Social Studies ST G7 After Proof Read

SOCIAL STUDIES
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
Grade 7
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State
Ministry of Education Education Bureau
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SOCIAL STUDIES
Student Textbook
Grade 7
Writers and Editors Abebe Adeto (M.A.)
Hailu Teklu (M.A.)
Mekdes Eshetu (M.A.)
Mitiku Kajisho (M.A.)
Reviewers Debebe Biftu (M.A.)

Sintayehu Demeke (M.A.)
Team Leader Nadamo Lamiso (M.A.)
Advisory and Quality Debebe Biftu (M.A.)

Assurence Team Sintayehu Demeke (M.A.)
Illustrator Anteneh Million (B.A.)

Designer Geda Hoka (M.A.)

Acknowledgement
This book is prepared by the Sidama National Regional State Education

Bureau based on the textbook preparation documents prepared by the
Ministry of Education in accordance with the recommendations of the
Education and Training Roadmap. The cost of preparation and publication
is covered by the Sidama National Regional State and the FDRE Ministry
of Education General Education Certification Program-E (GEQIP-E).
Therefore, the Education Bureau would like to thank all those who directly
or indirectly supported the preparation of the book in terms of funding,
manpower and materials, providing the necessary information, approving
their institution, sharing their experience and knowledge, and so on.
©The book is the official copyright of the Sidama Regional Education

Bureau.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise) either prior written permission of the copyright owner or a license permitting
restricted copying in Ethiopia by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Federal
Negarit Gazeta ,Proclamation No. 410/2004 Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Protection
Proclamation, 10 th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.

2014 E.C.
Hawassa, Sidaama
Ethiopia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT ONE 1
1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH 1
1.1. Origin of the earth and solar system 2
1.2. External components and internal
structure of the earth 4
1.3. Materials forming the crust of the earth 9
1.4. Distribution of Major Rocks and Their
Economic values in Ethiopia 15
Unit Summary 18
Review exercise 20
UNIT TWO 23
2. HUMAN EVOLUTION AND WORLD POPULATION 23
2.1. Human Evolution 24
2.2. Trends of World Population 32
2.3. Population of Ethiopia 51
2.4. People and the Development of
Transportation 58
Unit Summary 68
Review exercises 73
UNIT THREE 77
3. HUMAN AND NATURAL RESOURCES 77
3.1. Human and Natural Resources 78
3.2. Population- resource relationship (over
population, optimal population and under
Population) 79
3.3. Types of Natural Resources 83
3.4. Factors affecting natural resources in
Ethiopia85
Unit summary 89
Review Exercises 92
UNIT FOUR 95
4. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AND MEDIEVAL
HISTORY OF THE WORLD 95
4.1. Ancient Civilization 96
4.2. Medieval History of the World 112
Unit summary 122
Review Exercises 125
UNIT FIVE 131

5. ANCIENT HISTORY OF AFRICA 131
5.1. Ancient Kingdom of Egypt 132
5.2. The Kingdom of Nubia 136
5.3. The Kingdom of Meroe 138
5.4. Main Features of Pre-colonial States in
Africa140
Unit Summary 148
UNIT SIX 155
6. STATES AND PEOPLES OF ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL ETHIOPIA 155
6.1. Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar 156
6.2. Muslim Sultanates 165
6.3. Population Movements, Interaction and
Integration (Gada and other Indigenous
Organizations) 168
6.4. Economic Base of States: Agriculture,
Trade and Trade routes, Taxation 176
Unit Summary 180
Review exercises 184
UNIT SEVEN 189

7. CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES 189
7.1. Environment 190
7.2. Demographic overload 197
7.3. Terrorism 200
7.4. Human trafficking 204
Unit summary 208
Student Textbook Social Studies
UNIT ONE
1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE EARTH
Unit Outcomes
After the end of this unit, students will be able to;
✅ explain the origin of the earth and the solar system;

✅ describe the four components of the earth and their interaction;
✅ explain the earth’s internal layers and their characteristics;
✅ identify direct and indirect sources of information regarding the interior
layers of the earth;
✅ identify major elements, minerals and rocks forming the crust of the
earth; and
✅ analyze the spatial distribution and economic importance of rocks in
Ethiopia.
Introduction
Dear students! This is the first Unit of your textbook. Our earth contain
both physical and human features. Leaving the human features for the
incoming units, physical parts of the earth contain both living and non
living things. Physical parts are naturally made features of the earth that
include the earth itself and its components.
1
Social Studies Grade 7
Hence, in this unit, you will learn about physical characteristics of the
earth. The major topic to be include are origin of the earth, solar system,
the major external components and layers of the earth, internal layer
of the earth, the sources of information of the interior of the earth and
major elements like rock forming of the crust and importance of rock in
Ethiopia.
1.1. ORIGIN OF THE EARTH AND

SOLAR SYSTEM
Competencies
After the study of the lesson, you will be able to
✅ Discuss the origin of the earth
✅ State the members of the solar system
Key Terms
🔑 Galaxy 🔑 Solar system

🔑 Gravity 🔑 Universe
🔑 How the earth was formed?
1.1.1. Origin of the earth

The earth’s origin is associated to the process of the formation of the solar
system. Some scientists believed that the solar system, of which the earth is
a part of it, was formed from the particles which were mostly made up of
hydrogen and helium, dust particle and other elements. Moving in space
gradually, these particles pulled each other because of gravity. Then, they came
together to form a thin disc. The disc, in due course, split into rings and kept
2 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH
spinning. The spinning rings at the center formed the sun, while the outer rings
result in the formation of nine planets, include the earth. The earth is one of the
nine planets that along with the other planets and elements of the solar system
revolve around the sun. Earth and other planets including the sun were formed
at the sae time and from the same materials about 4.5 billion years ago.
Solar system
What is solar system?
The solar system is the “sun” system. It is made up of the sun and everythings
that orbit (revolve) around the sun. It includes the sun at the center, the nine
planets and their satellites, comets, meteor, meteorites and asteroids.
Universe is the totality of space in which every thing is found. The universe
contains many galaxies. Galaxy is a large group of stars. Our solar system is
found in Milky way, Milky way is our Galaxy. The sun is the biggest member
of solar system. It makes almost 99% of the solar system and the planets are
the other members make up 1%. There are nine planets orderly from the sun;
these are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and
Pluto. All planets do not give off light and heat of their own. They move around
the sun along definite path. The path of each planet is called orbit.
Figure 1.1 solar system
Origin of the earth and solar system 3

1.2. EXTERNAL COMPONENTS AND

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH
Competencies
After completing this lesson, you will be able to;
✅ State the four external components of the earth and their
constant interaction;
✅ Analyze how and why different earth’s materials are
differentiated into different layers;
✅ Distinguish different sources of information about internal parts
of the earth; and
✅ Describe the layers of the earth.
Key Terms
🔑 Hydrosphere 🔑 Biosphere
🔑 Crust 🔑 Core
🔑 Lithosphere 🔑 Atmosphere
🔑 Mantle
Activity 1.1
Answer the following questions

1. Discuss with your partner about the origin of the earth.
2. Using different materials such as mud or wooden ball make model to
show the relative size of the sun and the nine planets according to their
size and their distance from the sun.

1.2.1. External Components of the earth

What are the external components of the earth?
External components of the earth are divided in to four main parts. These are:
Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere.
Lithosphere
What is lithosphere?
Lithosphere is rocks outer parts of the earth. It is made up of crust and the
uppermost mantle. It is also the coolest and most rigid parts of the earth.
Biosphere
What is biosphere?
Biosphere is life-supporting part of the earth’s surface. It extends from the

surface and oceans to few kilometers into the atmosphere. It is in this part
where plants and animals exists.
Hydrosphere
How do you understand the hydrosphere?
Hydrosphere includes all water portion of the earth and it accounts about 71%
of surface of the earth. It includes Ocean, seas, lakes, rivers, glaciers, ponds
etc. Ocean is the largest water body in the hydrosphere and it constitutes about
97% of the earth’s water.
Atmosphere
What do you know about atmosphere?
Atmosphere is a mixture of gases. Its components are grouped into major

and minor gases. The major gases are Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) and
the minor gases are argon (0.95%), carbon dioxide (0.03%) and etc. Half
of the mass of atmosphere found below an altitude of 5.6 k.m. About 90%
External components and internal structure of the earth 5

found within altitude of 16k.m and about 99 % is concentrated in the first 30

kilometers above the surface of the earth.
These four external components of the earth are inter related one another. For
example, Hydrosphere provides water for human and animals for drinking and
water for plant growth (Biosphere), Plant root grow in the soil (Lithosphere)
and plants use carbon dioxide from atmosphere to make food and release
oxygen.
Activity 1.2

1. Discuss the relationship between the external components of the
earth?
2. What is the largest water body in the hydrosphere?
3. What percentage of the hydrosphere covers earth’s surface?
1.2.2. Internal Structure and Sources

Information about the Internal Parts of
the Earth
Internal structure of the earth
What do you understand about the layers of the earth?
The major structural components of the earth that are separated by sharp
discontinuities are the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust forms a very
thin surface skin, the mantle is a thick shell that extends half the radius down
into the earth, and the core occupies the central part. Each layer has its own
properties and compositions.

The Crust
This is the outermost layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, cooled part
of the earth layer in depth from approximately 5-70 km make less than 1% of
the entire volume. Mostly composed of basalt and granite. There are two type
of crust;
• Oceanic crust: is denser and thinner and mainly composed of

basalt. Sometimes it is also known as sima(silicate and magne-
sium). It has average thickness of 6 to 10 kms.
• Continental crust: is less dense, thicker and mainly composed

of Granite. Sometimes it is also called sial (silicate and alumi-
num) approximate thickness can be up to 70kms.
The Mantle
The mantle lies below the crust and up to 2900k.m. thick. It makes up 80 - 84
percent of the earth’s volume. It consist of silicate rocks rich in hot, dense,
iron and magnesium. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the
lithosphere. The temperature that may reach 50000c. It is usually found in a
molten state. The earth’s temperature and pressure increase with depth. These
changes cause the strength of mantle rock to vary with depth, and thus they
create layering within the mantle.
The Core
The core is the innermost layer of the earth. It is a sphere with a radius of about
3470 kilometers, and is composed largely of iron and nickel. The outer core is
molten because of the high temperature at the center of the core. The extreme
pressure compresses the inner core into a solid, despite the fact that it is even
hotter than the molten outer core. The core’s temperature is estimated at about
6000oC. It constitutes about 15 percent of Earth’s volume.
External components and internal structure of the earth 7

Figure 1.2 layer of the Earth
Sources of information about the internal parts of the

earth
How do you know about inside parts of the earth?
The inside of the earth can be described as being made up of layers, in a

sequence of concentric shells as illustrated on the cover. Human being has
actually looked into the earth in deep mines and drill holes only a very small
distance to the earth’s center. Furthermore, human being will likely never be
able to make a hole into the deep interior, so what we learn about the interior
has to be from direct and indirect evidence? There are limited direct evidence
access to understand the interior parts of the earth. So indirect method of
observation help you to understand how scientists gather information about
interior parts of the earth. Evidence on the structure and composition of the
earth’s interior comes from:
1. Observation of rocks at the surface,

2. Secondary observations based on geophysical phenomena
(including waves through the earthquakes and explosive sources,
planetary motions of the earth, flow of heat from the interior
(volcanism), the magnetic field, and gravitational attraction)
3. Laboratory experiments on surface rocks and minerals, and
4. Comparison of the earth with the other planets, the sun, stars, and
meteorites, which may be Fragments of a disintegrated former

planet. Our present understanding of the structural features and

the composition of the earth is obtained from all these sources.
Activity 1.3
Answer the Following Questions

1. Name the three layers of the earth.
2. Which layer of the earth is largely composed of iron and nickel?
3. The outermost and thinnest layer of the earth is_________
4. How do you get information about internal parts of the earth?
5. What are the direct and indirect evidences of the information about
internal part of the earth?
1.3. MATERIALS FORMING THE CRUST

OF THE EARTH
Competencies
After completing this lesson, you will be able to
✅ Identify major elements, minerals and rocks forming the crust
of the earth; and
✅ Point out the different types of rocks and their importance.
Materials forming the crust of the earth 9

Key Terms
🔑 Mineral 🔑 Rock
🔑 Lava
🔑
🔑 Element
Magma
What are the main materials forming the crust of the earth?
1.3.1. Major Elements

Elements are substance made from atoms. The earth’s crust is made up of about
eight major elements; Oxygen (46.5%), silicon (27.7%) aluminum (8.1%), Iron
(5.0%), Calcium (3.6%), Sodium (2.8%), Potassium (2.6%) and Magnesium
(2.1%).
1.3.2. Major Minerals

The earth’s crust is made up of different types of minerals. Minerals are made
up of elements. The most important minerals are silicate minerals which
make up 90% of the earth’s crust. A mineral consists of one or more chemical
elements and has definite physical state and chemical composition. Some
minerals are found in combination with other minerals, while other found as a
single elements. Some mineral are organic or inorganic in nature.
1.3.3. Major rocks forming the crust

What is rock? How rocks are formed?
Rocks are naturally aggregates of one or more minerals. Based on their formation
and characteristics rocks are classified into three: Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic.
A. Igneous
What do you know about the term igneous?
The term igneous rocks are derived from the Latin word “ignis” which means

‘fire’. Igneous rocks are formed when hot, molten rocks are crytallized and
solidified. This molten rock is called Magma. Magma sometimes forced out
to come on the surface and solidify is known as Lava.
When Lava flow on the surface it gets cool and become hard because of the
cool temperature on the surface. Magma comes out and gets cool fast or slowly,
This result in the formation of different type of Igneous rock.
Based on their texture, igneous rocks are divided into two namely; intrusive
and extrusive.
Intrusive Igneous rocks (plutonic rocks): are rocks which have cooled and
solidified in the interior of the earth.These rock have large crytal which can
be seen by our naked eye. They are also coarse textured because are solified
slowly beneath the earth’s crust.
Figure 1.3 Intrusive Igneous rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rocks): are rocks which have cooled and
solidifies on the surface of the earth. These rocks are fine textures and contain
microscopic crytal which cannot be seen by our nacked eye. This is because of
quick solidification after eruption.

a. Basalt b. Obsidian
Figure 1.4 Extrusive igneous rocks
Figure 1.5 The formation of Igneous rock
B. Sedimentary rocks
What are sedimentary rocks?
These rocks are formed by the accumulation of small to large sediment particles
derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The sediments in
the sedimentary rocks are cemented by cementing materials ,such as calcite,
sulfate, silica, clay, iron oxide, etc. Sedimentary rocks are usually deposited in
a series of layers, which are differentiated from one another by color, grain size
or composition. The oldest layer is found at the bottom and the youngest at the
top. Sedimentary rocks are classified as:
1. Organic sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the decomposition
of plants and animals remain. Examples of organic sedimentary rocks
include coal, oil, etc.
2. Clastic sedimentary rocks: Formed from the transportation and
accumulation of materials, such as rocks, grains of minerals and even
crushed shells. Examples of such rocks include clay, conglomerate, shale,
sandstone, etc.
3. Chemical sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the evaporation
and precipitation of a solution that is saturated with mineral compounds.
Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks include rock gypsum, rock
salt(halite), limestone(calcite),etc.
Figure 1.6 Layer of sedimentary rock
C. Metamorphic rock
What are metamorphic rocks?
Metamorphic rocks are changed rocks. They are formed from pre-existing
rocks of igneous, sedimentary and even other metamorphic rocks through heat
and pressure inside the earth’s crust.

Metamorphism: is the process of transformation of pre-existing Igneous and

sedimentary rock through heat and pressure. The following are some example
of metamorphic rock;
▶ Marble from lime stone

▶ Slate from clay
▶ Genesis from Granit
▶ Quartz from sand
Figure 1.7 Metamorphic rock
The rock components of the crust are slowly but constantly being changed
from one form to another by the presence of great heat and pressure and the
processes involved as summarized in below the rock cycle
Figure 1.8 Rocks formation processes (Rock Cycle)

Activity 1.4

1. What makes Sedimentary rocks different from other rocks?
2. Discuss major types and formation of rocks.
1.4. DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR ROCKS

AND THEIR ECONOMIC VALUES
IN ETHIOPIA
Competencies
After completing this lesson, you will be able to

✅ Describe the distribution of the different rock types in Ethiopia;
and
✅ Explain the economic importance of rocks in Ethiopia.
Distribution of different rock types in Ethiopia

Major rocks that are found in different parts of Ethiopia include igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. These rocks are found exposed at the
surface in different parts of the country. Igneous rocks are mainly found in
central parts of Ethiopia. Eastern parts of Ethiopia are covered by Sedimentary
rocks. Metamorphic rocks are exposed in Northern, Southern and Western
edges of Ethiopia.
Distribution of Major Rocks and Their Economic values in Ethiopia 15

Figure 1.9 Major type of rock
Economic value of rocks in Ethiopia
Rocks have different uses. Some of their uses are;
• Sources of minerals: Example Gold, diamond, limestone and petroleum

which can be exported to provide for foreign exchange to a country.
Petroleum, coal and limestone derived from sedimentary rock, while
gold, diamond and tin derived from igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Sources of fuel: Example sedimentary rocks like petroleum and coal.
• Construction purpose: Example Granite and limestone are quarried and

used for road, bridge and building construction.
• Ornament: Example some beautiful rock such as marble can be polished

as for decorating floors, wall of building, churches and tombstones.
• Sources of food nutrient; Example salt such as sodium chloride from

sedimentary rock used for in cooking.

• Sources of metal: Example iron, aluminum etc.
Activity 1.5

1. Work with your group and write a report about the major rock types
samples from your locality.
2. Discuss the difference between igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks and show their sample?
3. Eastern parts of Ethiopia is largely covered by ______________
types of rocks.
4. Central parts of Ethiopia covered by _______________ types of
rocks.
5. Explain the economic importance of rocks in Ethiopia.
Distribution of Major Rocks and Their Economic values in Ethiopia 17

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ The earth’s origin is associated with the process of formation of the solar
system about 4.5 billion years ago.
ʯ External components of the earth are divided in to four main parts. These
are; Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere.
ʯ Internal structure of the earth is made up of three layers with different

thickness: These are; crust, mantle and core. The crust is outer most
layer of the earth ; which is made up of manly sedimentary rock Mantle
consist of silicate rocks rich in hot, dense, iron and magnesium. The core
is innermost layer of the earth and consists of iron and nickel. It has two
parts: the outer core and the inner core.
ʯ The earth’s crust is made up of about eight major elements; Oxygen

(46.5%), silicon (27.7%) aluminum (8.1%), Iron (5.0%), Calcium (3.6%),
Sodium (2.8%), Potassium (2.6%) and Magnesium (2.1%). Elements are
substance made from atoms.
ʯ Minerals are made up of one or more chemical elements and has definite
physical state and chemical composition. Silicate is the most important
minerals make up over 90% of earth’s crust and largest mineral group.
ʯ The rocks are natural aggregates of one or more minerals and it classified
in to three: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. Igneous rock is made
up of molten material due to the presence of great heat and pressure and it
has two parts: Intrusive Igneous rock (plutonic rock) and Extrusive igneous
rock (volcanic rock). Sedimentary rocks are derived from existing rocks
by the process of weathering and erosion and in classified in to three:
Clastic, chemical and organic based on its composition. Metamorphic
rocks are changed rock i.e change from one or the other form of Igneous
or Sedimentary rocks.

GLOSSARY
Atmosphere: is Earth’s gaseous envelope
Biosphere: is totality of all plant and animal life
Core: is the central layer of the earth.
Crust: is the outer most and thinnest layer of the earth.
Element: are substances that are made up of atoms.
Galaxy : is a large group of stars
Gravity: is natural force that tends to cause physical things to move or attract
towards each other.
Hydrosphere: is water portion of the earth.
Lava: when molten rocks magma reaches on surface is called lava.
Lithosphere: is the solid Earth
Magma: is molten rock
Mantle: is intermediate layer of earth, which found between the crust and
core.
Minerals: are made up of element
Rocks: are natural aggregates of one or more minerals
Solar system: is the smaller group of the heavenly bodies, which includes
the sun at the center and the nine planets and their satellites
and asteroids.
Universe: is the totality of space and cosmos, in which everything is found.
SUMMARY, GLOSSARY AND REVIEW EXERCISE 19

REVIEW EXERCISE
Part I Determine whether each of the sentences below
is True or False.
1. The formation of the earth is different from other solar system members.
2. Observation of rocks at the surface is one of the indirect evidence to
know about interior of the earth.
3. All planets have their own light and heat.

