorbed from the gas by the heat transfer tubes
immersed in the bed and by a conventional water-wall surface. The in-bed
tubes can serve as either a steam-generation surface or a superheat surface and are
used to control the bed temperature.
Although an in-bed heat exchanger is a possible source of erosion problems, the
close contact with the bed materials and excellent mixing provide high heat transfer. Heat
transfer in the convection pass is similar to that for a conventional stoker-fired or
pulverized coal-fired steam generator.
Figure shows a bubbling-bed combustor, where the hot-bed material is in a state
of suspension and behaves like a bubbling liquid by fluidized air. The bed
temperature (1073-1223 K) is controlled by varying the amount of fuel and air
within the bed.
BUBBLING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (BFBC)
BOILERS
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (CFBC)
BOILERS
In a circulating fluidized-bed unit, combustion of heat is absorbed from the gas by a
conventional water-wall surface.
The circulating fluidized bed, as shown in Figure, has been developed to improve
combustion efficiency and reduce sorbent consumption for the required level of
desulfurization. In this boiler, higher fluidizing air velocity (3.7-9.0 m/s) results in the coal
and inert bed material being entrained and carried through the combustor and overboard
region into the hot cyclone. Thus, a distinct dense fluidized bed does not exist at a higher
load in this case. The coarse particles of sorbent and unburned coal are recovered in the
cyclone and are recycled to the combustor. Individual particles may recycle anything from 10-
50 times, depending on their size, and how quickly the char burns away.
To capture and recycle large bed materials CFBC boilers are provided with big cyclone
separators, requiring the boiler to be very tall.
The CFBC boiler is used in a number of units around 250-300 MW in size. In a CFBC unit,
heat losses from the cyclone(s) are considerable. Thus, the thermal efficiency of a CFBC
boiler is 3-4% lower than an equivalent-size pulverized coal-fired boiler.
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (CFBC)
BOILERS
In a circulating fluidized-bed unit, the bed material is comprised of fuel, sorbent,
and other inert bed materials. The bed is supported within the furnace by air
flowing into the bed from the bottom of the furnace. The air flow supports the
bed and ensures complete combustion by providing close mixing of fuel and air.

This type of boiler is capable of burning low volatile content, typically 8-9%, fuel,
e.g., pet-coke, and fuels with low ash-melting temperature, e.g., wood, biomass.

It can also burn fuels with ash content as high as 70%, e.g., coal washery rejects.
Fuels with high moisture content, such as lignite, can also be burnt in this boiler.
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (CFBC)
BOILERS
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (CFBC)
BOILERS
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (CFBC)
BOILERS
PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (PFBC)
BOILERS
As discussed earlier by burning coal in a fluidized bed at low temperature it is
possible to avoid sintering of coal ash and to minimize volatilization of alkali
metals in the fuel. Thus, hot gas can be safely used in a gas turbine since the above
properties ensure reduction of corrosion and erosion of gas turbine blades.

To harness these benefits the pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (PFBC) boiler

was developed in the late 1980s and considerable effort was devoted to the
development of PFBC during the 1990s. Today, a PFBC is capable of burning all
types of coal, even low-grade coal, be it high moisture, high ash, high sulfur, low
gross calorific value (GCV) etc.
PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (PFBC)
BOILERS
This type of boiler is used with a combined-cycle system, incorporating both steam and gas
turbines. A PFBC boiler generates steam to drive a steam turbine, while gas from the boiler
drives a gas turbine. Such combination of Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle along with FBC
provides higher cycle efficiency than the efficiency of conventional coal-firing systems, lower
emissions, and harmless waste products.
The steam turbine produces 80-90% of the generated power, and the gas turbine 10-20%.
These boilers operate at pressures of 1.0-1.5 MPa with combustion temperatures of 1073-
1173 K and can be used in compact units. Typical size of PFBC boilers is only 1/5 size of
atmospheric boilers. The combustion air is pressurized in the compressor section of the gas
turbine.
Combustion at high pressure yields the following benefits:
1. More uniform bed temperature distribution
2. Reduced size of boiler components
3. Lower bed-surface area
4. Reduced maintenance
PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION (PFBC)
BOILERS