Principles Of Solar

Energy

DEG30013
TOPIC 2

OBJECTIVES
DEG30013 Topic 2

• 2.1 Remember the key concept of solar electric systems

• 2.2 Remember advances in solar thermal electricity technology
2.2.1 Describe the following types of solar thermal technology:
a. Dish Power towers heliostat field
b. Parabolic through concentrator systems
c. Parabolic concentrator systems
d. Solar ponds
e. Solar chimneys
f. Ocean thermal energy conversion
• 2.3 Understand photovoltaic technology
2.3.1 Explain basic principle of photovoltaic effect
2.3.2 Differentiate various photovoltaic cells:
a. Monocrystalline silicon
b. Polycrystalline silicon
c. Amorphous silicon
d. Other photovoltaic cells
2.3.3 Apply photovoltaic technology in electricity generation:
a. Demonstrate current-voltage (I-V) characteristics curve for photovoltaic cells
b. Relate photovoltaic current and voltage output with varying electrical loads
c. Determine the effect of temperature, shading and orientation on
photovoltaic panel performance.
2.3.4 Describe photovoltaic technology in electricity generation:
a. Grid Connected Photovoltaic (GCPV) system
b. Off-Grid Photovoltaic (OGPV) system
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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.1 Key Concept of Solar Electric System

• Solar radiation can be converted into useful energy
directly, using various technologies.
• Solar energy can also be concentrated by mirrors to
provide high temperature heat for generating
electricity. Such ‘solar thermal – electric power
stations are in commercial operation in USA
• Solar radiation can also be converted into electricity
using photovoltaic (PV) modules, normally mounted
on the roofs or facades of buildings

DEG30013 Topic 2

2.2 Solar thermal electrical technology

• Solar thermal technologies capture the heat energy

from the sun and use it for heating and/or the
production of electricity
• Solar thermal systems take advantage of the
abundant, high quality energy resource of the sun.
• The systems concentrate beam radiation onto a
receiver which is converted to the thermal energy to
be used in heat engine to produce work or electricity
• Also know as Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Power tower Heliostat field
▫ This type of solar thermal system uses a field of
tracking heliostats, which reflect the sun’s ray onto
a boiler at the top of a central tower. Then, the
boiler will produce the steam for the electrical
turbines.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Power tower Heliostat field
▫ Solar power tower uses many large, sun-tracking
mirrors commonly referred to as heliostats to focus
sunlight on a receiver at the top of a 180m tower.
▫ Molten salt stored in cold storage tank is pumped up
to the top of the tower.
▫ Concentrated sunlight heats up the molten salt in the
receiver.
▫ Heated molten salt is then stored in the hot storage
tank.
▫ The stored energy is released into a heat exchanger to
generate steam in order to spin the turbine generator
to produce electricity

DEG30013 Topic 2

2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Parabolic trough concentrator system
▫ A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal
collector that is straight in one dimension and
curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a
polished metal mirror.
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Parabolic trough concentrator system
▫ Parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic
reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver
positioned along the reflector’s focal line.
▫ The receiver is a tube positioned directly above the
middle of the parabolic mirror and filled with a
working fluid
▫ The reflector follows the sun during the daylight
hours by tracking along a single axis
▫ A working fluid ( molten salt) is heated to 150-35o℃
as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a
heat source for a power generation system.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Parabolic trough concentrator system
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Parabolic dish concentrator system
▫ Parabolic dish systems use satellite-like mirror
dish(es) to focus the light onto a single central
receiver in front of the mirror.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Parabolic dish concentrator system
▫ Parabolic dish shaped mirrors focus incoming solar
radiation onto a receiver that is positioned at the focal
point of the dish
▫ Fluid in the receiver is heated to high temperatures,
around 750℃
▫ This fluid is then used to generate electricity in a small
Stirling engine which attached to the receiver
▫ Stirling engine creates rotational kinetic energy that can
be converted to electricity using an electric generator
▫ Parabolic dish systems are the most efficient of all solar
thermal technologies, at approximately 25% efficiency.
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Solar ponds
▫ Solar ponds are power plants that utilize the effect
of water stratification as a basis for the collector.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Solar ponds
▫ A basin filled with brine (i.e. a water/salt mixture)
functions as collector and heat storage.
▫ The water at the bottom of the solar pond serves
as primary heat storage from which heat is
withdrawn.
▫ Due to the distribution of the salt concentration
within the basin, which increases towards the
bottom of the basin, natural convection and the
ensuing heat loss at the surface due to evaporation,
convection and radiation is minimized.
▫ Heat can then be used for power generation.
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Solar chimneys
▫ Solar chimneys consists of large area of transparent
covers which receive solar radiations.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Solar chimneys
▫ The principle is a relative simple one. A round
ascending glass roof with a diameter of several
thousand metres is used as a collector.
▫ A chimney in the middle sucks the ascending
heated air and the air ascends with a velocity about
fifteen metres per second.
▫ The arising air suction is driving wind turbines
which are placed in the chimney. The turbines are
used together with a generator and a gearing to
produce current.
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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
▫ OTEC is a technology for generating renewable
energy that uses the temperature difference
between the deep cold and relatively warmer
surface waters of the ocean to generate baseload
electricity.