4. The earth’s crust is relatively thicker than the mantle.
5. Minerals are made up of one or more elements.
Part II Match items in column ‘B’ with items in column
‘A’
A B
1. Core A. Nitrogen and oxygen
2. Lithosphere B. Plants and animals
C. Sima
3. Mantle D. All water bodies
4. Atmosphere E. Solid earth
F. Consisted Iron and
5. Biosphere
magnesium
6. Hydrosphere G. Consisted largely iron and
7. Oceanic crust Nickel
Part III: Choose the correct answer from the given

alternatives
1. The totality of space where everything is found _________
A. Solar system D. Milky way
B. Universe
C. Planets

2. Which of the following is the largest member of solar system?

A. Saturn C. Pluto
B. Sun D. earth
3. Which layer of the earth has maximum temperature?

A. Mantle C. Crust
B. Core D. M – Layer
4. Which layer constitute about 84% of the total volume of the earth?
A. Mantle C. Core
B. Crust D. Inner core
5. The inner core is solid, this is because of;

A. The nature of nickel and iron
B. The maximum temperature
C. The highest pressure
D. Its thickness
6. The two major gases of earth’s atmosphere which account 78% & 21%
are respectively;
A. Nitrogen & Hydrogen
B. Helium & Hydrogen
C. Oxygen & Carbon dioxide
D. Nitrogen & Oxygen
7. All are true about Biosphere Except.

A. It is found in the uppermost parts of lithosphere
B. It is found in the upper atmosphere
C. It includes the hydrosphere
D. In habitable by life
8. Sedimentary rocks are differ from the other type of rocks because;
A. They are changed rock
B. They contain fossil and layers
C. They are volcanic rock
D. They form in the crust

9. Which parts of Ethiopia are mainly covered with igneous rock?

A. Central C. Northern
B. Eastern D. Southern
10. Which one of the following is the metallic rocks are changed from
limestone under the influence of heat and pressure ?
A. Schist C. Shale
B. Marble D. Quartzite
11. As Lithosphere is for rock , Biosphere is for ____________

A. Air C. Minerals
B. Water D. Plants
12. Which type of igneous rock has a large texture?

A. Intrusive rock C. Organic rock
B. Extrusive rock D. First rock
Part IV- Fill in the blank space with the correct word or
phrase.
1. When a magma is forced out on the surface and become solidified is
known as______________________
2. Based on their formation and characteristics, rocks are classified as
____________, _______________ & _______________.
3. Basalt rocks that are found in the high land of Ethiopia are example of
___________________________
Part V. Give Short answer.

1. What is solar system?
2. Explain the difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
3. Describe the major elements and minerals makeup of the earth crust.

UNIT TWO
2. HUMAN EVOLUTION AND
WORLD POPULATION
Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
✅ Explain the origin of human beings;

✅ Point out the archeological sites that show the origin of earlier human
beings;
✅ Discusses world population growth distribution;
✅ Calculate different demographic rates;
✅ Evaluate the role of different mode of transportation;
✅ Identify and show significant road signs.
Introduction
In the previous unit, you have learned about physical characteristics
of the earth such as the origin of the earth and solar system, external
components of the earth, internal structure of the earth, distribution and
economic values of the rock and the like. This unit deals with human
evolution and world population. You will learn about the human evolution,
trends of world population, components of population dynamism,
population structure and characteristics, population distribution and
factors, population movement and settlement, people and developments of
transport, mode and roles of transport, road safety, road traffic accident
and its economic implication.
2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION
Competencies
✅ Point out archeological sites that show the origin of earlier
human beings;
✅ Examine the historical routes humankinds have passed through
over time.
Key Terms
🔑 Archeology 🔑 Excavation
🔑 Archeological sites 🔑 Fossil
🔑 Artifacts 🔑 Hominids
🔑 Cave 🔑 Mesolithic age
🔑 Creationist 🔑 Neolithic age
🔑 Evolutionist 🔑 Paleolithic age
🔑 Evolution 🔑 Stone Age
2.1.1. Archeology and Archeological works

What is archeology? What are artifacts and fossils?
Archeology is the study of past human history through the analysis of artifacts
and other physical and material remains. It studies human remnants and artifacts
to know about the past human life and activities. Examples of material remains
are tools, pottery, jewelry, stone walls, ruined buildings, weapons, arrowheads,
rock paintings, carvings and monuments. These remains are called artifacts.
Artifacts are objects made and used by people. Artifacts can tell us what
happened in the past and when it happened.
Fossils are the remains of dead plants, human beings and animals. The study
24 UNIT TWO HUMAN EVOLUTION AND WORLD POPULATION

of fossils and other material remains of the past help us to reconstruct what
happened before writing started.
There are many branches of archaeology. Some of them are prehistoric and
historical archeologies.
• Prehistoric archaeology refers the time or a period before the invention

of writing.
• Historical archaeology refers to the time or a period after invention of

writing and studies both physical remains and texts or written materials.
Archaeologist is specialist or scientist in archaeological investigation. They

excavate and interpret materials remains to understand the past event and life.
What is archaeological excavation?
Archaeological excavation is systematic and scientific method to explore

and dig out buried remains (fossils) from underground of the past societies.
Archaeological excavation method helps to find out the material remains from
the surface.
Figure 2.1 Archaeological Excavations
Human Evolution 25
Material Dating systems

Archaeologists have used different methods to determine date of artifacts or
material remains.
There are mainly two types of dating methods: relative dating and absolute
dating techniques.
▶ Relative Dating Methods: identify the order in which sites

or artifacts were used in a sequence from earliest to latest.
Determining how old something is compared to something else.
Example: Rock A is older than rock B.
▶ Absolute Dating: try to establish an exact or approximate
calendar date for a site or artifacts. It includes Radio carbon
dating, Potassium argon method, Uranium series method, etc.
Archaeological sites
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past human activity or
artifacts is found. An archaeological site is a filled with historical and cultural
artifacts with valuable information. Sites may range from those with few or no
remains visible above the ground, to buildings and other structures still in use.
A site may be as small as the place, or as large as a town.
There are many archaeological sites in Ethiopia. The domestication of plants

and animals took place in parts of Ethiopia about 6000 years ago. These
archaeological sites for the domestication of plants and animals are found
near Aksum, around Lalibela, near Chercher in Hararghe and near Metehara
in Shawa. Other archaeological sites are found in Afar Regional State, Melka-
Kunture in Oromia, Awash Valley, Omo Valley, and near Dire Dawa.
The major archaeological sites for the domestication of plants and animals are
found in Palestine and Mesopotamia in the Near East, the Nile valley in Egypt,
in parts of Tropical Africa, the Yangtze Kiang valley in China, the Indus valley
in India and parts of the Americas.

Figure 2.2: The Rift Valley in East Africa with key early human sites (J.D. Clark
1982)
2.1.2. Origin of the First Human Beings

What do you think about the origin of human beings? Discuss.
There are two theories concerning the origin of human beings. These are
Creationist and Evolutionist or Scientific view.
▶ Creationist view: human beings were created by Supernatural

force (God) with all complete physical shape and structure.
▶ Evolutionist view: human beings developed from lower beings

through a gradual and natural process of change.
Human Evolution 27
Hominids
Hominids were the common ancestors of human beings.
They appeared about 25-40 million years ago. Hominids
were found in different groups. One group of hominids
was called Australopithecines (Southern ape). They
were the first human species that appeared in Africa
around 6 million years ago.
Figure 2.3 Lucy
Australopithecines had small brains and large faces and jaws.
▶ The oldest of Australopithecines is called Sahelan tchadnsis in

Northern Chad in 2001. It estimated to be between 7.6 million
years old.
▶ In 1994 the fossil remains of Australopithecus ramidus, known as

Ardi aged 4.4 million years were discovered in Afar in Ethiopia.
▶ In 1974 the fossil remains called Australopithecus afarensis,

known as Lucy (Dinknesh) was found at Hadar in the Afar region.
It is estimated to be 3.18 million years old. Lucy’s fossils are the
most complete so far found.
▶ Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal (walked on two feet with

upright position).
▶ The remains of Australopithecus Africanus, aged 2.5 million years,

were discovered at Taung, South Africa 1924.

2.1.3. Historical Paths of humankind

Scientists verify that human beings and apes shared common ancestor. Do
you agree or disagree? Discuss.
According to the scientific / evolution theory the human beings passed through
different stages. Scientists considered that East African Rift Valley as cradle
of human beings. The oldest Australopithecines connected with the origin of
human beings are African hominids that appeared around 5 million years ago.
The oldest members of the genus homo originated in African about 2.5 million
years ago.
There are three different species of Genus homo. They are: Homo habilils,
Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
 Homo habilils: was a handy man that had developed manipulative
hand. Homo habilils lived about 2 million years ago in eastern and
southern part of Africa. Remains of these species were found in Omo
Valley in Ethiopia, Lake Turkan in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa.
 Homo erectus:were the first upright (erect) walking human beings.
Homo erectus had slightly smaller brain and larger teeth. They appeared
around one million years before present. The fossils of these species
were found in lower Omo, Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula, Middle
Awash and Gadeb. Fossils of these species were also found Java-Indo-
nesia, Germany and Peking in China.
 Homo sapiens: were wise, thinking human being and very similar to
modern man. Homo sapiens appeared at about 100,000years ago. The
fossils of this species were found Awash and Omo valley, and near Dire
Dawa.
The Homo genus was the direct ancestor to modern man. Modern human
beings appeared about 40,000 year ago they are different in many ways from
their ancestors.
Human Evolution 29
Focus
Modern human beings:

• have large brains
• are bipedal and walk erect
• think and perform complicate ideas
• use language
• develop culture
• create tools and use effectively
• transfer their knowledge from generation to generation
Figure 2.4 Human evolution
Stone Age
Human beings passed through several stages of development. The life of

human beings in general is divided in to two:
▶ The period of hunting and gathering and
▶ The period of civilization
For long time, human beings got their food by hunting and gathering. But this
was solved during time of civilization.
The period from 2 million years ago to about 4000 BC is called the Stone Age
because people made most of their weapons and tools from stones. The Stone
Age is divided in to three periods: Paleolithic period, Mesolithic period and
Neolithic period.
Paleolithic period or Old Stone Age: the longest age of all and lasted around
9000BC. During this period, human beings :
▶ Used language ▶ Lived in cave

▶ Made first crude stone ▶ Painted pictures in cave
tools called hand- axes ▶ Used clothes from animal
▶ Discovered fire skins
Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age: Started from around 9000 and lasted
about8000 BC. It was transitional period. Human beings made first pottery
and domesticated dogs.
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): started from 8000 and lasted about
4000 BC. A great revolution took place in this period. Domestication of
plants and animals started and human beings became food producers.
During this period:
▶ Sedentary life started
▶ Stone houses were built
▶ Religion was started
▶ Fire were used for cooking purposes
▶ Clay pots and baskets were made; and pottery was used for
cooking purpose.
▶ New and better tools like hoe, yoke and wheel were made.
Human Evolution 31
Activity 2.1
1. What is archaeological site?
2. What are difference between relative dating and absolute dating?
3. List out archaeological sites in Ethiopia.
4. Compare and contrast different species of Genus homo
5. Compare and contrast Stone Age development periods.
2.2. TRENDS OF WORLD

POPULATION
Competencies
✅ Predict future world population growth pattern on the basis of present
and past population growth rate;
✅ Calculate different demographic rates such as growth rates, mortality,
fertility, net-migration, sex ratio, age dependency ratio,etc.
✅ Identify types and causes population movement;
✅ Locate densely and sparsely populated regions on world population
map;
✅ Evaluate growth trends of Ethiopian population in line with world
population growth; and
✅ Identify types of settlement.

Key Terms
🔑 Dependency ratio
🔑 Emigration 🔑 Population pyramid
🔑 Fertility 🔑 Rural
🔑 Growth rate 🔑 Settlement
🔑 Immigration 🔑 Sex ratio
🔑 Migration 🔑 Urban
What factors have contributed to the growth of world population?
For most of our history, human populations have been small, compared to
those of other species. Studies on hunting and gathering societies (before 5000
BC) suggests that total world population was probably only a few million
people. A major change occurred about 10,000 years ago, when humans began
to domesticate plant and animals. At the dawn of agriculture, about 8000 B.C.,
the population of the world was approximately 5 million. Over the 8,000-year
period up to 1 A.D. it grew and reach to 200 million (some estimate as 300
million or even 600), suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early
historical periods can be), with a growth rate of under 0.05% per year.
It is obvious and known slow growth of human history occurred until around
1800 for world population to reach one billion, a tremendous change occurred
with the industrial revolution. Such rapid and dramatic growth rate of the
world population is known as population explosion. The second billion was
achieved within 130 years (1930), the third billion in 30 years (1960), the
fourth billion in 15 years (1974), and the fifth billion within 13 years (1987).
During the 20th century alone, the population in the world has grown from
1.65 billion to 6 billion. In 1970, there were roughly half as many people in
the world as there are now. Because of declining growth rates, it will now take
over 200 years to double again. Population in the world is currently estimated
(2020) about 7.8 billion with growing at a rate of around 1.05% per year (down
from 1.08% in 2019, 1.10% in 2018, and 1.12% in 2017).
Trends of World Population 33

The current average population increase is estimated at 81 million people per
year. Annual growth rate reached its peak in the late 1960s, when it was at
around 2%. The rate of increase has nearly halved since then, and will continue
to decline in the coming years. So that World population will therefore continue
to grow in, a slower rate . It has seen that population growth has doubled
(100% increase) in 40 years from 1959 (3 billion) to 1999 (6 billion). It is now
estimated that it will take another nearly 40 years to increase by another 50%
to become 9 billion by 2037. The latest world population projections indicate
that world population will reach 10 billion in the year 2057.
Fig. 2.4 World population growth rate

Table 2.1 World Population trend and projection by Region in 1950-2050
Region 1950 2050

Population World Population World
share share
Asia 1,404,909,021 55.4% 5,290,263,118 54.3%
Africa 227,794,136 9% 2,489,275,458 25%
Europe 549,327,883 21.7% 710,486,313 7.3%
North America 172,602,624 6.8% 425,200,365 4.4%
Latin America 168,820,620 6.7% 762,432,366 7.8%
Oceania 12,975,865 0.5% 57,376,367 0.6%
(source: UNDP, 2019)
2.2.1. Component of population change

What are components of population change?
Population number changes over time, influenced by births, deaths and

migration. The population size of a particular area is the result of collective
effects of birth, death and migration(“migration” is the net balance of
immigration and emigration). Immigration and birth are positive factors,
which tend to increase population size, while emigration and death are negative
factors that reduce population size. The birth and death are natural (biological)
factors, while migration is non-biological factor.
A. Fertility
What is fertility?
Human fertility is the actual occurrence of live births in a given population. It

is the beginning of life. Specifically, fertility refers to the actual reproductive
performance of a population. Responsible for biological replacement and
maintenance of the population of the human race. The growth of world
population depends largely on human fertility. Births - usually measured using
the birth rate (number of live births per 1,000 of the population per year).

Measures of fertility
Fertility can be determined by using different methods, but it is measured
most commonly in terms of;
▶ Crude Birth Rate (CBR),
▶ General Fertility Rate (GFR)
Crude Birth Rate (CBR): is the most common and simplest index of fertility.
It is simply the number of live births observed in one year among one thousand
people in a given region. It can be expressed as a number of live births per
thousand people.
where B is the total number of live births during a
B year, P is mid-year total population and k is a constant,
CBR = P * k
conventionally 1000.
Example
If a number of the live birth in a population of 50,876,000 was

150,200 the crude birth rate is
150, 200
D e m o =
CBR 50, 876, 000 * 1000
= 2.9 births per 1000 per year
This means that there were 2.9 live birth per 1000 peaple within speci-
fied years.
This measure is simple to compute, but it is crude because its denominator
includes all persons, regardless of their contribution to fertility (birth). For
example all unmarried persons and children including. This is the weakness of
the CBR as a measure of fertility.
General Fertility Rate (GFR): The easiest method of refining the weakness
of CBR is by expressing live births, not in terms of total population, but as a
percentage of the number of adults or, even better, of the number of women
of reproductive age (typically defined as between the ages of 15 and 49).
GFR measures the number of live births in a year per thousand women of
reproductive age. It is calculated:

where B is the total number of live births during a year,
P1 is mid-year population of women between 15 and
B
GFR = P * k
1
49 years age and k is a constant, conventionally 1000.
Example
The estimated mid-year population of a given country in 2018 was 50,000,000,

of which women in their reproductive ages constituted 2 million. In the course
of the year, there were 500,000 live births. Calculate the general fertility rate
of this population.
Given Number of live birth 500,000
Number of Reproductive ages 2,000,000
B
GFR = P1 * k
= 250 per 1000.
500, 000
= 2, 000, 000 * 1000
This shows that 250 children were born for every 1000 women in their
reproductive years .
Focus
Fertility rates differ greatly among continents, regions and countries. Generally,
fertility rate is much higher in developing countries than in the developed countries.
The number of children born to women in developing regions is much larger than
to women in the developed regions.

B. Mortality
What is mortality? What are the factor that made mortality differ in devel-
oped and developing Countries?
Mortality is the occurrence of death. It is higher in the developing countries than

in the developed ones. This difference is caused by variations in standards of
living, nutrition, medical services, personal hygiene, environmental sanitation
and etc.
Measurement of Mortality
Mortality can be measured in a number of ways, including the use of
crude death rate and infant mortality rate.
▶ Crude death rate &
▶ Infant mortality rate
Crude death rate (CDR): is the ratio of the total registered deaths of a
specified year in a region to the total mid-year population, multiplied by
1000. It is calculated as follows:
where CDR is crude death rate, D stands for total

D observed deaths, P is total mid-year population,
CDR = P xk
and k is a constant, 1000.
Example
In a hypothetical region, the total number of deaths observed in 2018
was 60,000, and the total mid-year population was 12,000,000.
D 60, 000
CDR = P * k = 12, 000, 000 * 1000
=5 per 1000
Therefore, the resulting CDR was 5 per 1000 people. This number in-
dicates that the deaths of 5 persons were observed for each 1000 peo-
ple.

Infant mortality rate (IMR): is the number of deaths of infants under

the age of one year, per 1000 live births, in a given year.
Number of death below the age of 1 year
D e m o =
IMR * 1000
Number of live birth in the year
Example
Given that a total of 400,000 babies were born in a certain region in
2018. Deaths below age one year were 60,000 babies. Calculate IMR
of that regions.
60, 000
IMR = 400, 000 * 1000
= 150 per 1000
This indicates that out of 1000 children born in the year 2018, about
150 infants died before celebrating their first year of life.
Focus
Infant mortality rate is a good indicator of the level of development

of any country. In countries with better living conditions, for example,
countries in Europe, mortality is comparatively low. In contrast, the less
developed countries (example, most African countries, including Ethiopia),
infant mortality is quite high, due to malnutrition, various diseases and
poor environmental sanitation. Life expectancy is the number of years a
newborn is expected to live. It tends to increase with standard of living.

C. Migration
How does migration influence on population change?
Migration involves movement of people and thereby influences both the rate
of growth and distribution of population just like the other two components
of population change. Emigration is leaving one country to move to another.
Immigration involves moving into a new country. The most common measures
of migration that can affect population growth of an area include;
Immigration Rate: it is the number of people arriving at a destination

per 1000 people in a given year.
Number of immigrants
Immigration rate = Total population of destination * 1000
Example
In a hypothetical region, the total number of immigrants were 40,000
and the total population at destination area were 5,000,000 in 2018.
What is the rate of immigrants?
Number of immigrants
Immigration rate = Total population of destination * 1000
= 8 per 1000
40, 000
= 5, 000, 000 * 1000
Emigration Rate: it is the number of departing people from an area of origin

per 1000 people of the area of origin in a given year.
Number of emigrants
Emigration rate = Total population of origin * 1000

Example
In a hypothetical region, the total number emigrants were 60,000 and the
total poplation at origin area were 12,000,000 in 2019. What is the rate of
emigrants?
Number of emigrants
Emigration rate = Total population of origin * 1000
60, 000
= 12, 000, 000 * 1000
=5 per 1000
Net Migration Rate (NMR): shows the net effect (balance) of immigration(in
migrant) and emigration(out migrant) an area. It can be expressed as an increase
or decrease per 1000 people in the area in a given year.
Number of Immigrants - Number of Emigrants

NMR = Total number of population * 1000
Example
Suppose the number of emigrants and immigrants of country ‘A’ are 30,000
and 435,000 respectively. If the total population is 105,000,000 what is the
NMR of country ‘A’?
Number of Immigrants - Number of Emigrants
NMR = Total number of population * 1000
435, 000 - 30, 000

= 105, 000, 000 * 1000
= 3.8 per 1000 population

Measures of Population Change

In order to calculate the change in the total population size of a particular
nation or place one has to use the following formula;
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): it is the difference between birth and death
rates. Hence, it is a naturally caused numerical change of a population which
results from the interplay between fertility and mortality. The rate of natural
increase is given as a percentage. It is expressed as:
RNI = BR - DR
Example
If the birth rate and death rate of a certain country were 14 per thousand and
8 per thousand, respectively, what was the rate of natural increase (RNI)?
RNI = BR - DR
14 8 6
= 1000 - 1000 = 1000 = 0.6%
Population Growth Rate (PGR): in order to find the growth rate of a

population, we consider net migration rate and rate of natural in-
crease.
PGR = BR - DR ! NMR
or
PGR = RNI ! NMR
Example
If the RNI of place is 0.6% and the NMR is 4/1000, find the popula-
tion growth rate for place.
6 4 6 4 10 2
PGR = RNI ! NMR = 1000 + 1000 or 1000 - 1000 = 1000 or 1000
PGR = 1% or 0.2%
2.2.2. Population Characteristics

What do you know about population structures?
The population characteristics means structure of a population, the distribution

of males and females within different age groups. Sex and age structures are
basic characteristics and biological attributes of a population. The number and
proportion of males and females in each age group have considerable impact
on the population’s current and future socio-economic situation.
Most developing countries have a large proportion of their population in the

young age group. But in developed countries, people in the adult and old age
group account for the largest proportions of the population. As a result, the
shape of the population pyramids of the two groups of countries is not the
same.
Data on population age-sex structure is ideally collected through census,

reflecting a complete population count and illustrate by age-sex structural
diagram which is known as population pyramid. It normally forms the shape
of a pyramid and shows the distribution of various age groups of each sex
in a human population. It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs,
with the population plotted on the x-axis and age on the y-axis, one showing
the number of males on the left and the other showing females in the right a
particular population of five-year age groups (also called cohorts).
The above pyramid shown on figure 2.5 indicates the following different
characteristics of a population as below.
Width of the base of the pyramid: birth rate varies with the width of the base.
A wide base indicates a high birth rate, and a narrow base indicates a low birth
rate. The previous is typical of populations of developing countries.
Symmetry: statistically speaking, pyramids are relatively symmetrical. Any

asymmetry indicates a size difference between males and females.
Shape of sides: concave sides indicate a high death rate, and convex sides
indicate a low death rate.

Population (in million) Population (in million)
a, developing countries b, developed countries

Fig, 2.5 Population pyramid in developing and developed countries (2020 )
Focus
Developing countries Developed countries

▶ Low standard of living ▶ High standard of living
▶ High birth rate ▶ Low birth rate
▶ Limited medical resources ▶ High facility of public service
▶ Faster rate population ▶ Lower rate population growth
growth
▶ High dependency ratio ▶ Low dependency ratio
▶ Predominantly young ▶ Predominantly adult population
population
▶ High death rate ▶ Low death rate

Age
The age structure of a population is one of the basic demographic characteristics.
It is helpful for demographic analysis and for socio-economic development
planning. Generally, less developed countries have predominantly young
populations, while more developed countries have adult populations. The
relative numbers of different age groups have a significant impact on social
and economic policies and on the way people live their lives.
Dependency ratio
What is dependency ratio? Why do we need to know about dependency
ratio?
The ratio of the number of people in dependent age groups compared to the
economically productive age groups. The population of a given country can be
further grouped into three categories (segments): The young age group (0-14
years) and the old age group ( 65+ years) are economically dependent, while
adult age group (15 to 64 years) age group are economically active. The age
dependency ratio is often used as an indicator of the economic burden of the
countries. If countries with high dependency ratios there is a large number
of elderly and young people who are dependent on the economically active
(working age group) of the people in the middle age group. The percentage of
the three age groups varies from region to region and among countries. The
age dependency ratio (ADR) of a population indicates how many people are
dependent upon every 100 workers.
Young + Elder
ADR = Adult * 100
Where: ADR (Age Dependence Ratio), population 0-14 years are young,
population between age 15-65 are adults and population above 65 years old
age are elder

Example
In country “X”, the number of young population were 300,000, the
number of old age population were 60,000 and the number of adult
population were 440,000. What is ADR?
Young + Elder 300, 000 + 60, 000

ADR = Adult * 100 = 440, 000 * 100
= 82%
Sex ratio
What is sex ratio?
Sex ratio refers to the number of male population for every 100 females.
Population pyramid also tells how many people of each sex live in an area.
This statistic is typically defined in terms of what is called sex-ratio (SR). Sex
ratios may vary due to different patterns of death and migration for males and
females within the population.
Where SR is sex ratio which may also be referred to
P as masculinity ratio Pm stands for the total number of
SR = Pm * 100 males, and Pf stands for total number of females.
f
Pf This is also possible and gives the number of females

SR = P * 100
m per 100 males. This can be called femininity ratio as
well as sex ratio.
Example
The total number of students in a given School was 6000. Out of this
4000 were females and 2000 were males. What is sex-ratio of student
population?
P 2, 000 50
SR = Pm * 100 = 4, 000 * 100 = 100m
f f
Pf 4, 000 200 f
SR = P * 100 = 2, 000 * 100 = 100
m m

Activity 2.2

1. If the death rate for certain area is higher than birth rate , the result of
rate of natural increase will be _________.
2. What are some of the weaknesses of crude birth rate (CBR)? Describe
them.
3. The total population in a certain area in 2018 was 250,000 and live
birth are 5,000 Then, Calculate crude birth rate (CBR).
4. A total live birth in a certain area in 2018, was 50,000 of which death
under age 1 is 4,000 .then, calculate Infant mortality rate (IMR).
5. By mid-2019, the total population of hypothetical region was
1,000,000 of which 500,000 young age group, 100,000 old age group
and 400,000 working age group. Then, age dependency ratio (ADR).
2.2.3. Population distribution

Why is the distribution of world population uneven?
Population distribution is the way that population is spread out over a given
area. For several reasons, human population spread uneven over the earth’s
surface. Some areas are densely populated, others are sparsely populated.
NB; The most important features of current world population distribution is its
extreme unevenness.

Data source: international earth science information network (CIESIN)
Fig 2.6 Global population distribution.
Table 2.3 Populous continent (2021)

Continent Population Density (per/ World share
Km2)
Asia 4,641,054,775 150 59.5%
Africa 1,340,598,147 45 17.2%
Europe 747,636,026 34 9.6%
Latin America 653,962,331 32 8.4%
North America 368,869,647 20 4.7%
Oceania 42,677,813 5 0.5%
Source ; United Nations Population Division estimates (2020)
Table 2.2 Populous countries of the world (2020)
Country Population Density World shape

(per/km2
China 1,439,323,776 153 18.47%
India 1,380,004,387 464 17.70%
United state 331,002,651 36 4.25%
Indonesia 273,523,615 151 3.51%

Pakistan 220,892,340 287 2.83%

Brazil 212,559,417 25 2.73%
Nigeria 206,139,589 226 2.64%
Bangladesh 164,689,383 1,265 2.11%
Russia 145,934,462 9 1.87%
Mexico 128,932,753 66 1.65%
Japan 126,476,461 347 1.62%
Ethiopia 114,963,588 115 1.42%
Source ; United Nations Population Division estimates.(2020)
Factors of population distribution

Numerous factors have positively and negatively influenced population
distribution. The extreme current unevenness in population distribution is due
to these factors:
▶ Ecological (physical) factors

▶ Socio-economic factors
▶ Political factors.
▶ Demographic factors
Ecological (physical) factors: Some factors, for example, favorable climate,
fertile soil, rich natural resources, adequate water supply, and industrial
development positively influence population concentration Others, such as
unfavorable climate (for example, extremely hot or cold and dry climates),
mountainous regions of very rugged topography with poor soils, and
inhospitable areas where communication and trade are difficult, discourage
largely human settlements.
Socio-economic factors: Socioeconomic factors affect the distribution of

human population on the earth’s surface. Socioeconomically population
distribution of a certain area is influenced by the level of technology attained
by society and types of economic activities as well as social organizations.
Political factors: unstable political conditions, ethnic conflicts and

discrimination or religious persecution, and governmental policies concerning
the distribution and growth of population are some of political factors.

Demographic factors: includes fertility, mortality& migration which gives
rise of regional differences on the distribution of population.
Figure 2.7 Most fertile soil area and inhospitable

Spatial distribution of world population
Densely Populated Regions
There are three main belts of high population density and concentration in the
world. These areas are also called “Population Clusters’’ or ‘’Population
Nodes’’. The three belts alone account for well over two-thirds of the total
world’s population. These regions are
1. Asiatic Population Belt: this belt is confined to the river basins of Monsoon
Asia. The region accounts for about 59.5 percent of the world’s total
population. The belt includes:
• East Asia - Japan and China are the most populous in the
sub-region.
▶ South Asia - India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are densely

populated.
2. Peninsular Europe: Europe makes up 9.6 percent of the world’s total
population. It is the most developed cluster, in both economic and
demographic terms globally.
3. Northeastern North America: this part of North America (mainly the USA)
is highly urbanized and industrialized. It accounts for about 4.7 percent of
the world’s total population.
Sparsely Populated Regions

In contrast to the above discussed population clusters, there are areas of few
population cover. These areas include:
1. Tundra: These areas support only a very few nomadic peoples due to their
harsh climate and scanty rain.
2. Hot-dry lands:- Include many of the tropical desert lands. Shortage of water
and high temperature do not encourage permanent settlement. However,
in desert areas where water is available, such as oasis and river basins, and
mining sites, there are settlements located right in the heart of hot deserts.
Example: the Sahara Desert.
3. Hot-wet lands:- has unfavorable climate, few people living in these areas.
4. High relief:- Includes regions of mountainous areas with high altitude,

rugged topography and cold temperature. These areas do not encourage
large settlements because the terrain makes movement and interaction
difficult.
5. Areas with poor soil:- Include very large areas of the world which are
covered by infertile soil. Such areas do not support agricultural practices
and hence are sparsely populated.
2.3. POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA

2.3.1. Population Size, Distribution and
Growth Rate
What are the main reasons for the fast growing of population of Ethiopia?
Which parts of Ethiopia is densely populated?
Ethiopian population is growing fast for a century. The total population

of Ethiopia reached 114.9 million with the annual growth rate of 2.6 % in
2020. Which share to 1.47% of the total world population and ranked 12th of
the world. Now a day Ethiopian population has to show fast growth rate and
distributed not equally throughout the country. The growth of rural population
Population of Ethiopia 51
was tremendous and also negligible urban population at the beginning of

20th century. Despite, the rate of population growth is declining, mainly
because of contraceptive prevalence; the absolute increment is still high.
Regarding the variation in the rate of population growth in urban and rural,
urban population growth is higher as compared to rural. It is worth to note
that Ethiopia is the least urbanized country in Sub-Saharan Africa and
probably in the world. Despite the population growth rate and proportion
of rural population is declining at slow rate (88.8% in 1984, 86.2% in 1994,
83.8% in 2007, 82.4% in 2010, 79.8%, in 2014-2020), the actual size of
population in rural area is increasing. The total population is about 79 million
by 2010, 94.5 million in 2015, and estimated to be about 118 million by 2025.
This trend would make Ethiopia the most populous country in Africa, next to
Nigeria. This rapid growth seriously strains socio-economic development.
2.3.2. Components of population change in

Ethiopia
Among the component of population change, fertility and mortality strongly
affect the population structure of the country. They vary from region to region,
and they are also higher in rural area than in urban centers.
Ethiopia is the 2nd most populous country in Africa with high birth rate of 31.6
per 1000 and with declining death rate of 5.9 per 1000. The mortality occur
mainly due to poverty and low standard of living, recurrent drought and famine
also worsen the situation. The total dependency ratio is very high (82.1%). The
population pyramid of Ethiopia indicates that :
Wide base shows larger percentage of people concentrated in young age

groups, indicating high birth rate. While narrow top shows high death
rate and low life expectancy

Figure 2.8 Population pyramid of Ethiopia (2020)
Focus
Life expectancy is the number of years a newborn is expected to live. It tends

to increase with standard of living.
2.3.3. Spatial Distribution of Population in

Ethiopia
Population distribution refers to the arrangement of people over space that is
provided for them to settle and make a living through exploiting resources. The
distribution of population in Ethiopia is very uneven as a result of physical and
human factors.
Physical Factors
The most important physical factors that affect the distribution of population in
Ethiopia include climate, mainly rainfall and temperature, soil and vegetation,
drainage and slope. In Ethiopia most of these physical factors are influenced
by altitude.
These physical factors explain the concentration of population in the highlands,

which are endowed with moderate temperatures, rich soil, and adequate rainfall.
About 14 percent of the population lives in areas above 2,400 meters (cool
climatic zone), about 75 percent between 1,500 and 2,400 meters (temperate
zone), and only 11 percent below 1,500 meters (hot climatic zone), although
the hot zone encompasses more than half of Ethiopia’s territory. Localities
with elevations above 3,000 meters and below 1,500 meters are sparsely
populated, the first because of cold temperatures and rugged terrain, which
limit agricultural activity, and the second because of high temperatures and
low rainfall.
About 77.5 percent of the population of the country lives in areas above 1,800
meters above sea level which makes37.6 percent of the total area. The area
above 1,400, which makes up 65.7 percent of the total area of Ethiopia, supports
89.0 percent of the population of the country. Lowlands are characterized by
scarcity of rainfall, high temperature, and poor vegetation and soil conditions.
In addition, the lowlands tend to be infected with tropical diseases like malaria
and yellow fever that contribute to the sparse population distribution.
Table 2.4 Spatial population distribution with altitude relationship
Altitude Percentage of area Percentage of population
>2,600 5.8 10.4

1,800-2,600 31.8 67.1
1,400-1,800 28.1 11.5
1000-1400 13.4 8.2
<1,000 21.5 2.8
Total 100.0 100.0
Human Factors
A human factor of population distribution in Ethiopia includes access to
transportation and communication, economic factors, demographic factor, etc.
▶ Economic factors: Good job opportunity, money and technology.

▶ Transport accessibility: linking different areas

▶ Demographic factors: includes fertility, mortality & migration
which give rise of regional difference. In terms of migration to sum
up the distribution of population in Ethiopia is uneven because of
both pull and push factors.
Densely populated
Sparsely populated
Figure 2.9: Map of population distribution of Ethiopia (Source: CSA, 2007)
Activity 2.3.
1. What are the positive factors of population distribution over the earth
surface?
2. What are the factors that strongly affect the components of population
change in Ethiopia?
3. Describe the reason of uneven distribution of population in Ethiopia
relation with altitude.
2.3.4. Population movement

What is migration? Why do people migrate?
An important aspect of population study is the movement of people from

place to place. There are different types of movement (migration). Population
movements are responsible for the diffusion of culture, perhaps even a basic
form of globalization. There are two main types of population movements
▶ International and
▶ National movement
International Movements (migration): International migration refers to the
kind of movement across the international boundary. It could be either between
continents or with in the same continent.
Example; Africa to America.(between continents)

Ethiopia to South Africa.(between countries)
Many contemporary migrations are closely related to the economic, political and
cultural links being formed between nations due to the process of globalization.
National Movement (migration): moving within a state or country.

It takes place within the territorial limit of a country. Example; Addis
Abeba to Hawassa.
2.3.5. Population settlement

What does mean settlement?
A settlement is defined as a place in which people live, carrying out a variety of

activities, to make their livings, such as trade, agriculture and manufacturing.
In short, settlement is a place where people live close together. There are
varieties of settlements, and they are changing. Settlements differ in their
size, complexity and stage of development. Some settlements are extremely
large with diversified socio-economic conditions, others are very small and
less diversified rapidly over time. Different types of settlements based on their
population size and diversity of services, include hamlets, villages, towns,
cities, metropolises, megalopolises, etc. Based on the density of human-
made structures, population concentration and dominant economic activity,

Settlements broadly divided into two rural and urban.
Rural Settlement – refers to the name given to all villages and dispersed
(scattered) settlement in areas far from urban centers. Such settlements are
widely dispersed and are dominated by isolated homesteads. Rural settlements
develop in areas where agriculture forms manly the base of the economy. In
rural settlement houses made out of simple materials (wood and mud), has
no planned streets; has narrow and irregular roads; has no defined shape and
covers a small area.
Urban Settlement- refers to town or city settlements. People in urban areas

depend on non-agricultural activities. Urban settlement has a group of buildings
on vast built-up areas; planned streets and defined shapes of settlement.
a)urban area b) rural area

Figure 2.10 human Settlement (a represents urban area and b represents rural
area
Activity 2.4
1. Explain the difference between international migration and national
migration.
2. What is the economic base for rural settlement?
3. What is the difference between urban and rural settlement?
2.4. PEOPLE AND THE DEVELOPMENT

OF TRANSPORTATION
Competencies
✅ Explain basic terms and concepts related to transport
activities
✅ Describe the historical development of means of
transportation;
✅ Evaluate the role of transportation by using the different
modes of transport system;
✅ Compare the different modes of transportation on the based
on their uses
✅ Identify significant road signs in class room;
✅ Explain basic road safety rules.
Key Terms
🔑 Trails 🔑 Vehicles
2.4.1. The concept and historical development

of transport
What does transportation mean? What kinds of transportation systems are
available in your locality?
Transportation is the movement of goods and people from place to place by

using different modes of transport, for example: buses, trains, horses etc.
Before the beginning of all forms of transportation, human beings traveled on
foot, donkeys, horses and camels for transportation from 4000 BC to 3000 BC.
In 3500 BC, the wheel was invented in Iraq and the first wheel was made from
wood. The use of water to travel and trade dates back to 4000 BC, with the
world’s ancient civilizations using their access to rivers and seas to develop the
world’s first trading networks.
In 3500BC, the marine boat was invented for the first time by Egyptians while
the Romans built roads across Europe. Animal-drawn wheeled vehicles where
developed in ancient Nearly East in the 4th or 5th millennium BC and China
about 1200BC. The development of history of transports largely one of the
technological innovations. Advancement in technology have allowed people to
travel farther, explore more territory and expand larger area.
During the Industrial revolution, the first modern highway was developed
by John Loudon McAdam. In the 17th and 18th century, many new mode
of transportation were invented such as bicycles, trains, motor cars, trucks,
airplanes, and trains. In 1902, the Wright Brothers invented the world’s first
controlled, powered aircraft, named the Wright Flyer. The Wright Brothers
invention is known as one of the most significant events in the history of
transportation. In 1906, the first car was developed with an internal combustion
engine.
The transport system developed mainly contributed a lot by;

• The international trade was the driving factor for the developments in
global transportation in the pre-modern world.
• Industrial revolution and development of technology brought dramatic

improvement on transport activities in modern world and development of
advanced machinery and manufacturing that changed the way the world
produced and traded goods.
Nowadays, the types and quality of transportation have made much progress.
This has enabled people to travel longer distances in shorter times than ever
before, which used to take days or months to cover can be covered in a matter
of minutes or hours. The rapid progress in transportation and other forms
of communications have made places all over the earth functionally closer to
each other. In developed countries there are well-connected transport networks
People and the Development of Transportation 59

of high quality than developing countries. The main transportation systems are
road, railway, inland waterways, oceans and airways.
2.4.2. The Role of Transport for Socio

Economic Development
Explain the importance of transportation development on economic
growth?
Transportation system has its own advantages and the ideal situation for a
country is to have a network of systematically coordinated transport links. It
links economic activities by identifying location which suitable for production.
Economic impacts of transportation can be: direct, indirect and induced impacts.
• Direct impacts- transport provides employment, added value, larger

market, time and cost improvement and demand of an economy is
increasing.
• Indirect impacts-transport outcome improves accessibility and economy

of scale, wide range of indirect value addition and employment effects,
linkage of transport with other economic sectors and other business
services.
• Induced impacts- the outcome of economic multiplier effects, where the

price of commodities goods or services drops and their variety increases.
Transport increases specialization in the production process, internationally

value- added and increasing economic activities of the companies leads to
increased transport volume. Transport contributes to economic development
through job creation (employment) and drive economic activities producers
and consumers to make economic decision on products, increase diversification
in the prices of goods and services, market cost (time and cost improvement),
location, price based on transport services, availability, and capacity.
Generally, regional development, improve access to different locations for

individual and business, facilitate wider range of social and economic interaction
are basically the roles of the transport for socio-economic development.
2.4.3. Modes of transport

What are the modes of transport?
The major mode of transportation includes;

1. Land transport:
Land transportation includes: human transport, pack animals, carts, roads
(vehicles), railway, foot path etc.
Pack animals- in developing countries pack animals are commonly used as
means of transport. For example: horse, donkey, mules, cattle, camel etc.
Fig.2.11 Animal transport
Road (vehicles)-is the most common mode of transportation (the most universal
form of transport), relatively cheap to construct and serves for many purposes.
Fig 2.12 Road transport
Foot paths (trails) - transportation is common in rural area and mostly found
in the open countryside and in hills or mountains where construction of metaled
road surfaces is impossible or extremely expensive.