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2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
OTEC technologies use the
temperature difference between
warm seawater at the surface of the
ocean , and cold sea water at
between 800m-1000m depth to
produce electricity.
The warm sea water is used to
produced vapour / steam that acts
as a working fluid to drive turbine,
which is connected to generator to
produce electricity.
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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.2.1 Types solar thermal technology

• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
▫ The steam is cooled back into a liquid using the cold water
from the depths of the ocean in a condenser. The steam is
now almost pure fresh water and has lost all its salt.

* The water from the surface is put into a near vacuum

container. This allows the water from the surface to turn
into steam, because when water is in a near vacuum its
boiling temperature is lower.

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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.3 Photovoltaic technology

• Solar electric systems convert the Sun's energy into
electricity.

• This system also known as photovoltaic (PV) systems.

•
• Solar modules known as solar panels are used to
convert sun energy into electricity.

• A solar module consists of numerous solar cells.

• Solar cells are wired together and encased in plastic

and glass with a metal frame to create solar modules.
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2.3 Photovoltaic technology

• A component of the PV system, the inverter is applied

to convert the direct current electricity produced by
solar cells into the alternating-current electricity.

• Solar electric systems are well suited for remote

applications where it is too costly to run power lines.

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2.3 Photovoltaic technology

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2.3.1 Basic principle of photovoltaic effect

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2.3.1 Basic principle of photovoltaic effect

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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Monocrystalline Silicon
▫ Average efficiency range: 15%-24%
▫ Wafers are cut from a block of a single
crystal of highly pure silicon.
▫ Monocrystalline solar cells have a
uniform appearance, and the cells form a
distinctive shape – small black squares
with notched corners. Solar panels made
with these solar cells typically have either
a white or black backsheet.

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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Monocrystalline Silicon
▫ These panels conduct electricity more
efficiently and perform better in high
temperatures and shaded conditions,
enabling them to generate more solar
power than other panels of the same size.
That makes them ideal for smaller
rooftops. It is most established and
proven track record of durability.
However, these are the most expensive
panels and generate more waste in the
manufacturing process.
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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Polycrystalline Silicon
▫ Average efficiency range: 12%-16%
▫ Fragments from multiple silicon
crystals are heated, melted, and
pressed together to form a large solar
cell.
▫ These solar cells have a multifaceted,
non-uniform, gem-like surface and
are typically blue in color.

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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Polycrystalline Silicon
▫ Polycrystalline solar panels are less
efficient but are less expensive.
▫ There is less silicon waste in the
manufacturing process. These are
the most prevalent solar panels
globally, primarily due to a
production boom in China over the
last few years.
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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell
▫ Average efficiency range: 7%-13%
▫ A thin layer of photovoltaic material or
combination of materials such as non-
crystalline amorphous silicon (a-Si),
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), or copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is
deposited onto a surface like glass,
plastic, or metal.
▫ Thin film silicon panels are generally
larger and have a uniform, solid black
appearance.

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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell
▫ This is a commercially available but
newer technology that makes sense
where space is not an issue. Thin film
solar panels are low cost, easy to
produce, flexible, portable, and
lightweight. They are expected to be
less durable and to have a shorter
lifespan.
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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Hybrid Solar Cell
▫ Hybrid solar cell is not a natural type of
a solar cell rather than a combination
of amorphous silicon solar cell and
monocrystalline solar cell. This type of
solar cell is the recent development in
photovoltaic technology, which
composes of a high electron transport
material and an organic material.
▫ The combination of these two
materials makes the power conversion
efficient and generates better output.