Cart tracks- with the introduction of wheel, means of transport has developed
into carts drawn by animals or used by four or two wheel drive vehicles.
Fig. 2.13 Cart transport
Railway transport-is playing an important role in the national economies

of the countries of the world. It avoids congestion, less pollution, cheaper
and quicker over relatively long distance and is safe and more comfortable.
But some developing countries lack such important modes of transportation.
Railway can carry heavy-bulk products such as iron-ore, coal, and petroleum.
Fig. 2.14 Railway transport
2. Water transport
Water transport is the cheapest means of transport and suitable for transporting
bulky goods over long distance. Water transport does not need heavy construction

like roads and railway line. It has two types: inland and ocean transport.
Fig. 2.15 water transport
3. Air transport
What advantage does air transport give compared with others?
Air transport is a recent and fastest mode of transport. It is most expensive,

valuable and low weight goods are carried by air transport. This new form of
transport has great advantages, because it is affected very little by different
land forms or ground conditions.
Fig 2.16 air transport

Activity 2.5

1. Which transportation systems is the most common one? Why, discuss?
2. Give at least three examples of land transportation system?
3. Explain the importance of transportation development on economic
growth?
2.4.4. Road safety, road traffic accidents and

its socio economic implication
Key Terms
🔑 Accident 🔑 safety
What do you know about road safety rules?

Road safety; refers to the methods and measures used to prevent road users
from being killed or seriously injured. Typical road users include pedestrians,
cyclists, motorists, vehicle passengers, horse riders, and passengers of on-
road public transport (mainly buses and trains). Road safety education plays
an important role in shaping the attitudes and behaviors of children and young
people, ensuring they become responsible drivers, passengers, pedestrians and
cyclists.
Basic road safety rules:

▶ Never drink and drive
▶ Always wear seat-belt
▶ Keep a safe distance from the vehicles ahead
▶ Always avoid destructions
▶ Never break red signal
▶ Always drive with in speed limit

▶ Avoid the drowsiness’ while driving
▶
▶
▶
▶
▶
▶
▶ Watch out for drivers on the road
Figure 2.17 Road traffic safety.
A traffic accident is defined as an accident involving at least one vehicle on

a road open to public traffic in which at least one person is injured or
killed. Road traffic accidents have become a huge global public health and
development problem killing nearly 1.3 million people a year and injuring or
disabling between 20-50 million people worldwide; thus making the loss of
US 518 billion dollars globally. In Ethiopia, the number of deaths due to traffic
accidents is reported to be amongst the highest in the world. A Road traffic
fatality (RTF) is the 8th cause of mortality around the world.
Fig 2.18 Car accident
The chance of death in a road traffic crash vary in different continents; Africa
26.6%, Eastern Mediterranean 19.9%, Western Pacific 17.3%, South East Asia
17.0%, America 15.9% and Europe 9.3%.

Traffic accidents and its socio economic implication

Road accidents cause loss of lives, increase of dependence, destruction of
property, increase of poverty, injuries and permanent disabilities. Generally, road
accidents caused a great loss of human, physical and natural resources. Road
traffic accident is the cause for public health and development crisis.
The majority of such deaths are currently among vulnerable road users: -
including foot-travelers, pedal cyclists and motorcyclists.
Number of people injured or killed in one crash in Ethiopia is about 30 times

higher than that of US. In general, the scale and the severity of the problem
are increasing from time to time and adversely affecting the socio-economy of
countries in general and the livelihood of individuals in particular road traffic
accident. It greatly affects specially developing countries and they accounts for
90% of global road traffic death.
Road traffic accidents are an unplanned, non-communicable and preventable

and common risks every day to our life that can happen to almost everyone at
any place.
Key facts
Approximately 1.3 million people die each year as a result of road traffic
crashes. Road traffic crashes cost in most countries 3% of their gross domestic
product.
More than half of all road traffic deaths are among vulnerable road users:
pedestrians, cyclists, and motor cyclists. 93% of the world’s death on the roads
occurs in low and middle-income countries. Road traffic injury death rates are
highest in the African region even though these countries have approximately
60% of the world’s vehicles. Over 80% of road crashes reported in Africa
linked to human errors.
Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death for children and young adults
aged 5-29 years. Considerable economic losses to individuals, their families,
and to nations as a whole. These losses arise from the cost of treatment as well

as lost productivity for those killed or disabled by their injuries, and for family
members who need to take time off work or school to care for the injured.
From a young age, males are more likely to be involved in road traffic crashes
than females. About three quarters (73%) of all road traffic deaths occur among
young males under the age of 25 years who are almost 3 times as likely to be
killed in a road traffic crash as young females.
The productive parts of population aged 15-44 years accounted for more than
half of all road traffic deaths globally. Half of the world´s road traffic deaths
occur among motorcyclists (23 %), pedestrians (22 %) and cyclists (5%), Car
occupants 31 % and the remaining 19 % among unspecified road users.
Activity 2.6

1. What is traffic accidents?
2. Who is more at risk of traffic accident?
3. Describe the road traffic accidents and socio- economic implication.
4. How many people are dying in each year as the result of road traffic
crashes?

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ The study of past human history through the analysis of artifacts and
other physical and material remains is called archeology. Relative dating
and absolute dating are main two dating methods to determine date of
artifacts or material remains. An archaeological site is a place in which
evidence of past human activity or artifacts is found.
ʯ There are two theories concerning the origin of human beings: Creationists
and Evolutionists. Hominids were the ancestors of human beings who
appeared about 25-40 million years ago. There are three different species
of Genus homo: Homo habilils, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
ʯ Human beings passed through several stages of development. The life of

human beings in general is divided in to two: the period of hunting and
gathering and the period of civilization. The period from 2 million years
ago to about 4000 BC is called the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided
in to three periods: Paleolithic period, Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age
ʯ During early period, world human populations have been small, compared
to those of other species. Population in the world is currently (2020)
reached 7.8 billion with growing at a rate of around 1.05% per year. The
current average population increase is estimated at 81 million people per
year. Developing countries have higher growth rates.
ʯ The first three populous continents may include Asia, Africa and Europe,
and then followed by L. America, N. America and Oceania according to
their size of population. The four leading populous countries in the world
are China, India, North America and Indonesia and Nigeria, Ethiopia and
Egypt are the most populous countries in Africa.
ʯ Population is unevenly distributed across the earth’s surface. This

distribution is controlled by positive and negative factors. Favorable
climate, fertile soil, adequate water supply and industrial development
positively influence population concentration. Whereas unfavorable
climate (extremely hot or cold and dry climates) mountainous regions of
very rugged topography with poor soil, and inaccessible areas discourage
large human settlements.
ʯ The population number of any area can be changed by fertility, mortality

and migration.
ʯ Fertility refers to the actual reproductive performance of a population. It

measured by CBR and GFR.
ʯ Mortality refers to the occurrence of death, are higher in the developing

countries than in the developed ones.
ʯ The difference between birth and death rates is known as rate of natural
increase.
ʯ Migration involves movement of people and there by influences the rate

of growth and distribution of population and measured by Immigration,
Emigration and Net migrating Rate.
ʯ Population structure is age-sex structure. The three main age groups that
determine population structure are young, adult and old age. Population
pyramids show considerable differences in population age and sex
structures between developed and developing countries.
ʯ There are three main belts of high population density and concentration
in the world. These areas are also called “Population Clusters’’ or
‘’Population Nodes’’. They account for over two-thirds of the total
world’s population. These regions are, Asiatic population belt, Peninsular
Europe & Northeastern North America.
ʯ The sparsely populated regions of the world includes tundra, hot - dry
land, hot-wet land, high relief and area with poor soil.
ʯ Ethiopian population is growing fast for a century. The total population

of Ethiopia reached 114.9 million with the annual growth rate of 2.6 %
in 2020, Which share to 1.47% of the total world population and ranked
12th of the world.
ʯ Ethiopian population pyramid shows that wide base and narrow top
which indicate high birth rate, high death rate, low life expectancy and

high dependency ratio.
ʯ A settlement is defined as a place in which people live, carrying out a

variety of activities, to make their livings, such as trade, agriculture and
manufacturing.
ʯ Transportation is the movement of goods and people from place to place

by using different modes of transport (land, water and air). International
trade, industrial revolution and technological innovation brought dramatic
improvements on transport activities. The roles of transport on socio-
economic development may direct, indirect and induced: increasing
specialization , job creation, regional development e.t.c
ʯ A traffic accident is defined as an accident involving at least one vehicle on

a road open to public traffic in which at least one person is injured or killed.
It is killing nearly 1.3 million people a year and injuring or disabling
between 20-50 million people worldwide.

GLOSSARY
Accident: is a sudden event such as a car or other crash that causes damage
or injury.
Age distribution: is also known as age composition, showing the proportionate
number of a persons in successive age categories in a given
population.
Archeology: The science in which archeologists dig out material objects and
fossils of the past.
Archaeological sites: Place in which evidence of past human activity or
artifacts is found.
Artifacts: Objects made and used by people and tell us what and when
happened.
Cave: a natural underground space in hill side or cliff
Creationist: The theory explains that human beings were created by
supernatural force or God with complete shape and structure.
Dependency ratio: refers to the total number of people too young or old to
work, divided by those of Working age (15-64 years old).
Emigrant: leave one’s own country in order to settle permanently in another.
Evolution: a process of gradual change that takes over many generations.
Evolutionist: The theory explains that human beings were developed from
lower beings through a slow and natural process of changes.
Fertility: refers to the actual reproductive performance of population, and it
is the beginning of life.
Fossils: the remains of dead plants, human beings and animals.
Growth rate: refers to annual average rate of change of population size for
given country during a specific period.
Hominids: an ancestor of human beings.
Immigration: come to live permanently in a foreign.

Mesolithic Age: The Stone Age middle period that from 9000 to 8000 BC.
Migration: refers to movement of people from one country or place to other
in order to live or work.
Mortality: refers to the occurrence of death.
Neolithic Age: The New Stone Age period from about 8000 BC To about
4000 BC.
Paleolithic period: The longest Stone Age period that lasted around 9000
BC.
Population change: refers to any change of population size due to the
impacts of fertility, mortality and migration.
Population pyramid: is a diagrammatic representation of the age-sex
composition of a given countries population.
Rural: refers to all villages and dispersed (scattered) settlement in area far
from urban centers
Safety: refers to the methods and measures used to prevent road users from
being killed or seriously injured.
Settlement: is a place where people live close together
Sex ratio: refers to the number of male population for every 100 females.
Stone Age: The human beings development period from 2 million years ago
to about 4000 BC.
Trail: is a path, track or paved lane on road .
Urban: settlement refers to town or city settlement
Vehicle: is a means of carrying or transporting something.

REVIEW EXERCISES
Write ‘’True’’ if the statement is correct and ‘’False’’ if the
statement is incorrect in the space provided in front of
each statement
1. Fertility rate is much higher in developed countries than in developing
countries.
2. Large proportion of developing countries population are young age
group.
3. Rail way is the recent and fastest mode of transport.
4. Ecology is one the physical factor that influences population distribution
over the globe.
5. Lucy belonged to a species called Australopithecus Afarensis.
6. The remains of dead plants, animals and human beings are called
artifacts.
7. Relative dating methods establishes exact date of fossil or remains.
8. Prehistoric archaeology refers time periods before the invention of
writing.
Match column ‘B’ with column ‘A’. Write the letter of

the correct term.
A B
1. Creationist A. Originated in African about 2.5 million
2. Genus Homo years ago
3. Homo erectus B. Handy human beings

C. Wise human beings
4. Homo Habilils
D. Human beings were created by
5. Homo sapiens Supernatural force
E. Appeared at about 1 million years ago
F. Human beings developed from lower
beings gradually

Choose the correct answer from the given alternative

1. Population pyramid wide shows wide as the base and narrow at the top
is
A. .High birth C. Low life expectancy
B. B. High death D. .All
2. The age structure diagram of the developing countries implies that

A. There is low dependency ratio
B. There is low death rate
C. Old age group higher than children
D. High proportion of young age group
3. Among the measures of population dynamics which can be regarded as

a good indicator of Development?
A. .Birth rate C. Death rate
B. Infant mortality rate D. Migration
4. An increase in birth over death is the result of

A. Improved sanitation C. Improved medical care
B. Effective birth control D. A and C
5. Among the following one is not the components of population change

A. A. Fertility C. C .Migration
B. B. Mortality D. D. Literacy
6. The actual reproduction performance of a population refers to

A. Death rate C. Population density
B. Fertility D. Mortality
7. Which one of the following a negative factor in population change?

A. Birth C. Emigration
B. Immigration D. Fertility
8. From Question 8-12 Refer to the Demographic Data of a certain area

given in below
▶ mid- year total population 20 million
▶ population 0-14 age 10 million

▶ population 65 & above 4 million

▶ Total live birth 120,000
▶ Total death 40,000
▶ Emigrants at the origin 90,000
▶ Immigrants at the destination 90,000
▶ Women age 15-49 year 1,600,000
▶ Number of infant death 20,000
9. The general fertility rate of (GFR)of the region is

A. 36 /1000 C. 32 /1000
B. 75 /1000 D. 25/1000
10. The rate of natural increase (RNI) of the country

A. 0.4% C. 4 %
B. 0.5 % D. 5 %
11. The Infant mortality rate (IMR) of the region is

A. 125/1000 C. 120/1000
B. 280/1000 D. 167 /1000
12. The crude birth rate (CBR) of the country is.

A. 4/1000 C. 6/1000
B. 2/1000 D. 8/1000
13. The crude death rate (CDR) of the country is

A. 6/1000 C. 7/1000
B. 2/1000 D. 3/1000

IV. Fill in the blank space with the correct word or phrase
1. ____________and ____________ are brought dramatic improvement
on transport activities in modern world.
2. The rapid increase in number of world’s human population is known
as_______.
3. The economic impact of transportation can be _______; ______ and
_________.
4. V, Give Short answer the following
5. Describe the effect of road traffic accident on economic development.
6. Discuss the driving factor for the development in global
transportation in thepre-modern world?
7. Discuss the factors that affect the distribution of population in
Ethiopia.
8. Identify the features of urban and rural settlement.

UNIT THREE
3. HUMAN AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, students will be able to:
✅ Describe the reciprocal relationships between humans and nature;
✅ Describe what is meant by over population, optimal population and
under population
✅ Categorize natural resources on the basis of their degree of
permanency;
✅ List factors affecting the utilization of natural resources;
Introduction
In the previous unit, you have learned about human evolution, trends
of world population, components of population dynamism, population
structure and characteristics, population distribution and factors,
population movement and settlement, people and developments of
transport, mode and roles of transport, road safety, road traffic accident
and its economic implication. This unit deals with human and natural
resources. You will learn about the Human-Environment relationships
(reciprocal relationship), Population- resource relationship (over
population, optimal population and under Population), types of natural
resources and factors affecting natural resources in Ethiopia.

3.1. HUMAN AND NATURAL

RESOURCES
3.1.1. Human-Environment relationships

(reciprocal relationship)
Competencies
✅ Examine the reciprocal relationships between human and the
environment
Key Terms
🔑 Human 🔑 Reciprocal-relationship,
🔑 Environment 🔑 ecosystem
What do we mean by reciprocal human-environment relationship?
Human beings are inseparable from their environment. There are two-ways
relationships between human beings and their environment. The relationship
can be positive or negative, . For example; the natural environment can
influence human style of living and activities such as economic activities,
cultural practices and social structures. On the other hand, people can influence
the environment by using technologies to enhance their way of life. Human
beings need to interact with the environment to obtain their food, water, fuel,
medicine, building materials and many other things. For example, humans
have been cutting down forests to clear land to grow crops for centuries and by
doing so they have changed the environment.
Advance in science and technology has helped us to use the environment for
our benefit, but we have also introduced pollution and caused environmental
78 UNIT THREE HUMAN AND NATURAL RESOURCES
damage. Excessive use of natural resources is one of the biggest causes of

resource degradation and environmental damage and production of wastes on
the earth. Over-exploitation of natural resources can result in damage to or the
loss of entire ecosystems.
An ecosystem- includes all the living organisms (humans, plants, animals,

micro-organisms) and their physical environment (soil, water, air, land) and
the interactions between them.
Activity 3.1

1. Discuss how human beings can affect the environment and how the
environment also affects human beings?
2. Why do human beings need to interact with the environment?
3.2. POPULATION- RESOURCE

RELATIONSHIP (OVER
POPULATION, OPTIMAL
POPULATION AND UNDER
POPULATION)
Competencies
✅ Describe over, optimal, and under population with respect to
natural resources;
Population- resource relationship (over population, optimal population and under Population) 79
Key Terms
🔑 Over population 🔑 under Population

🔑 Optimal population
What does overpopulation, optimal population and under population

mean?
Understanding the concepts of overpopulation, optimal population and under

population of a country must be viewed in relation to its natural resources.
Each and every individual and social groups has different capability and
attitude towards the use of resources.
Over-population
Overpopulation is a condition when an organism’s numbers exceed the
carrying capacity of its ecological place. Carrying capacity is the Maximum
number of individuals of a species that can exist in a habitat indefinitely
without threatening other species in that habitat. Over population has a great
demand on resources. Therefore, over population determined using the ratio of
population to available resources.
Effects of over population: depletion of resources especially fossil fuels,

problem of water shortages, increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, soil
erosion and noise pollution, deforestation and loss of ecosystems, etc are some
of the major effects of over population. Changes in atmospheric composition
and consequent global warming, permanent loss of arable land and increases
in desertification, migration, mass species extinctions, starvation, malnutrition
or poor diet with ill health and diet-deficiency diseases (e.g. rickets),low life
expectancy, high crime rate, conflict over scarce resources. Over-utilization of
infrastructure, such as mass transit, highways, and public health systems and
higher land prices.

Figure 3.1 Effects of overpopulation on infrastructure mass transportation.
Optimal population
Optimum population is where the amount of resources available in a country
is equal to the country’s population needs. The optimum population means
the best and the most desirable size of a country’s population. Thus it yields
highest quality of life, which means each person has access to adequate food,
water, energy and air of highest quality, adequate medical care, recreational
facilities and cultural outlets. The optimum size of population is which along
with the existing natural resources and a given state of technology, yields the
highest income per capita in a country.
Under population
Under population is when there are more resources in an area (for example,
food, energy and minerals) than can be used by the people living there. The
number of people is not sufficient to utilize the resources of the country, the
resources are vast, much can be produced, but the consumers are not sufficient.
Most areas considered under-populated today are large in area and rich in
resources. Examples include Canada, Australia and Mongolia.
Population- resource relationship (over population, optimal population and under Population) 81
Figure3.2 population- natural resource relationships
Activity 3.2

1. Discuss what do we mean by overpopulation? What are the effects of
overpopulation with respect to natural resources?
2. Define the under population with regards to resources.
3. ______________ is the best and the most desirable size of a country’s
population.

3.3. TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Competencies
✅ Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable natural
resources;
Key Terms
🔑 • Non-renewable ral Resources

• Renewable • Natu-
What is Natural Resource? What are the Different Types of Natural Resources?
Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet)
independent of human actions. These are the resources that are found in the
environment and are developed without the intervention of human beings.
Natural resources are also known as natural capital, including all of the earth’s
organisms, air, water, soil, sunlight, stone etc and the materials which are
extracted from the grounds, like a coal, oil, and other mineral types supplied
by nature.
Some of the most important natural resources are:
• Air: a clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to
survive on this planet. So, it is necessary to take measures to reduce
air pollution.
• Water: 71% of the Earth is covered by water and only 2 % of it

is fresh water. Initiative to educate and regulate the use of water
should be taken.
• Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps
Types of Natural Resources 83

plants to grow.
• Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons,

transportation and buildings
• Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and

construction projects also increases. Forests provide clean air and
preserve the ecology of the world.
Based on the availability, there are two types of natural resources:
• Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be

used repeatedly that can grow again or replenish themselves. Example:
Forest, wind, water, etc.
• Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their
non-renewable nature. Examples are; fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil,
and natural gas. Minerals that are taken out of the Earth through mining
such as diamonds, gold, silver and copper are also considered as non-
renewable. All these resources exist in a fixed amount in nature and they
cannot be replaced as fast as they are being used up.
The time will come in the near future when the world’s oil reserves will be
exhausted. It is for this reason that countries around the world are looking at
alternative and renewable sources of energy. For example energy from the sun
or solar power, wind power, and power from the movement of water.
Table 3.1 Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource
It can be renewed as it is available Once completely consumed, it cannot be
in infinite quantity renewed due to limited (finite)stock
Sustainable in nature( Exhaustible in nature
inexhaustible)
Low cost and environment- High cost and less environment-friendly
friendly
Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish
naturally at all

Activity 3.3

1. What is a nonrenewable natural resource?
2. What is a renewable natural resource?
3.4. FACTORS AFFECTING NATURAL

RESOURCES IN ETHIOPIA
Competencies
✅ State major human activities affecting the natural resources in
Ethiopia;
Key Terms
🔑 Resettlement 🔑 Degradation
🔑 urbanization 🔑 global warming
🔑 population 🔑 Deforestation
🔑 sustainable
What are the main human activities affecting the natural resources in Ethiopia?
In Ethiopia natural resources are under the influence of various interconnected

factors like population pressure, agriculture, migration, rapid urbanization,
resettlement, climate change and environmental pollution. Overwhelmingly
Factors affecting natural resources in Ethiopia 85

rapid population growth had been putting a great burden on the sustainability
of almost all types of natural resources. Which result, serious degradation of
land, water, forest, rangeland, and wildlife etc.
The Ethiopian government has taken several steps to address these problems,
like launching soil and water conservation campaign, tree planting program
and others, success to date, however, has been limited.
Population pressure
High growth rate of population causes negative impact on natural resources.
Increased population translates to increased demand for food and space for
settlement. The rising of population also leads to enormous production of
wastes; and thus, increased pressure on arable lands, losses of biodiversity,
pollution of air and water are becoming common occurrences. All these are
putting remarkable pressure on the environment from which natural resources
are primarily derived.
Agricultural expansion
The expansion of agricultural land at the expense of taking other lands indicate
increase pressure on agricultural lands. In recent decades, the acceleration of
agricultural expansion has resulted in a significant negative impact on forest
land; leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Agriculture in Ethiopia is foundation of the country’s economy, account for

half of gross domestic product (GDP), 83.9% of export, and 80% of total
employment.
Agricultural expansion and livestock population pressure in Ethiopia is forced

by the deteriorating natural resource base, especially in the highlands where
80% of the population lives. This has led to further possible consequences
of degradation, such as biodiversity loss, deforestation, soil erosion and soil
quality, massive release of carbon dioxide from land clearing and tilling
depletion and degradation of vegetation cover of the country.

Rapid Urbanization
Nowadays, the world is getting more urbanized than ever in the history of the
planet Earth. Rural individuals in many countries had been migrating towards
urban areas in search of a better livelihood, job opportunities, education, and
well-being. This has led to the unplanned and rapid expansion of small cities
creating huge pressure on natural resources.
Urbanization in Ethiopia has always been related to remarkable environmental

problems in almost all towns and emerging urban centers. It demands intensive
and extensive exploitation of natural resources such as a huge amount of fuel
wood for energy consumption, large scale quarrying and excavation of sand,
gravel, and other building materials as well as over-extraction and inefficient
use of water resources. The impact is not only limited to the local environments
but it also has large ecological footprint beyond its immediate locality.
Resettlement
In nations with a continuously rising population, human mobility is highest.
Human mobility is the term that encompasses all aspects of the population
movement. It is understood to cover involuntary internal or cross-border
population displacement, voluntary internal migration, and agreed relocation
or resettlements. Such mobility is facilitated mostly due to the consequential
effects of climate change, drought, flooding, deforestation, pollution, resource
scarcity, and environmental degradation. Regarding to the environment-human
mobility link, there is unanswered question, and yet a debatable issue as to
whether human mobility is causing environmental degradation or degraded
environments are causing human mobility.
• Resettlement programs in Ethiopia had been considered as a viable solution

to the persistent poverty of the rural populations. Nevertheless, it had
brought and still originating significant impacts on natural resources of
the environment specifically at the destination areas. There had been legal
resettlement programs implemented by the agreement of the government,
and the illegal ones executed arbitrarily often causing the degradation
of various environmental resources. The main objective of government
Factors affecting natural resources in Ethiopia 87

resettlement programs was to support food insecure households get access

to productive farmlands and achieve food self-sufficiency. This strategy,
in most cases, was taking place through the clearing of natural vegetation
particularly in the areas covered by dense forests. For Example, in the
resettlement programs implemented between 2000 and 2004, about 1.2
million people (220,000 household heads) were resettled in Amhara,
Oromiya, Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) Regional
States. These households had settled by clearing areas which were
originally covered by forests causing unprecedented deforestation, land
degradation, and associated environmental consequences.
Activity 3.4
Answer th Following questions

1. What are the impacts of Rapid urbanization on natural resources?
2. What was the main objective of Ethiopian government resettlement
program?
3. State major human activities affecting the natural resources in
Ethiopia;
Project work
You will go with your team to your local area, visit the forest coverage
condition and identify the soil in terms of fertility level, and write report
based on your observation. Then finally make sketch map with your group
about the visited area and illustrate the all features on sketch map.

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Human and environment has a strong relationship. The relationship
between people and the environment runs in two ways, which are; humans
influence their environment and how the environment influences us, both
positively and negatively.
ʯ An ecosystem includes all the living organisms (humans, plants, animals,

micro-organisms) and their physical environment (soil, water, air, land)
and the interactions between them.
ʯ Over population is when there are too many people, to be supported to a

good standard of living, by the resources of a region or country
ʯ Optimum population is where the amount of resources available in a

country is equal to the country’s population needs
ʯ Under population is when there are more resources in an area (for example,
food, energy and minerals) than can be used by the people living there.
ʯ Natural resources are also known as natural capital, including all of the
earth’s organisms, such as air, water, soil and the materials which are
extracted from the grounds, like a coal, oil, and various ores supplied by
nature.
ʯ Based on the availability there are two types of natural resources,

Renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources that are available
in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly that can grow again
or replenish themselves. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc. Non-
Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-
renewable nature and whose availability that can be used up or finished
and cannot be produced, re-grown or replenished in a reasonable amount
of time. Examples include fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil, natural
gases and minerals.
ʯ In Ethiopia natural resources are under the influence of various

interconnected factors like population pressure, Agriculture, migration,

rapid urbanization, resettlement, climate change and environmental

pollution.
GLOSSARY
Degradation: refers to the general lowering of the surface of land by erosive
processes
Ecosystem: includes all the living organisms (humans, plants, animals, micro-
organisms) and their physical environment (soil, water, air, land) and
the interactions between them
Natural resource: is material or substance occurring in nature which can be

exploited for economic activity.
Non-renewable resources: are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable

nature and whose availability that can be used up or finished.
Optimal population: where the amount of resources available in a country is

equal to the country’s population needs
Over population: when there are too many people, to be supported to a good
standard of living, by the resources of a region or country
Reciprocal-relationship: The relationship between people and the environment

runs two ways, which humans influence their environment and how
the environment influences, us, both positively and negatively
Renewable resource: available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly

that can grow again or replenish themselves
Resettlement: a place which people, carrying out a different of activities of their

living such as trade, agriculture and manufacturing.
Sustainable: capable of continuing for a long time at the same level.
Under Population: when there are more resources in an area than can be used
by the people living there.
Urbanization: the process of concentration of people in areas whose function

are non-agricultural.

REVIEW EXERCISES
part I- Write ‘’True’’ if the statement is correct and
‘’False’’ if the statement is incorrect
1. The relationship between people and the environment runs one ways.
2. Deforestation is the loss of forest by cutting down all the trees
3. Overpopulation means the amount of resources available in a country is
equal or balances to the country’s population needs
4. Populaton pressure and rapid urbanization affects the natural resources
of Ethiopia.
5. Non-renewable natural resources are available in infinite quantity.
Part II Match items in column ‘B’ with items in column

‘A’
A B
1. Renewable resource A. Deforestation and loss of
2. Non-renewable resource biodiversity
3. Environment B. Surroundings in which people,
4. Effect of population pressure plants, or animals live
5. Natural resource C. Natural capital
D. Inexhaustible in nature
E. Exhaustible in nature.
Part III: Choose the correct answer from the given

alternative
1. One of the following is not effects of overpopulation?
A. Low life expectancy D. Depletion of resources
B. Yields highest quality of
life.
C. Deforestation
2. Which one of the following natural resource is non-renewable?

A. Forest C. Natural gas
B. Wind D. Water
3. Why do human beings need to interact with the environment?

A. To obtain food C. To obtain fuel and water
B. To get building materials D. all of the above
4. One is true about renewable natural resources?

A. replenish quickly.
B. high cost
C. replenish (recycle) very slowly
D. once completely used it cannot be renewed due limited quantity
5. When there are more resources in an area than can be used by the
people living there is________________.
A. Optimal population C. Overpopulation
B. Under population D. None of the above.
6. One is the impacts of under population?

A. Shortage of workers
B. Fewer people to pay tax
C. Conflict over scarce resources
D. A and B
7. The place where concentration of people in areas whose function are

non-agricultural is ___________________.
A. Resettlement C. Urban
B. Globalization D. Rural

Part IV: Fill in the blank space with the correct words or
phrases
1. Elements of natural environment which includes organic substances is
known as_____________.
2. ______________ is increase in the average temperature of earths near
surface air and oceans.
Part V: Short answer questions

1. Explain the reciprocal relationship between human and environment.
2. Describe the difference between renewable and non-renewable natural
resources.
3. Discuss impacts of overpopulation on natural resources.
Part VI: Things to do

Draw an up
Develop sketch map to locate natural resources in your locality and write
short reports showing their conditions and factors that affecting them on
the basis of your observation.

UNIT FOUR
4. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AND
MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF THE
WORLD
Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
✅ Locate the major river valley civilizations of the world;
✅ Compare and contrast the rise and expansion of Christianity and
Islam;
✅ Analyze major historical developments of the world during the
medieval period.
Introduction
In unit two, you have learned about how human beings passed the stage
of primitive life and began an organized ways of life. This organized
way of life and achievement is called civilization. The basic features of
civilization were cities, government, religion, social structure, writing,
and art. This stage of human development was not achieved uniformly all
over the world at the same time. Civilizations developed in different parts
of the world at different times. In this unit, you will learn about ancient
civilizations, medieval periods and rise and expansion of Christianity
and Islam.
4.1. ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
Competencies
✅ Locate the major river valley civilizations of the world
✅ Identify main characteristics of ancient river valley civilization of
the world
✅ Describe main features the rise and expansion of Christianity
Key Terms
🔑 Ancient 🔑 Oligarchy
🔑 Christianity 🔑 Patricians
🔑 Civilization 🔑 Plebeians
🔑 Consuls 🔑 Republic
🔑 Jesus Christ 🔑 River Valley
🔑 New Testament 🔑 Senate
🔑 Old Testament
What is civilization? Where did ancient civilizations started? Most an-

cient civilizations began in river valleys. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.
Most of ancient civilizations began in river valleys. Ancient civilizations had

begun in different times and in different parts of the world.
96 UNIT FOUR ANCIENTCIVILIZATIONSANDMEDIEVALHISTORYOFTHEWORLD

Figure 4.1 Ancient River valleys Civilization Areas
4.1.1. Mesopotamia
Where was the extent of Mesopotamia? Locate on the map.
What factors did contribute for the emergence of Mesopotamia civilization?
The name Mesopotamia came from a Greek word meaning ‘’between rivers’’.
Mesopotamia was located in the Fertile Crescent. It covers large area extends
from the south eastern end of Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf.
The Mesopotamia civilization was the oldest known civilization. The

civilization of Mesopotamia was built between the two rivers Tigris and
Euphrates valley. Mesopotamian civilization comprised three areas: Assyria,
Akkad, and Sumer.
Ancient Civilization 97
Focus
The ancient people who lived in Mesopotamia introduced civilization known

as Sumerians. They were the creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization.
Sumerians established different city states in Mesopotamia. The rulers of

Sumerians city states were absolute kings called lugals.
Figure 4.2: Ancient Mesopotamia
Around 2300 B C, Sumerians were invaded by a Semites people led Sargon I,

leader of the Akkadian. They ended Sumerian rule in Mesopotamia. Each city
state remained independent until King Sargon started invading and controlling
them. He set up Akkadian Empire.

Akkadian Empire was invaded by Amorite King and established Babylonian

empire. King Hammurabi (r.1792-1750 BC) of the old Babylonian empire
brought Mesopotamia under his rule. He was best remembered for his code
of laws, which were first written laws in the world, Hammurabi code of Law.
The new Babylonian empire was replaced by the Assyrian Empire in the Middle
East. Chaldeans defeated Assyrian conquest. Chaldeans were very famous in
the fields of astronomy and building technology. For instance, the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, a series of landscaped terraces were registered as one of
the Seven Wonders of the World. Finally, in 539 BC Mesopotamia was invaded
and incorporated into Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great (r. 557-530 BC) of
Persia.
Figure 4.3: Hanging Gardens of Babylon
What were the contributions of Mesopotamian civilization?
Contribution of Mesopotamia: Sumerians well known for their:
▶ Clay work: Mud-bricks dried in the sun to construct their houses

and temples.
▶ Legal system: the first written law
▶ Wheel: It used for military, farming and trade activities.
▶ Irrigation: Sumerians developed a system for controlling the
flow and direction of water from the rivers. Canals and irrigation
ditches were built to redirect the water in to the fields.
▶ Ziggurat: Constructed pyramid-shaped temple
▶ Cuneiform: Developed Sumerian writing system

▶ They advanced knowledge on mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
metal works and artistic achievements.
Figure 4.4 Cuneiform Writing
Figure 4.5: Babylonian Ziggurat
4.1.2. Ancient civilization of India

In which area, India civilization did emerge? What were the major contri-
butions of the Indo-Aryans to Indian society?
Locate India civilization area on map
India is located in the Asian continent being surrounded by Indian Ocean in the
East and west; and Himalayas Mountains in the north.

Figure 4.6 Indus Valley Civilization
Ancient Indian civilization was built along Indus valley in about 2500 BC
and reached its height about 1500BC. The early civilization was established
by India indigenous people called Dravidians. Ruins of the ancient cities of
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro showed much about this civilization. Indus
Valley Civilization was often referred to as Harappan Civilization after its first
discovered Harappa city. The nearby city of Mohenjo-Daro is the largest and
most familiar archaeological site in this region.
Indo-Aryan pastoral peoples entered India from north-west direction more

advanced Indian civilization. Later on, the Aryans transformed themselves
from nomadic life to agriculture and urban community.
Indian Arts
Indian ruler (Rajas) highly appreciated and encouraged peoples who involved
in the industrial activities.
They contributed to the development of music, literature, painting, and poetry.

The Indo-Aryans had also contributed a lot in the field of literature. They
developed written language – Sanskrit.

The major religions of India, Hinduism and Buddhism, were emerged.

Hinduism was the earliest religion in India. Buddhism was founded by
Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened One.” Buddhism
is the reforming religion of Hinduism.
The Indian People were farmers. They grew wheat, millet, barley, and rice; and
raised cattle, made the cow sacred and could not be killed. They developed iron
plow. Indus valley civilization also carried on extensive trade with Chinese and
city-states in Mesopotamia.
Social Groups of Ancient India
Indian communities were divided in to four major social groups. These

were:
▶ The first group : Brahman (priests)
▶ The second group :Kshatriyas (Warriors, rulers)
▶ The third group: Vaisyas (peasants/commoners)
▶ The fourth group: Sudras (serfs and slaves).
The last social group was considered to be impure or unclean and un-
touchables. They were called Outcastes.
4.1.3. Ancient Chinese Civilization

Locate center of Chinese civilization on the map. Why did the ancient Chi-
nese construct the Great wall across northern China?
Ancient Chinese civilization was started in northern China. It was based on the
Hwang Ho (yellow) and Yangtze river basin.
The earliest dynasty was called Shang dynasty. The Shang dynasty kings began
to rule China since 1700 BC. China developed its own distinct civilization.
During the Shang dynasty, the Chinese prepared a calendar and also developed
advanced skills in bronze making.

Figure 4.7 Ancient Chinese civilization areas
In 1122 BC the Chou people of western China overthrew the Shang and
established their own dynasty.
During Chou dynasty:
▶ Feudal system of government emerged;

▶ There was economic growth;
▶ Trade expanded with the help of metal coins and cities grew.
Chinese commerce had great importance for the empire. The Chinese traders
maintained trading contacts with the Middle East, the Red Sea coast and the
East African coast. They brought silk and pottery in these areas.
The coal was used first by the Chinese. The wheel barrow, silk, printing and
the gun powder were also invented in China. The Chinese built the Great Wall
across northern China to keep out invaders from central Asia.

Figure: 4.8: Great China Wall
Focus
The major achievements of Chinese Civilization

• The early Chinese used pictorial writings called Logography.
• Built Great Wall
• Iron made tools and weapons
• Usage of Coins
• Developed and used written law
• Literature and philosophy called Confucianism which was found by
Confucius (r.551-479 BC).
Activity 4.1a

1. Where was the first place of Mesopotamia civilization began?
2. Which states did invade Mesopotamia?
3. Who were the Indian social classes?
4. What were major religions of ancient Indians?
5. Where did Chinese civilization flourish?
6. What were the achievements of ancient Chinese civilization?

4.1.4. Ancient Greek

Where was the birth place of western civilization? What do you think
about Greek civilization? What were the contributions of Greek civiliza-
tion?
The Greeks civilization was one of the major civilization developed in Europe.
Ancient Greek was the birth place of western civilization. It originated about
2500 years ago. The Crete Islands had been the origin of the Greek civilization.
The Greek’s civilization mainly developed in city states. A city-state consisted

of city or town and the surrounding villages and farm lands. The Greek city
states were called Polis. The Greek city states grew as separate and independent
entities with their own distinct features. Among them, Athens and Sparta
were the most significant city-states. They had big differences between them.
Focus
Sparta was a militarist city- state. Fighting was their major aspects of their life.
Children were lived in military camps. Sparta gave less emphasis for trade.
Athens had developed strong emphasis for the development of Arts, philosophy,
music, mathematics, science, and building technology.
Beliefs: The Greeks worshiped various gods. The father of all gods was called
Zeus that resided in the Alps Mountain.
The major contributions of Greek civilization to the world:
▶ Democracy: the rule of peoples through their elects
▶ Art : Dancing, drama, architecture
▶ Literature: Homer’s works
▶ Philosophy: Socrates. Plato and Aristotle.
▶ Medicine: Hippocrates was considered as father of medicine
▶ Mathematics and Science : Geometry, Astronomy
▶ History : Herodotus the father of history

▶ Sport: Olympic games, Marathon
Figure 4.9 Greek Architecture
4.1.5. The Ancient Roman Civilization

Who were inhabited in ancient Rome? When did the Rome civilization
start?
The Italic peoples were the earliest inhabitants of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome
was inhabited by different peoples. One of these people was called the Latins.
They came from central Europe made a settlement on some hills above the river
Tiber in central Italy around 753 BC. This was the origin of the city and empire
of Rome. Other settlers were Greeks and Etruscans. The early development
of Rome was influenced by the Etruscans who were located north of Rome.
They built roads, temples and public buildings and promoted trade. In 509 BC,
the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic. This
advanced Rome civilization.

Figure 4.10 Ancient Italy and Its People
Socio-Political Structure
The Roman society was composed of two major groups: patricians and
plebeians. The government of Rome was oligarchy which was dominated by
few wealthy landowning aristocrats called Patricians.
• Aristocracy / patricians: dominated the political power.

• Commons / Plebeians: were artisans, merchants, poor
farmers and urban citizens belonged to this group.

Although the plebeians had participation in the assembly, they did not enjoy
equal political right with the patricians. However, due to long period of struggle,
they were allowed to participate in election and also to take political offices.
There were two elected officials called Consuls and Senate.
▶ Consuls: head of the government of republic

▶ Senate: the most powerful body of government of Roman
republic.
Figure 4.11 Roman Empire
The Economy of Ancient Rome

The economy of Rome was based on agriculture and trade. Carthage was
a strong North Africa state that highly competed with Rome in commerce.
However, the Carthage totally destroyed by the Romans. With this, Rome
emerged as super in trade over the Mediterranean world.

Figure 4.12 Roman Victory Arches
Ancient Romans Contributions

▶ Building technology and architecture
▶ They introduced public bath and amphitheaters
▶ Spread Greeks-Romans civilizations in to Europe
▶ Laws that were taken by Europeans as model law
▶ Latin Language which became the basis for the development of
different languages: English, Spanish, France and others.
Figure 4.13 Coliseum Figure 4.14 Public Bath

4.1.6. The Rise and Expansion of Christianity

What is Christianity? Where did Christianity start?
Christianity emerged in Judea in the Middle East in the first century AD. During
this time, Judea was under Roman Empire. Christianity was centered on the
teaching of Jesus Christ. The followers of Jesus believed that He was the Son
of God sent to mankind as the savior; or Christ. The Holy Book of Christianity
is Bible that comprises Old Testament and New Testament.
The teaching of Jesus Christ focused on belief in one God,

brotherly love and eternal salivation in heaven. The teaching
of Jesus Christ became the basis of Christianity.
At the beginning the Roman government regarded and treated as simply another
sect of Judaism. But later on, the Roman government considered Christians
as a threat against unity and reform. Many Romans as well viewed Christians
as a threat to the Roman state because Christians refused to worship the state
gods and emperors because they were loyal to’’ Jesus as Lord’’. Due to this,
Christians were persecuted for about 300 years by the Roman government.
The persecution was most severe during the Roman Emperors like Nero (54-
68 AD) and Diocletian (254-313 AD). The Christians were denied Roman
citizenship, tortured, confiscated their properties, and even put in to death.
Why did Christianity attract so many followers?
▶ People were dissatisfied with their polytheistic faiths

▶ Attracted by the idea of one God, eternal salvation, and equality
▶ Equality for all, poor, women, oppressed, rich, slaves, etc...