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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Hybrid Solar Cell
▫ Moreover, hybrid solar cell perform its
best when place in sunnier climate,
which temperature can reach up to 25
degree Celsius, thus, producing more
electricity.
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2.3.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

• Comparison of three major types of cell

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2.3.3 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

generation
• In applying PV in electricity
generation, one must knows
the characteristics of the PV
modules.
• A single silicon PV cell is
connected to a variable
electrical resistance, R
together with an ammeter to
measure the current (I) in the
circuit and a voltmeter to
measure the voltage (V)
developed across the cell
terminals.
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2.3.3 a) Current & voltage output from

photovoltaic panel

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2.3.3 a) Current & voltage output from

photovoltaic panel
• With the solar cell open-circuited, the current will be at
its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at
its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit
voltage, or Voc
• In other words, the maximum voltage available from a
cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at
closed circuit.
• The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be
estimated from the open circuit voltage and the short
circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–
0.95)Isc. Since solar cell output voltage and current both
depend on temperature, the actual output power will
vary with changes in ambient temperature.
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2.3.3 a) Current & voltage output from

photovoltaic panel
• The maximum voltage available from a cell is at open
circuit, and the maximum current at closed circuit.

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DEG30013 Topic 2

2.3.3 b) Current & voltage output with

varying loads
• Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected
together in either series or parallel combinations, or
both to increase the voltage or current capacity of
the solar array.
• If the array panels are connected together in a series
combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallel then the current
increases
• However the solar panels are connected together,
the upper right hand corner will always be the
maximum power point (MPP) of the array.
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2.3.3 b) Current & voltage output with

varying loads

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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Temperature
. ▫ PV cells produce thermal energy (85%) along with
electrical energy (15%) when exposed to sunlight
▫ Temperature effects are more pronounced in
silicon solar cells, excess of heat causes the PV cell
to become less efficient. (reduction of 0.5 % / K)
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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Temperature
▫ Temperature rises up; efficiency decreases.
Therefore, the module must be cooled by natural
ventilation; etc

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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Shading
▫ Shading has a very bad impact on performance of
the PV system
▫ Even a partial shading (on one or two cells) of the
whole module can reduce the output drastically
and if it persists for a longer period, it may damage
the whole system
▫ To protect the modules from such adverse effect, a
bypass diode is used.
▫ The effect is more prominent is crystalline silicon
solar modules
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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Shading
▫ Amorphous silicon modules are less affected by
shading

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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Orientation
▫ To optimize the effect of the solar radiation, the
solar cells need to be directed towards the sun
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2.3.3 c) Effect temperature, shading and

orientation on photovoltaic panel
performance
• Orientation
▫ Electricity depends strongly on its orientation and
angle of inclination

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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

DEG30013 Topic 2

generation

• PV modules are now widely used in developed

countries to provide electrical power in locations
where it would be inconvenient or expensive to use
conventional grid supplies. They often charge
batteries to ensure continuity of power.
• However, in most part of the developed world, grid
electricity is easily accessible as a convenient backup
to PV. Here it makes sense for PV energy systems to
use the grid as giant ‘battery’.
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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

DEG30013 Topic 2

generation

• Grid Connected Photovoltaic (GCPV) system

▫ Grid-connected PV systems are the most popular
solar electric system on the market today. The
grid-connected systems are connected directly to
the electrical grid
▫ These systems are also sometimes referred to as
battery less grid-connected or battery less utility
tied systems.

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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

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generation
• Grid Connected Photovoltaic (GCPV) system
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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

DEG30013 Topic 2

generation

• Off - Grid Photovoltaic (OGPV) system

▫ Off-grid systems are designed for individuals and
businesses that want to or must supply all of their
needs via solar energy - or a combination of solar
and wind or some other renewable source.
▫ Off-grid systems bear a remarkable resemblance
to grid-connected systems with battery backup

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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

DEG30013 Topic 2

generation
• Off - Grid Photovoltaic (OGPV) system
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2.3.4 Photovoltaic technology in electricity

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generation
• Off - Grid Photovoltaic (OGPV) system
▫ Electricity flows from the PV array to the charge
controller.
▫ The charge controller monitors battery voltage and
delivers DC electricity to the battery bank.
▫ When electricity is needed in a home or business, it is
drawn from the battery bank via the inverter.
▫ The inverter converts the DC electricity from the battery
bank, typically 24 or 48 volts in a standard system, to
higher-voltage AC, either 120 or 240 volts, which is
required by households and businesses.
▫ AC electricity then flows to active circuits in the house via
the main service panel.