▶ People were impressed by devotion and martyrs, died for their

beliefs. The early Churchmen displayed courage, sincerity and
ability in their deeds.
▶ Christian missionaries traveled and preached through the Roman
Empire.
Thus, Christianity continued to grow stronger and to get many converts or
followers.
In 4th century AD, Emperor Constantine (r. 324-337 AD) ordered official
religious toleration in what was called the Edict (Declaration) of Milan. Thus,
Christianity gained freedom from prosecution. Later, Constantine converted
into and Christianity got privileged place in society. Then, under Theodosius
(r. 379-395 AD), the Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion.
Church Division
During the early Christian era, Rome and Constantinople (Eastern Roman
Empire) competed for religious power. They also had conflicting views on
Church language and rituals. Finally, the Christian Church in 1054 AD spilt
in to two parts the Roman Catholic Church at Rome and Greek Orthodox
Church at Constantinople. Greek Orthodox Church later divided into number
of Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Roman Catholic Churches also divided
into the Roman Catholic Church and later Protestantism in 1517 AD.
Activity 4.1b

1. Where did the Greek civilization emerge?
2. What were contributions of ancient Greek?
3. Discuss government structure of Roman republic?
4. What were achievements of Roman civilization?
5. What were the reasons for expansion of Christianity?

4.2. MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF THE

WORLD
Competencies
✅ Point out major characteristics of Medieval Period of Europe
✅ Analyze the main features of the Byzantine Empire
✅ Describe main features of the rise and expansion of Islam
Key Terms
🔑 Caliph 🔑 Hejira
🔑 Crusades 🔑 Jihad
🔑 Feudalism 🔑 Polytheist
4.2.1. Main Features of Medieval Period

When was the medieval period? What was Dark Age? What were main
features of medieval period?
European Medieval Period is also known as Middle Age and covers the
time of European history from 500 AD to 1500 AD. It covers from period of
collapse of Western Roman Empire and rise of feudalism up to the beginning
of capitalism in 1500. The period from 500 AD to 1000 AD is termed as the
Dark Age because it was a period of decline in European civilization.
The Western Empire was collapsed because of two major factors: inter-
nal problems and external invasions.
• Internal Problems: Power struggle for royal succession and ineffi-

cient bureaucracy (political decay).

• External Invasions: The Empire was invaded by the hordes of Ger-

manic Barbarian tribes such as Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, Angles,
Saxons, etc.
Effects of Western Empire Collapse:

▶ the decline of Roman civilization
▶ the people became poor
▶ the Emergence of feudalism in Western Europe and became
the bases for economic and political life
▶ the emergence of fragmented political units
▶ Societies became rural, and cities and towns declined.
In the 5th century, Germanic tribes invaded Roman Empire territory. Then the
huge Roman Empire was divided in many kingdoms. After collapse of Western
Roman Empire, two large empires were built in Western Europe. They were
the Carolingian Empire (481-882 AD) and the Holy Roman Empire (962-1806
AD).
The Carolingian Empire was centered in present day France. It was Frankish
Kingdom. Charlemagne became ruler of the Frankish Kingdom in 768 known
as Charles the Great. He ruled from 768 to 814 and expanded the kingdom into
what became known as the Carolingian Empire. The Holy Roman Empire
founded by the German Emperor Otto the Great (912-973AD) and was made
up of German and Italian territories. Both empires did not include all parts of
Western Europe.
During medieval period, Western Europe experienced feudalism as a system.

Feudalism was the political, economic and social system. Western European
feudal society was oppressive and exploitive. Members of the ruling class
oppressed and exploited the peasantry, craftsmen and traders.
Western Europe continued under pressures from invaders. One of them were
from Muslim Arabs. Carolingian Empire blocked the expansion of Muslim
Arabs invasion. The empire achieved a decisive victory over the Arabs armies
at the battle of Tours (in France) in 732 AD.
Medieval History of the World 113

4.2.2. Byzantine Empire

Where was the Byzantine Empire found? What was capital city of Byzan-
tine Empire? Locate by use of map.
The Roman Empire was divided into two parts: the West Roman Empire and
the East Roman Empire in 395 AD. The Byzantine Empire was also known
as Eastern Roman Empire. After the fall of Western Roman Empire in 476, the
Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for another 1000 years. The name
Byzantine comes from Byzantium, the old name of the city of Constantinople.
In 330 the Roman Emperor Constantin the Great transferred capital from
Rome to Byzantine (Byzantum). The city was renamed as Constantinople.
Figure 4.15 Division of Roman Empire
Why did Byzantine Empire continue after fall of Western Roman Empire?
The reasons that helped for the survival of the East Roman Empire were:
▶ Strategic geographic location-was not open to barbarians

invasions as like west Roman Empire
▶ Socio-economic factors. The Byzantine Empire was richer in
economy and resources,
▶ More towns and cities than West Roman Empire.
Focus
Byzantine Empire reached its height during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (r.
527-565 AD).
Emperor Justinian I was determined to reestablish the Roman Empire in the

entire Mediterranean world. By 552, he had restored the Roman Empire in
the Mediterranean. During Justinian I rule, East Roman Empire reached vast
area. This included Italy, part of Spain, Asia Minor (now Turkey), the Balkan
Peninsula , Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and the old Roman Africa province (now
Tunisia).
.
Figure 4.16 Map of Byzantine Empire during 6th Century
Economics Activities of Byzantine: Most of Byzantines were farmers

who raised grapes, olives, wheat and herded sheep. Trade and craftsmen
were practiced in towns and cities. The Empire imported silk, spices and
luxury goods from China.
Byzantine Empire was headed by Emperor who supported by the Church. The
Emperor had absolute power and controlled every aspects of life. The emperor
had strong influence over Church officials. People paid heavy taxes to support
the government.

Contributions of Byzantine Empire

Justinian I organized many ancient Roman laws that became known as
Justinian Code. He built Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia). St. Sophia was the
Empire’s largest and most impressive Christian Church in Constantinople.
Figure 4. 17 Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia)
Byzantine civilization was Greco- Roman and Christian in character. Byzantine

preserved ancient Greek literature and philosophy and Roman governmental
and legal traditions. Christianity, Greek culture and Roman customs were
practiced in the Empire. It linked ancient and modern European civilization.
Christianity became official state religion. Byzantine missionaries spread
Christianity in to Slavic peoples and Russians area.
Fall of Byzantine Empire

After the death of Justinian I in 565, barbarians attacked the Empire in all
fronts. But the Byzantine Empire began to decline or collapse during the
eleventh century. In 1071, Normans occupied Southern Italy and Seljuk Turkey
defeated Byzantine at the battle of Manzikert and controlled Asia Minor.
Crusades
Seljuk Turks had occupied Holy Land. The Byzantine Emperor Alexius
Comnenus asked the Christians of west Europe. The aim of this was to get

support to help defend the Empire from Muslim Seljuk Turks.
Focus
Crusades were the military expeditions of the Christians against the invaders to
liberate the Holy Land.
During the first Crusades, from 1096 to 1099, Crusaders controlled coastal
regions of the Holy Land. The Crusaders failed to crush Muslim power in
Holy Lands. But they saved the Byzantine Empire from failing in to Muslim
hands until 1453. The Byzantine Empire ended in 1453 when Ottoman Turks
conquered Constantinople.
Activity 4.2a

1. What was feudalism?
2. What were main characteristics of medieval period?
3. What were two kingdoms in Western Europe after fall of Roman
Empire?
4. Who was the Emperor Justinian I?
5. What was the capital city of Byzantine Empire?
6. What was Crusade?

4.2.3. The Rise and Expansion of Islam

Who are the Arabs? Where was the birth place of Islam? Who was Prophet
Mohammed?
Arabs: Arabs were people who had lived in Arabian Peninsula which was
mostly a hot and desert land. They were pastoralist and political ly disunited.
They led themselves through organizing in clans to support each other. These
clans were headed by Sheik. The early Arabs were polytheist means worshiping
different gods.
Prophet Mohammed
The religion of Islam originated in Arabia and it was based on teaching of
Mohammed. The Prophet Mohammed (570-632 A.D) was preached Islam. He
was born from a Quraysh tribe in 570 AD in Mecca. He married a widow of
rich merchant Kedijja. At about 610 AD, he started to preach Islam, a new
religion.
What is Islam?
Islam, in Arabic language, means surrender or submission to the will of God.

A follower of Islam is called Muslim. The Arabic name for God is Allah.
The central teaching of Islam is there is only one God and Mohammed is His
prophet or Messenger. The Muslim holy book is known as Quran.
What is the Hejira?
Mohammed started his teaching initially in small group of relatives and friends,
and then to general public. His teaching met severe oppositions from Meccan
Quraysh people. Mohammed attacked idolatry which was income base of
Quraysh. As Mohammed achieved more followers, Quraysh people became
more aggressive against him and his followers. In 622 AD Mohammed migrated
from Mecca to Yathrib city. The name of city was changed in to Medina. The
flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina is known as Hejira. This date was
designated by later Muslims as the beginning of Muslim Calendar.
At Medina, Mohammed had many followers and organized an Islamic society.

In 630 AD Mohammed captured Mecca with large force. He destroyed idols

but retained the black stone, Kaaba.
Death of Mohammed and Caliphates

Mohammed died in 632 AD. Following his death his death, four leaders were
elected from the Quraysh tribe turn by turn and succeeded him as caliphs.
These were Abu Baker (632-634), Umar (634-644), Othman (644-656) and Ali
(656-661). These caliphs unified Arabia and helped to expand Islam in a wide
area. These caliphs sent their forces to the east and west and established a vast
Islamic empire.
Expansion of Islam
How was the Islam religion expanded?
Mohammed had made use of the Arabic custom of making raids against one’s
enemies. Mohammed successors used the same approach to expand empire.
This activity was called a jihad (Islamic holy war). In addition to this, Arabs
did not convert all conquered people forcibly. Some converts accepted because
they were given special privileges including freedom of taxation.
In between 632- 732 with one hundred years followingr the death of Prophet
Mohammed, vast Muslim Arab Empire was established. It consisted of Arabian
Peninsula, North Africa, Iran, Iraq, central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India,
South Eastern Europe, Caucasus in Russia, India, parts of China and Philippines.

Figure 4.17 The Spread of Islam
Effects of Rise and Expansion of Islam

▶ Muslim Arab civilization was influenced by the cultures and
philosophies of the Byzantine, Greek, Syrian and Persian empires.
▶ They contributed to art, logic and sciences of nature such as
mathematics, chemistry, medicine, astronomy, metaphysics, ethics and
politics.
▶ Extensive trade activities were conducted with the Islamic countries and
others
▶ The development of the prosperous cities that became administrative,
cultural and economic in Muslim countries.
▶ Arabic became an international language spoken over the vast Muslim
Empire

Activity 4.2c

1. What was the Jihad?
2. List out Prophet Mohammed successors or caliphates
3. What were contributions of rise and expansion of Islam?
4. What was Kaaba?

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Most of ancient civilizations had begun in river valleys. Mesopotamia
civilization was oldest civilization and built between the two rivers
Tigris and Euphrates valley. The Mesopotamia civilization comprised
three areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. Contributions of Mesopotamia
were clay work, legal system, wheel invention, irrigation, cuneiform, and
knowledge on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and metal works.
ʯ Ancient Indian civilization was built along Indus valley in about 2500 BC
and reached its apex about 1500BC. Two major religions Hinduism and
Buddhism were emerged. The economy of Indian based on agriculture,
cattle and trade.
ʯ Ancient China civilization was started in Hwang Ho (yellow) and

Yangtze Kiang river basin in northern China. Contributions of Ancient
Chinese civilization were: calendar, skills in bronze making, pictorial
writings, Great Wall, coins usage, Coal usage, printing, the gun powder,
Confucianism and making iron tools.
ʯ Ancient Greek was the birth place of western civilization. The Crete
Islands was the center of the Greek civilization and began about 2500BC.
Greek’s civilization mainly developed in city states. The Greek city states
were called Polis. Athens and Sparta were the most significant city-states.
The major contributions of Greek civilization were democracy, dancing,
drama, literature, philosophy, medicine, science and history.
ʯ The ancient Roman civilization had started around 753 BC. The
government of Rome was oligarchy. The Roman society was composed of
two major of major groups: patricians and Plebeians. Romans civilization
contributed public bath and amphitheaters, architecture and architecture,
Latin language, laws, spreading Greeks- Romans civilizations in to
Europe.
ʯ Christianity emerged in Judea. At the beginning the Roman government

showed toleration for Christianity but through time Romans persecuted
Christians. The persecution was most severe during the Nero (54-68 AD)
and Diocletian (254-313 AD). In 4th century AD, Emperor Constantine

(r. 324-337 AD) ordered official religious toleration called the Edict of
Milan. Number of Christians had increased due to: Christianity ideas,
devotion and martyrs of followers, effort of Christian missionaries, and
people’s dissatisfaction with polytheistic faiths.
ʯ The Western Empire was collapsed because of two major factors: internal
problems and external invasions. After collapse of Western Roman
Empire, Carolingian Empire (481-882 AD) and the Holy Roman Empire
(962-1806) were built.
ʯ The Byzantine Empire was also known as Eastern Roman Empire. The
East Roman Empire survived due to strategic geographic location, and
socio-economic factors. Byzantine Empire reached its height during the
reign of Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565 AD). The Byzantine Empire
ended in 1453 when Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople.
ʯ The religion of Islam originated based on teaching of Mohammed, around

610 AD. Mohammed faced oppositions from Meccan Quraysh people
and migrated from Mecca to Yathrib city that called Hejira. In 630 AD
Mohammed captured Mecca with large force. Mohammed died in 632
AD. After his death, four leaders were elected turn by turn his successors
or caliphs. Effects of rise and expansion of Islam contributed on logic and
sciences of nature, the development of art and architecture, development
of the prosperous cities, extensive trade activities, and expansion of
Arabic language.

GLOSSARY
Ancient: Period between human civilization and middle age.
Caliph: a spiritual leader of Islam who claims succession from Mohammad.
Civilization: the stage of human social and cultural development and
organization that is considered most advanced.
Clan: a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent
Consuls: chief executive officer of the Roman Republic; two were elected
each year, one to run the government and one to lead the army
into battle.
Crusades: the wars fought between Christian Europe and Seljuk Turks who
occupied Christian Holy Lands period between 1096and 1291
AD.
Empire: an extensive group of states, countries, peoples, or territories ruled
over by an emperor, empress, or other powerful sovereign or
government.
Feudalism: was the political, economic and social system in Western Europe
from 500 AD to 1500 AD.
Hejira: the journey of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina
in 622, which became year 1 of the official calendar of Islam.
Jihad: Islamic holy war against non-Muslims.
New Testament: the second part of the Christian Bible, it provides a record
of Jesus’ life and teachings
Old Testament: the first division of the Christian biblical canon.
Oligarchy: form of government in which a small group of people exercises
power.
Patricians: great landowners who became Rome ruling class.
Plebeians: In the Roman Republic, a social class made up of minor landholders,
craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers.
Polytheist: believe in many gods.
Republic: form of government in which the leader is not a king and certain
citizens have the right to vote.
River Valley civilization: type of civilization that locates itself next to a river
in order to take advantage of the drinking water there, and to
use it for agricultural activities.
Senate: the most powerful government body of Roman Republic and senators
served for life.
Sheik: a clan or tribe leader who was chosen from one leads families by a
council of elders in Arabs.
REVIEW EXERCISES
True or False Items: Write True if statement is correct and
write false if statement is wrong.
1. Assyrians were early founder of Mesopotamia.
2. Mesopotamia civilization was built between the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers valley.
3. Ancient Chinese built Great Wall to protect themselves from north
invaders.
4. Under Chou dynasty, feudal system of government emerged.
5. Indians used pictorial writings called Logography.
6. First ancient Indian civilization was developed by Indo-Aryan pastoral
people.
7. Ottoman Turkish Army captured Constantinople in1453.
8. Justinian organized the law influenced the legal system of western
countries.
9. The Byzantine Empire represented the Western Roman Empire.
10. The period from 500 AD to 1000 AD was called Dark Age due to the
decline of Western Roman civilization.
11. The Western Roman Empire was destroyed as a result of internal
problems and external invasions.
12. Hejira is marked as the beginning of Islamic Calendar.
Matching: Match the items under column “B’ with the

items under column ‘A’.
A B
1. Head of the government of Roman Republic A. Byzantine
2. First Written Law or Code B. Oligarchy
3. Sumerian Writing system C. Hammurabi
D. Cuneiform
4. Wealthy landowning aristocracy of Rome
E. Sanskrit
F. Siddhartha
5. Edict of Milan Gautama
6. Ancient Hindu language G. Crusades
7. Founder of Buddhism H. Senate
8. The founder of Holy Roman Empire I. Consuls
9. Military expeditions of the Christians J. Constantine I
against the invaders of Holy Land K. Emperor Otto the
great
10. Eastern Roman Empire
Multiple Choice Items: Choose the best answer from

given alternatives.
1. A republic form of government was established first in
A. Rome C. Mesopotamia
B. Greece D. China

2. Who was the most powerful government body of Roman republic

A. Senate C. Emperor
B. Consul D. Patricians
3. The rulers of Sumerians city states were

A. Lugals C. Polis
B. Ziggurat D. Senate
4. Two major religions of ancient Indians were

A. Catholicism and Protestantism
B. Hinduism and Buddhism
C. Islam and traditional religion
D. Zoroastrianism and Confucianism
5. Two important city states of ancient Greek were

A. Athens and Sparta C. Harappa and Monjedaro
B. Shang and Chon D. Hellens and Helas
6. Persecuting Christians became most severe during the Roman Emperor

A. Nero C. Constantine
B. Diocletian D. A & B are correct answers
7. Where the ancient China civilization was flourished?

A. Hwang Ho and Yangtze Kiang Rivers
B. Indus and Ganges Rivers
C. Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
D. Nile River Valley
8. The earliest dynasty of China was

A. Han Dynasty C. Shang Dynasty
B. Qin Dynasty D. Chou Dynasty
9. Who invaded Mesopotamia in 539 BC?

A. Nebuchadnezzar of the Babylon
B. Hammurabi of the Amorite
C. Sargon I of the Akkadian
D. Cyrus the Great of Persia

10. The first group of Indian communities was

A. Brahman C. Vaisyas
B. Kshatriyas D. Sudras
11. Crete Islands was center of

A. Greek civilization C. Rome civilization
B. Indian civilization D. China civilization
12. Which of the following is wrongly matched?

A. Philosophy: Socrates C. Medicine: Hippocrates
B. History: Herodotus D. None of the above
13. Which of the following was the contribution of Romans?

A. Latin Language
B. Building technology and architecture
C. Public bath and amphitheaters
D. All of the above
14. When did the Christian Church spilt in to the Roman Catholic Church
and Greek Orthodox Church
A. 1054 C. 395
B. 1517 D. 1453
15. Medieval Age of Europe occurred approximately between the years:

A. 500 and 750 C. 1000 and 1050
B. 600 and 1500 D. 500 and 1500
16. King Charlemagne was known as

A. Charli the dog C. Charlie the Grand
B. Great Charles D. Charles the Great
17. Who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to
Constantinople?
A. Justinian C. Constantine
B. Theodora D. The Pope
18. What was the famous church built by Justinian?

A. St. Andrews B. Hagia Sophia

C. Law Code D. Kievan Rus
19. Who made the biggest Byzantine Empire in size?

A. Constantine C. The Pope
B. Justinian D. Alexisu
20. Byzantine-made version of the ancient Roman legal code known as

A. Byzantine Constitution C. Justinian Code
B. Ten Commandments D. Twelve Tables
21. What was name of Greek city states?

A. Lugals C. Republic
B. Polis D. State
22. What were earliest two centers of Indian civilization?

A. Hwang Ho and Yangtze Rivers
B. Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
C. Harappa and Monjedaro
D. Nile River Valley
23. The Crusades were undertaken to

A. Keep the Holy Land out of Muslim control
B. End the Great Schism
C. Free Rome from the Byzantines.
D. Reform the Medieval church.
24. The feudal system was based on control of

A. Cattle. C. Crops.
B. Lan D. The Church.
25. The flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina was
A. The Hejira C. Yathrib
B. The Umra D. The Hajj.

Essay Items: Give Short answers

1. What were the achievements of Mesopotamia?
2. What were economic bases of ancient Chinese?
3. Where was the earliest Indian civilization centers?
4. What was the Confucianism mean?
5. Compare and contrast features of Sparta and Athens city states.
6. What was the legacy and heritage of the Byzantine Empire?
7. Why did the Byzantine Empire collapse?
8. How did Islam expand?
9. Who were the caliphates succeed Prophet Mohammed?

UNIT FIVE
5. ANCIENT HISTORY OF AFRICA
Unit Outcomes
After the end of this unit, you will be able to
✅ Explain the major contributions of the ancient Egyptian Civilization;
✅ Identify the typical features of the Kingdom of Nubia;
✅ Discuss the main historical events of the Kingdom of Meroe;
✅ Explain the main features of Pre-colonial African states.
Introduction
This unit deals with ancient history of Africa. Africa was the home of
great civilizations. Since ancient time different civilizations and kingdoms
were emerged in Africa. This unit has four major parts. These are ancient
Egyptians civilizations and their major contributions.The next is key
features of Nubia Kingdom. Then, the main historical events of the Meroe
kingdom and finally main features of pre-colonial African states.
5.1. ANCIENT KINGDOM OF EGYPT
Competencies
✅ Locate the origin of Egyptian civilization
✅ Outline the major contributions of the ancient Egyptian
civilization
Key Terms
🔑 Dynasty 🔑 Papyrus
🔑 Hieroglyphics 🔑 Pharaoh
🔑 Mummification 🔑 Pyramid
🔑 Nile Valley
Where and when did Egyptian civilization start?
Why did Egyptian civilization flourish around Nile River Valley?
What are Pyramids?
The history of ancient Egyptian began around 3100 BC when King Menes
united the villages of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt into a
single kingdom. He created the first Egyptian royal dynasty. The civilization
of ancient Egypt began about 3000 BC in the Nile River Valley. During this
time, most people lived in and around the Nile River valley where fertile area.
132 UNIT FIVE ANCIENT HISTORY OF AFRICA

Figure 5.1 Ancient Egypt
Social Classes of Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt societies were hierarchical. Some people were in higher
classes and had more privileges. There were three major social classes. These
include:
▶ Upper Class: consisted of kings, rich land owners, priests and
government officials.
▶ Middle Class: was made up of merchants, craftsmen and other
skilled workers.
▶ Lower Class: consisted of poor farmers. They lived in small mud
huts. Servants and slaves were below to all.
▶ Women could own property and work in government. Some
women became rulers.
Ancient Kingdom of Egypt 133

Figure5.2 Ancient Egyptians Social Structure
Pharaohs
Different dynasties arose in ancient Egypt in different time. The Pharaoh

was the head of dynasty. He was considered as divine ruler or a god.
Egyptian pharaohs possessed absolute power.
. Ancient Egyptian Economy

Agriculture: Ancient Egypt was a hot country with almost no rain fall. But
farmers grew crops most of the year by irrigating their land. They built canals
to take water from the Nile to their fields.
▶ Wheat and barley were the main crops of ancient Egypt. Other
crops included lettuce, beans, onions, flax, grapes, melons and
cucumbers.
▶ The Egyptians raised cattle, goats, ducks, geese and donkeys.
Mining: copper, iron, bronze, gold, salt, and gems
Trade: Ancient Egyptian traders sailed to lands bordering Aegean,

Mediterranean and Red Seas. They imported silver, iron, horses and
cedar logs from Syria, Lebanon and other areas of Southwestern Asia.
They got ivory, leopard skins, copper, cattle and spices from Nubia. For
these goods, the Egyptians bartered gold, other minerals, and wheat,
barley, and papyrus sheets.
The Pyramids
Egyptian farmers were also involved in the
construction of temples, palaces and tombs.
The large tombs built for the Pharaohs were
called Pyramids.
Figure 5.3 Egyptian Pyramids
Beliefs
The Egyptians believed in many gods (polytheistic). Ancient Egyptians
believed in life after death. They preserved the body of the dead. The process
of preserving the dead body is called Mummification.
Egyptian Writings
Ancient Egyptians developed a system of writing was called hieroglyphics.
Hieroglyphics was a pictorial form of writing. First Egyptians wrote by carving
hieroglyphics on stone or wood. This Egyptian alphabet was made up of about
800 picture-symbols called Hieroglyphs. Later on, they used papyrus.
Contributions of Egyptian Civilization

Ancient Egyptians contributed achievements in different areas. These were:
▶ Hieroglyphics : pictographic alphabet

▶ Astronomy: developed the world’s first 365-day calendar.
▶ Medicine : surgery and herbal medicines
Ancient Kingdom of Egypt 135
▶ Mathematics: Geometry such as triangles and Squares were

considered sacred and were used to design great buildings and
monuments.
▶ Architecture: The Great Pyramids and Sphinx are examples of
Egyptians architecture.
▶ Rosetta stone: Discovery of this made it possible for historians to
read Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Activity 5.1
Answer the follwong questions

1. What were bases of ancient Egyptian economy?
2. What were contributions of Ancient Egyptian civilization?
3. How did Egyptian social structure organize?
5.2. THE KINGDOM OF NUBIA
Competencies
✅ Locate the area of Nubian Kingdom
✅ Point out the main features of Nubia Kingdom
Where was the center of Nubia kingdom? Locate the area of Nubia King-
dom.
Who were Nubians? Who did unite Nubian Kingdom?

Nubia Kingdom emerged along Nile River. It existed about 2000 BC. The
peoples of Nubia were the ancient inhabitants of the Northern Nile Valley
between Aswan in Egypt and Dongola in Sudan. The Nubians were the
Kushitic people. Nubians played a central role
in ancient Kushitic civilization of Kerma,
Napata and Meroe. Nubia was rich in valuable
minerals such as gold, copper and iron ore.
Egypt occupied Nubia or Kush in the 1500 BC

and the Kushitic influenced by Egyptians art,
language and religion. They shared many of the
same cultural traits as Egypt such as religion,
architecture and art.
Disintegration of the Egyptian New Kingdom

(end of second millennium BC) resulted in the
independent state of Kush. In 750 BC Kushitic
king named Piank overthrown Egyptian dynasty
and ruled Egypt. He united the entire Nile valley
from the delta in the North to Napata in the South.
Figure 5.4: Kingdoms of Nubia
After this victory of Piank, he erected a monument in his home land of

Kush, Nubia.
Figure 5.5 Nubian Pyramids
The Kingdom of Nubia 137

In 671 BC, the Assyrian conquered Egypt. They destroyed Napata the capital
city of Nubia or Kush. Kushites moved their capital to south ward Meroe.
They established the Meroe Kingdom. This marked the end of the Kingdom
of Nubia.
Activity 5.2
Answer the following questions.

1. Who were the Nubians?
2. When did Egyptian conquer Nubia?
3. What were influences of Egyptian on Nubia?
4. Who destroyed Nubia Kingdom in 671?
5.3. THE KINGDOM OF MEROE
Competencies
✅ Locate area of Meroe Kingdom
✅ Point out the main features of kingdom of Meroe
Key Terms
🔑 Ivory 🔑 Merotic
🔑 Slave

Where and when did Merotic civilization emerge? When did kingdom of
Meroe reach it peak?
After the fall of Nubia Kingdom, Meroe Kingdom was established in the
present day central Sudan along the Nile Valley. Merotic civilization began to
flourish and reached its peak from mid of third century BC to first century AD.
During this time, the people of Meroe kingdom developed their own art and
architecture. They used their own language, invented a system of writing and
worshiped their own gods, and freed from Egyptian influence. This period was
referred as Merotic civilization.
Figure 5.6 Meroe Kingdom
Economy of Meroe
Kingdom of Meroe monopolized trade of horn of Africa. They exported ivory,
gold, ostrich feather and slaves. Meroe was well known iron technology.
Decline of Meroe Kingdom

The decline of the Meroe civilization began in the middle of first century AD.
The reason of decline was the rise of rival Aksum kingdom. Around 350 AD,
the Aksumite king, Ezana, invaded and destroyed Meroe, thereby brought the
ancient kingdom of Kush to an end.
The Kingdom of Meroe 139

Activity 1.2
Answer the following questions.

1. How Meroe Kingdom was established?
2. What were economic basis of Meroe Kingdom?
3. Why did Meroe kingdom collapse in 4thCentury?
5.4. MAIN FEATURES OF PRE-

COLONIAL STATES IN AFRICA
Competencies
✅ Analyze the main features of pre-colonial states in Africa
✅ Compare and contrast the main features of pre-colonial African
states.
Key Terms
🔑 • Sultanate ran trade

•Pre-colonial • Trans Saha- 🔑
This section presents main development and features of pre-colonial African
states. It is organized in to four subsections: North East and North Africa, West
Africa, Central, Equatorial, and South Eastern Africa, and Southern Africa.

Figure 5.7: Pre-Colonial African States
A. North East and North African States

When Mamluk came to power in Egypt? Where Funj Sultanate was found-
ed? Who were Almoravids and Almohads?
In pre-colonial Africa four major states or kingdoms were emerged in North

Africa. These were Mamluk of Egypt, Funj Sultanate in Nubia, Almoravids
and Almohads of Maghreb region.
Mamluk: Egypt was ruled by Fatimid dynasty between 969 and 1171. They
used Turkish origin soldiers called Mamluks. Mamluks gradually became
commanders of army and landed aristocracy. Then, Mamluks took power and
ruled Egypt from 1250 up to 1517.
Territorial Expansion and Economy of Mamluk
Mamluk Egypt expanded its control to Palestine, Syria, Mecca, and Medina.
They tried to make Egypt as Islamic education center and Cairo served as a
meeting place of pilgrims to Mecca. Trade and agriculture were dominant
Main Features of Pre-colonial States in Africa 141

economic bases. Egypt under Mamluk rulers was very active state in the Red
Sea trade.
Why did Mamluk Egypt fail?
Mamluks power was declined and fall due to corruption, cattle plague and
drought, decline of trade and agriculture, lack of modern arms, and heavy
taxation. Finally, the Ottoman Turkish invasion from 1516 to 1517 brought
the end of Mamluk reign in Egypt.
Funj Sultanate: It was established in 1504 in present day Sudan. The kingdom
was founded on the junction of the Blue Nile and White Nile. Sennar was
capital of the Sultanate. The founders of sultanate were cattle keepers and
horsemen. Trade was important economic activity and traded with Middle East
and Africa. Funj sultanate traded with Leqa Qellem and Leqa Neqemite states.
The wealth and power of the Sultans based on the control of the economy.
King Susenyos destroyed number of Funj sultanate villages in 1620. But the
Sultanate continued until its occupation by the Egyptians in 1821.
Almoravids: The movement of the Almoravids was created by Berber warriors

in 11th century led by Abdallah Ibn Yasin. He captured the city of Sijilmasa in
1056.The Almoravids conquered North Africa and southern part of Spain. The
Almoravids was overthrown by the Almohads in the middle of the 12th century.
Almohads: Almohads was a movement founded by Berber warriors in 12th

century led by Ibn Tumart. The Almohads built strong empire in present day
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and part of Spain. Almohads declined and gradually
broke up into Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania (Libya).Almohads
collapsed in the mid of 13th century.

Figure 5.8 Almoravids and Almohads
B. West Africa States

Locate West African states on map (Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Kanem-Bornu
and Hausa City States)
When West African states were established? What were economic bases of
West African states?
In West Africa, different states were emerged. The major states were Ghana,
Mali, Songhai, Hausa city states, and Kanem-Bornu. Ghana, Mali and Songhai
were major and prosperous states. These empires controlled trade routes across
the Sahara Desert and developed extensive trade in gold and salt.
Ghana: Ancient Ghana was founded in the fourth century and reached its
height at about 1000AD. It located north of present day Ghana; and included
present day Mauritania and Mali. Kumbi Saleh was its capital. Trans -Saharan
trade was main factor for the greatness of Ghana. Their skilled workers in iron
helped to use as weapons. Finally, Ghana state failed in1076 by Almoravids
invasion.

Mali: The founder of Mali was the Kngaba People. Mali emerged after
collapse of Ghana. The first leader was Sundita but Mali became vast empire
and powerful during Mansa Musa. During this time, Timbuktu became a
famous center of Islamic learning. Other cities of the Empire were centers of
caravan trade.
Figure 5.9 West African States
Iron working, farming and trade were main economic bases. Gold was main
trade item. It was difficult to rule vast empire and attack from neighboring
peoples led the collapse of Mali. Later on, the kingdom of Songhai replaced
Mali as the most powerful state in West Africa.
Figure 5.10. Mosque in Timbuktu

Songhai: Songhai Empire extended from present day Nigeria to the Atlantic
coast. Gao was capital of Songhai. Songhai became powerful though controlling
Trans- Saharan trade. Major economic bases were farming, fishing and trade.
The Empire of Songhai was collapsed in 1591 by Moroccan army.
Hausa City States: The Hausa city states formed between 1000 and 1200AD
in the present day Nigeria. These city-states were Zamfara, Gobir, Zaria
(Zazzau), Katsina, Kebbi and Kano. The Hausa city states included city and
rural area. Walls were constructed to defend themselves from raiders.
The inhabitants of Hausa city states were farmers and nomads. Agriculture,
manufacturing and trade were economic bases. Trans –Saharan trade was
economic base. City states had economic specializations such as craft
technology, leather works, cotton clothes and cloth dying skill.
Kanem-Bornu: Kanem formed around the ninth century in the region to the
north of Lake Chad. The founders were a group of pastoral communities.
Kanem’s greatness was resulted from trade. Kanem’s army kept the trade
routes safe and collected tax from traders. Nijimi was founded as capital in
11th century. Kanem was ruled by the Sefuwa royal family in between ninth to
eleventh century. After Bornu became a province of Kanem, the empire was
often called Kanem-Bornu. The state of Kanem-Bornu finally declined in 17th
century due to decline of trade.
Figure 5.10 West Africa Kingdoms and Trade Routes

C. Equatorial, Eastern and South Eastern Africa

Who did establish Kong, Zimbabwe and MweneMutapa?
What were economic bases of Kanem-Bornu, Kong, Zimbabwe and Mwene-

Mutapa states?
There were many states in this region. Kongo, Zimbabwe, and MweneMutapa
were major states in this region.
Kongo: The Kingdom of Kongo was founded in the late fourteenth century by
a Bantu people called Bakongo. Their king was called Manikongo. Mbanza
was capital city. The people were hunters and warriors. Besides, they were
known clever smiths. Agriculture and trade contributed an important role in
the economy of the kingdom. The major items of trade were iron tools, pottery,
sea-salt, mats and basket work.
Zimbabwe: The Great Zimbabwe were fonded by the Bantu people called
Shona who began their rule about AD 1000. They built Great Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe took its name from the ancient trading city of Zimbabwe. The word
“Zimbabwe” comes from a Shona language which meant “house of stone”.
The rulers of Zimbabwe built a large walled capital.
Gold mining was known by Great Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe had trade
relations with the ports of East Africa. Zimbabwe reached its highest stage of
civilization at about 1400’s. Great Zimbabwe had been destroyed since 1450
AD. Finally succeeded by a state that came to be known as MweneMutapa.
MweneMutapa: At he end of 15th century, MweneMutapa was founded by

Mutota. He was a family of the Rozwi clan of the Shona people. Rowzi people
used MweneMutapa was a royal title. Mutota’s son and successor, Mutope,
expanded the territory in the northern direction. MweneMutapa controlled the
long distance trade which connected to the Indian Ocean coast.
B. Southern Africa States

What were economic bases of Khoi-Khoi and San peoples?
Sothern Africa part did not achieve state formation until 18th century. Bantu,

Khoi-Khoi and San were major peoples in pre-colonial Africa in the area. The
Bantu speaking farmers were the majority of the population of the region.
Khoi-Khoi: Initially, they were hunters. Since 1000 AD, they started sheep
and cattle breeding. From 1300 AD, the Khoi-Khoi moved from the today’s
Botswana and they were settled in the southern Africa at about fifteenth century.
About 17th century Dutch and Portuguese occupied their land; and Khoi-Khoi
moved to Kalahari Desert. Europeans termed Khoi-Khoi as Hottentots.
San: They were native of South Africa. They lived in today’s parts cof Angola
and Namibia. But Europeans pushed them to move Kalahari Desert. The San
lived by gathering and hunting. Europeans named them as Bushmen.
Activity 5.3

1. What were the factors that led to the fall of Zimbabwe?
2. What was major factor for greatness of Ghana?
3. When did Kanem become Kanem-Bornu state?
4. Who established the MweneMutapa Empire?
5. Which people did found the Mali Kingdom?
6. When and by whom did Songhai Empire collapse?
7. Who was Ethiopian King destroyed Funj Sultanate?
8. When and by whom Mamluk Egypt came to an end?

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ The civilization of Ancient Egypt began at about 3000 BC along Nile
River Valley. In ancient Egypt, there were three social classes: upper class,
middle class and lower class. The Pharaoh was the head of the dynasty.
Contributions of Egyptian civilization were hieroglyphics, astronomy,
medicine, mathematics, and architecture.
ʯ Nubia Kingdom emerged along Nile River. The Nubians were the
Kushitic people. Egypt conquered Nubia in the 1500 BC but in750 BC
Piank Kushitic king overthrown Egyptian dynasty. When 671 BC, the
Assyrian conquered Egypt, they destroyed Napata city. Kushites moved
their capital to south ward Meroe.
ʯ The Meroe civilization reached its peak from middle of third century
BC to first century AD. Meroe kingdom developed their own art and
architecture, used their own language, and invented a system of writing.
They exported ivory, gold, ostrich feather and slaves. Meroe was well
known iron technology. In the fourth century, the Aksumite king, Ezana,
invaded and destroyed Meroe.
ʯ In North Africa, four major states were emerged in North Africa. These
were Mamluk of Egypt, Funj Sultanate in Nubia, Almoravids and
Almohads of Maghreb region.
ʯ Mamluks took power and ruled Egypt from 1250 up to 1517. Mamluk
Egypt expanded its control Middle East areas. Mamluks power declined
due to corruption, cattle plague and drought, decline of trade and
agriculture, lack of modern arms, and heavy taxation. Ottoman Turkish
invaded from 1516 to 1517 and Mamluk reign in Egypt came to an end.
ʯ Funj Sultanate was established in 1504. Trade was important economic

activity and traded with Middle East and Africa. King Susenyos destroyed
number of Funj sultanate villages in 1620; but continued until 1821.
ʯ Almoravids was created by Berber warriors in 11th century led by Abdallah

Ibn Yasin. The Almoravids conquered North Africa and southern part of

Spain. The Almoravids was overthrown by the Almohads.
ʯ In West Africa, major states were Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Hausa city states,
and Kanem-Bornu. Ancient Ghana was founded in the fourth century
and reached its height at about 1000AD. Trans -Saharan trade and iron
skills were main factor for the greatness of Ghana. The founder of Mali
was the Kngaba People. The first leader was Sundita but Mali became
vast empire and powerful height during Mansa Musa. Difficulty to rule
vast empire and attack from neighboring peoples led the collapse of Mali.
Songhai became powerful though controlling Trans- Saharan trade. The
Empire of Songhai was collapsed in 1591 by Moroccan army.
ʯ The Hausa city states emerged between 1000 and 1200AD. The Hausa
city states included city and rural area. Agriculture, manufacturing and
trade were economic bases. Kanem emerged around the ninth century.
Trade was important for Kanem’s greatness. The Sefuwa dynasty ruled
from the 9th to the 19th centuries.
ʯ Kongo, Zimbabwe, and MweneMutapa were major states in equatorial,

eastern and south eastern Africa. The Kingdom of Kongo was founded by
a Bantu people called Bakongo. The founders of Great Zimbabwe were
the Bantu people called Shona and built Great Zimbabwe. The rulers of
Zimbabwe built a large walled capital. MweneMutapa was founded at
the end of the fifteenth century by Mutota.
ʯ Sothern Africa part did not achieve state formation until 18th century.
Bantu, Khoi-Khoi and San were major peoples in pre-colonial Africa in
the area. The Bantu speaking farmers were the majority of the population
of the region. Khoi-Khoi initially was hunters. San lived by hunting and
gathering.

GLOSSARY
Dynasty: a family of rulers whose right to rule is passed on within the family.
Hieroglyphics: Pictorial form of writing and first carved on the walls and
pillars of palaces and temples.
Kingdom: a state is ruled by king or queen.
Mummification: Process of embalming and preserving the dead body.
Papyrus: Papyrus was a paper like substance that was used for writing purpose.
Pharaoh: Ruler or king of ancient Egyptian.
Polytheistic: believe in many gods.
Pre-colonial Africa: occurring or existing prior to a colonial period
Pyramid: tomb, huge, stone tombs with four triangle-shaped walls that meet
at a top point were built for the mummified bodies of pharaohs.
Sultanate: Muslims state
Trans –Saharan trade: travel across Sahara between Sub Saharan and North
Africa.

REVIEW EXERCISES
True or False Items
1. Egyptian pharaohs had limited power to rule their people.
2. Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death.
3. Ancient Egyptians were polytheists.
4. Ancient Egyptian societies were not hierarchical.
5. The Khoi-Khoi and San people were predominately indigenous South
Africa people.
6. Egypt under the Mamluks was a very active state in the Red Sea trade.
7. The administrative capital of Songhai was called Kumbi Saleh.
8. The Mamluk power in Egypt came to an end in 1517 by invasion of
Ottoman Turkish.
9. The Hausa city- states merged in the present day Ghana.
10. Zimbabwe was well known for stone building, trade and craft
technology.
Matching Items
A B
1. Ancient Egyptian King Title A. Hieroglyphics
2. Process of drying and preserving the dead B. Mummification
body C. Papyrus
3. Paper like substance that used for writing D. Pharaohs
4. Pictorial form of writing or symbols E. Pyramid
5. Tomb for dead kings


given alternatives.
1. Ancient Egypt civilization began in the _____________valley.
A. Euphrates River C. Nile River
B. Indus River D. Tigris River
2. Which one of the following was upper social class in ancient Egyptian
society?
A. Peasants C. Merchants
B. Pharaoh D. Craftsmen
3. The Khoi-Khoi were originally

A. Hunters C. Cattle keepers
B. Farmers D. Weavers
4. Ancient Ghana was destroyed by

A. Mali C. Almoravids
B. Songhai D. Almohads
5. The Capital city of Songhai was ________

A. Gao C. Kumbi Saleh
B. Accra D. Timbuktu
6. The Funj Sultanate was destroyed by

A. Ottoman Turkish C. Persians
B. Egyptians D. Ethiopians
7. The Hausa City States emerged in the territory of present day

A. Nigeria C. Mali
B. Ghana D. Morocco
8. Abdallah Yasin was the ruler of

A. Mali C. Almoravids
B. Songhai D. Almohads

9. Mansa Musa was the ruler of

A. Ghana C. Songhai
B. Mali D. Hausa City State
10. The name Hottentots was given by European to the people called
A. Bushmen C. Khoi-Khoi
B. San D. Bantu
11. The founders of Great Zimbabwe

A. Shona C. Hausa
B. Bornu D. Kongo
12. A field of technology that greatly contributed to the advancement of the

Kingdom of Meroe was
A. Iron work C. Ship building
B. Irrigation D. Craft work
13. When was the Kushitic civilization emerged?

A. 2000 BC C. 50 BC
B. 2nd BC D. 2 BC
14. The first political center of the Kushites was

A. Napata C. Sinner
B. Khartoum D. Juba
15. Which of the following is true about Meroe kingdom

A. It found south of Napata
B. Destroyed by Aksum
C. Equipped with iron technology
D. All of the above
16. The Bakongo people was the founder of

A. Kongo C. MweneMutapa
B. Zimbabwe D. Kanem –Bornu
17. The capital of Funj Sultanate was

A. Gao C. Timbuktu
B. Sennar D. Napata

18. Who overthrown Egyptian dynasty and rule in Nubia?

A. Piank C. Sonni Ali
B. Mansa Musa D. Sundita
19. The Sefuwa royal family of

A. Mali C. Kanem-Bornu
B. Ghana D. Songhai
20. Meroe Kingdom exported

A. Ivory C. Slaves
B. Gold D. All of the above
Give short Answers

1. Explain the time and place of the beginning of ancient Egyptian
civilization.
2. Why did the ancient Egyptians construct pyramids?
3. Who was Piank of Nubia?
4. Who did found Kanem-Bornu state?
5. What were economic bases of Mali and Songhai?

UNIT SIX
6. STATES AND PEOPLES OF
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
ETHIOPIA
Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to
✅ Describe the main features of the Aksumite kingdom;

✅ Discuss major historical events of Ethiopia during the Zagwe dynasty;
✅ Explain the main features of the Gondarian period;
✅ Describe the main features of the major Islamic Sultanates in
Ethiopia;
✅ Describe main features of population movement and expansion in
Ethiopia; and
✅ Discuss the practice of agriculture, trade, and taxation during ancient
and medieval Ethiopia.
Introduction
This unit deals with states and peoples of ancient and medieval Ethiopia.
Ethiopia and the Horn was the one region where ancient civilization took
place. This unit has six main parts. These are Aksum, Zagwe and Gondar,
Muslim Sultanates, population movements, interaction and integration;
and economic base of states.
6.1. AKSUM, LALIBELA AND GONDAR
6.1.1. Aksumite Kingdom
Competencies
✅ Describe the main features of the Aksumite Kingdom;
✅ Discuss major historical events of Ethiopia during the Zagwe
Dynasty;and
✅ Explain the main features of the Gondarian Period;
Key Terms
🔑 Monolithic 🔑 Rock-hewn churches

🔑 Obelisk
Where did the Aksumite kingdom flourish? Locate on the map.
How was Christianity introduced in to Aksum?
What were contributions of Aksumite kingdom?
Why did Aksumite kingdom fail?
Before Aksumite kingdom, there were pre-Aksumite states such as Punt, Damat
and other centers such as Yeha, Matara, Hawelti, and Malazo. Aksum was one
of the ancient civilizations that flourished in Northern part of Ethiopia and its
center was the present day of Aksum. Due to lack of the source, the exact date
of beginning of Aksumite kingdom was not certainly known. The civilization
of Aksum was formed around 200-100 B.C.
156 UNIT SIX STATESANDPEOPLESOFANCIENTANDMEDIEVALETHIOPIA

Aksum was mentioned in the first century AD in “Periplus of the Eritrean

Sea”. This document mentioned that Aksum was important market place and
Aksum’s ruler at that time was King Zoskales.
Territorial Extent of Aksumite Kingdom

Initially, Aksum’s power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the
town of Aksum and its surroundings. Gradually, it expanded in all directions.
At the height of its power, Aksumite extended from the Red Sea coast in the
East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau Blue Nile region in the west and
from the northern most corner of Eritrea and as far south as northern parts of
Shawa. On different times, between third and seventh centuries AD, Aksum
controlled Southern parts of Arabian Peninsula in present day south Arabia and
Yemen.
Figure 6.1 Aksumite Territory at its height
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire,
Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar 157

Economy of Aksum
At the early stage, Aksumite economy was mainly depended on agriculture.
Gradually, Aksumite economy highly depended on the income of trade
particularly, Red Sea trade. Aksumite controlled port of Adulis which was the
main outlet for import and exports.
The main export items were agricultural products, slaves, ivory, gold, incense
and rhinoceros horns. Aksumite traded with Egyptians, Roman, Persians and
Indians. To promote trade, Aksumite kings issued gold, silver and bronze
coins. The local and international trade played important roles for strengthens
of Aksumite kingdom.
Introduction of Christianity to Aksum

Christianity was introduced in to the Aksum in the middle of fourth century
AD during the reign of King Ezana. King Ezana (r. 320-350 AD) was
converted to Christianity. The King was converted by one among the visitors,
called Fermnatos. Fermnatos was appointed as first Bishop (Abba Salama).
Initially, Christianity confined around palace. The coming of Nine Saints in
the end of 5th century expanded Christianity to mass people.
Contributions of Aksumite Civilization

• Development of building construction: Aksumite built houses, palaces
and temples from stones. Moreover, they produced beautiful stone obelisks.
The obelisks were carved out of a single and large rock.
Figure 6.2 Aksumite Obelisks

Ancient Aksumite developed Sabean Alphabets. These alphabets are still used
in Ethiopia. Ship building technology was also well known in the port Adulis.
Aksumite preserved indigenous script and calendar, Ethiopian Orthodox Church

hymns and chants, and paintings. It also developed complex administrative
and governance system, and agricultural system including irrigation.
Figure 6.3. Aksumite Coins
Decline and fall of Aksum

The external and internal factors were responsible for the decline and fall of
Aksumite kingdom. The following external and internal:
1. External Factors: Aksumite began to decline when its Red Sea trade
faced serious challenges from South Arabians.
• King Caleb (r.500 - 535 AD) had controlled rebellion in South
Arabian but the South Arabians finally expelled Aksumite governors
and soldiers from their region between 580 and 590 AD. Thus,
Aksum lost its control of the other side of the Red Sea trade by
Muslim Arabs.
• The rise of Islam in the 7th century AD and other subsequent

emergency of a vast Muslim empire led to intense rivalry between
Aksum and the Muslim Arabs over the Red Sea trade.
• The port of Adulis was destroyed by the Arabs in the early eighth
century AD. The loss of revenues from the port and the Red Sea
trade resulted in the military weakness of Aksum.
2. Internal Factors: Internal rebellions from the Beja and other peoples. The
loss income from the Red Sea trade weakened the economic power of the
kings. Therefore the Aksumite rulers did not able to exercise of an effective
control over the Agaw and Beja people.
Finally, Aksumite power declined and new dynasty in the mid of twelfth
century emerged.
6.1.2. Zagwe Dynasty

Who did establish Zagwe dynasty? What were major achievements of Zag-
we Dynasty? Who was King Lalibela? What were his achievements? What
factors contributed for the downfall of Zagwe dynasty?
Center of Zagwe Dynasty

Following the fall of Aksum, the Zagwe Dynasty took political power. Zagwe
dynasty came from the local Agaw ruling class of Bugna, a district in Lasta.
Agaw people involved in different administration positions in Aksumite
kingdom; and they had close relationship with Aksumite kingdom.
After decline of the Aksumite, Zagwe Dynasty was founded by Merra

TekleHaymanot in 1150 AD. He overthrew the last Aksumite king Dilnaod.
Merra TekleHaymanot established new capital at Adefa near Roha in Wag and
Lasta, in the center of Agaw speaking region. The city later renamed Lalibela
after one of the greatest king of the dynasty, king Lalibela (r.1190-1225 AD).
Territorial Expansion
The territorial limits of the Zagwe Dynasty comprised the former highland
Aksumite provinces in the north, northern Shawa in the south and Lake Tana
region in the west. The empire also included the regions like from Blue Nile
to Massawa, Wonchit to Sennar, Metemma and Harar to Zeila.
The reign of King Lalibela was attributed to the glorious period of Zagwe
Dynasty. During King Lalibela, strong army, vast territorial empire and rock-
hewn churches were built.

Economy of Zagwe Dynasty

The economy was mainly agriculture. Trade was also additional source of
income for the rulers. The trade of the kingdom was conducted through two
outlets: Zeila and Dahlak Islands.
Achievements and Contributions

The architectural achievement of the dynasty is recognized and recorded as
one of the world’s cultural heritage. King Lalibela was the known for the
construction of the eleven monolithic rock-hewn churches, this was because
lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem on the high land parts of
Ethiopia.
Figure 6.4 Lalibela Rock-Hewn Church
Zagwe dynasty maintained also the cultural tradition of the Aksumite state.
Among the features:
▶ Like Aksumite, Christianity continued to be the official religion.

▶ Geez also continued as a Church language and writing
▶ Friendly relationship with the Muslim rulers of Egypt

Decline and downfall of Zagwe Dynasty

There were several factors accounted for the decline and fall of the Zagwe
dynasty. The problem of succession to the throne and strong religious opposition
to the Zagwe dynasty were the main one.
• The Problem of Succession: The first and the most dominant problem was
the question of succession to the throne among the Zagwe princes. After
the death of a ruling king, the princes involved in power struggle to control
the throne.
• Strong opposition: Strong opposition came from Tigray and Amhara

regions against Zagwe kings existed throughout their rule. The Zagwe kings
faced a strong challenge from clergymen of churches. Clergies considered
Zagwe kings as “illegitimate” through by relating the legend of Queen
Sheba because of not from the Solomonic line.
The final initiative to overthrow the Zagwe dynasty was organized by

YekunoAmlak, an Amhara chief. YekunoAmlak defeated the last king of
Zagwe, Yitbarek in 1270 AD at the battle. He established the genealogy that
made him descendent of Dilnaod, the last king of Aksum.
6.1.3. Gondarian Period (1636-1769)

Who did establish Gondar? When was Gondar established? Why did Solo-
monic dynasty Christian Kingdom rulers use mobile capital? What were the
achievements of Gondarian period?
After 1270 or restoration of “Solomonic dynasty”, the Christian kings ruled

from mobile capitals. The kings had no fixed capital like Aksum and Lalibela
rather they moved from place to place. Kings used temporary capitals in order
to check rebellions from different parts of the empire, to control the security
of vast empire and to get access for resources for their court officials, soldiers
and servants.
Beginning from the mid sixteenth century due to threat of Adal and Oromo
population movement, Christian kingdom shifted its center from Shawan

highlands to Lake Tana region. Different rulers established their capital near
Gondar and Gojjam.
Who was founder of Gondar?
Around 1636, Gondar was founded by Fasilades. Gondar became the third
permanent capital of after Aksum and Lalibela. Gondar became capital of
Christian kingdom for around two centuries and this ended tradition of mobile
capital.
Achievements of Gondarian Period

Gondar became famous for its architectural achievements and building
technology. Several kings constructed beautiful castles, palaces and churches.
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three emperors: Fasilades
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Gondar attained
great prosperity and technological developments. Gondar City became the
center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts.
Gondar developed certain urban features:
▶ City population had developed about 70,000 in habitants.

▶ Its population was composed of different religious cultural,
indigenous and foreign communities
▶ The city of Gondar became an important commercial center and
attracted merchants, crafts and rural people.
▶ Jaberti (Muslim merchants) were highly participated in the trade
of Gondar.
▶ Felasha (Bete Israel) engaged in craft activities.
▶ Cash payment was introduced for the labor service.
▶ The ruling class enjoyed luxurious life and lived in their beautiful
palaces and castles.

Decline of Gondar
Gondar declined due to political disorder and social unrest. Palace conspiracies
that followed by poising and assassination of kings and princes.
The last Gondarian period was dominated by Quara born woman, Itege
Mentwab. She was wife of Bakafa (r.1721-1721). After his death she became
regent of her son, Iyyasu II (1730-1755). She was supported by her brother
Ras Bitwaddad Welda Leul until his death in 1768. Mentwab lost power in
1769 when Tigrian war lord Ras Michael Sehul came to Gondar and killed
king Iyoas (1755-1769), the son of Iyasu II.
Figure 6.5 Gondarian Pala
Activity 6.1

1. How was Christianity introduced in to Aksum?
2. What were the achievements of Aksumite Kingdom?
3. What factors did contribute downfall of Aksumite Kingdom?
4. Where the Zagwe Dynasty was established?
5. Who was King Lalibela?
6. Discuss main urban features of Gondar.
7. Who was Ras Bitwaddad Welda Leul?

6.2. MUSLIM SULTANATES
Competencies
✅ Locate centers of Muslim Sultanates
✅ Describe the political; social and economic structure ancient
Muslim Sultanates.
Key Terms
🔑 Sultanate 🔑 Imam
🔑 Trans Saharan trade
How was Islam introduced in Ethiopia? What do you understand about

sultanate? Which Muslim sultanate was emerged first?
Rise of Muslim Sultanates in Ethiopia

Islam was first introduced to Ethiopia and Horn through trade by merchants in
three gate ways the Red Sea coast, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. Following
this, many Muslim sultanates were emerged since the 9th century AD. These
Muslim sultanates of the horn were Shawa, Dahlak, Ifat, Adal, Dara, Dawaro,
Fatagar, Arbabani, Sharka, Bali and Hadiya.
Sultanate of Shawa
The first Muslim Sultanate in Ethiopia was the sultanate of Shawa which was
established around 896 AD. It was built by Makhzumite Dynasty, that claimed
the descent from the Makhzumite clans of south Arabia. Its location was in the
hot lowland region on the left of the Awash River. In the mid thirteenth century
AD Sultanate of Shawa was replaced by another Muslim sultanate called Ifat.
Sultanate of Ifat: Muslim Sultanate of Ifat emerged to the south of Shawa

around 1285 AD. It was founded by Umar Walasma and hence the Walasma
Muslim Sultanates 165
dynasty was founded by him. Ifat controlled a vast territory through which
the long distance trade routes of Zeila. Most of the profitable Zeila trade route
came under the control of Ifat and Ifat became powerful Sultanate. Since 1270
the Christian highland state had interest to control in the Zeila trade and trade
routes. Controlling the Zeila trade route became the main source of conflict
between the two states. Finally, the Sultanate of Ifat was defeated by Amde
Tsion (r. 1314-44) in 1332 AD.
The Sultanate of Hadiya: It was located to the west of Dawaro and Bali,
between Gibe River in the west, lake Hawassa in the south and Lake Ziway
in the North. During the reign of King Amde Tsion, Hadiya was the tributary
of Christian kingdom. Its economy mainly depended on mixed farming and
some led pastoral life. Trade also contributed a lot for the economy. There was
political marriage with Christian highland kingdom. Zeria Yacob married from
Hadiya ruling family. She became Queen Ellen.
The Sultanate of Bali: Bali Sultanate was located between Dawaro and
Sharaka in the North, Hadiya in the west, and Adal in the east and the southern
limits was unknown. The rulers had the title of Garad. From King Amde Tsion
to the 16th century, Bali Sultanate paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom.
Sultanate of Sharka: It was the present territory of the Arsi Oromo. It was the
tributary state to the Christian from the 14th century to the mid of 16th century,
until it was conquered by Imam Ahmed Ibrahim Ali Gaze (Ahmed Grang).
Sultanate of Dawaro: was located south of Shawa between the Middle Awash
River and Upper Wabi-Shebelle.
Sultanate of Dara: It was the smallest Muslim sultanate located east of Awash
probably existed between Dawaro and Bali states. In 14th century it was under
the control of Bali. But the control of Bali ended when the Christian power
strengthen in the region.
The Sultanate of Fatagar: The Sultanate of Fatagar emerged around the

middle of the 13thcentury. It located between Lake Ziway and present town
of Bishoftu. It was the tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the reign of
King Amde Tsion.

What was the main cause of conflict between Christian Kingdom and Sul-
tanate of Adal? Who was Ahmed Gragn?
The sultanate of Adal: Adal was established on the Harare plateau by the
descendants of the Walasma ruling family of Ifat. They launched a war against
the Christian kingdom throughout the 15th century and up to the early 16th
century. During this period, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim Al-Ghazi, known
in Ethiopian Christian tradition as Ahmed Gragn, successfully challenged
the Christian kingdom from this area. He was able to mobilize the Afar, the
Argobba, the Harari and the Somali lowland populations against Christian
Kingdom. In 1529, Ahmed Gragn force achieved victory over the Christian
army at the battle of Shimbra Kure, near the present town of Mojjo. In 1543,
Ahmed Gragn force was defeated at the battle at Woyna Dega, in Dembia and
he was killed.
Figure 6.6 Muslim Sultanates in Ethiopia and Horn
Muslim Sultanates 167

Activity 6.2
Answer the following Questions

1. Locate on map areas of Muslim Sultanates of Ethiopia
2. How was Islam introduced in to Ethiopia and Horn?
3. Discuss conflict between Ahmed Gragn and Christian Kingdom
6.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS,

INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION
(GADA AND OTHER
INDIGENOUS ORGANIZATIONS)
Competencies
✅ Describe nature, causes and consequences population
movement and expansion in Ethiopia in Medieval period
✅ Explain main features of Gada system of Oromo
✅ Deduce that there has been integration and interaction among
the Ethiopian people since long time;

Key Terms
🔑 Abba Boku 🔑 Gudifecha
🔑 Abba Dula 🔑 Luba
🔑 Abba Gada 🔑 Madda-Walabu
🔑 Abba Sera 🔑 Mogassa
🔑 Chaffe 🔑 Population
🔑 Gada system 🔑 Qallu
6.3.1. Population Movement and Expansion in

Ethiopia and Horn
What is the population movement and expansion? What were the causes of
population movement and expansion?
Several population movements had occurred in the Ethiopia and the Horn.
The movements of people from one place to another have played important
roles in shaping the history of the region. Although population movement
often involved in the conflicts, it created interaction and integration of different
cultures and peoples.
The population movements of the Afar and the Somali had begun before Oromo
expansion and continued through the first half of the sixteenth century. Since
middle of the 15th century, the pastoral Afar and Somalis in the south eastern
part of Ethiopia and the Horn continued move towards the Harar plateau.
Causes of Population Movement: There were a number of causes for

population movement. Some of them were:
▶ Drought, famine and land pressures were the major causes.
▶ Rivalry to control trade routes; and conflicts between highland
Christian kingdom and low land Muslim sultanates were causes of
population movement.
Population Movements, Interaction and Integration (Gada and other Indigenous Organizations) 169
These population movements resulted in conflicts among the Afar, the Somali,
the Argoba and the Harari in the southeast. During Ahmed Gragn the situation
was totally changed. He was able to mobilize them for common objective to
fight Christian highland kingdom and conquer new land away from Adal.
6.3.2. Oromo Population Movement and

Expansion
Where was the origin of Oromo? To which linguistic group do the Oromo
language belong? What were causes of Oromo Population movement and
expansion?
The Oromo population movement nd expansion was the largest of the period.
It had great consequences which fundamentally changed the pre-existing social
conditions in the Horn, particularly in Ethiopia.
The Original Homeland of the Oromo

Oromo is native people in Ethiopia and belongs to Cushitic language family.
According to the oral tradition of the Oromo, before 16th century the south
central part of Ethiopian highlands was taken as the original homeland of
Oromo. Medda-Walabu was served as political and religious center of the
Oromo.

Figure 6.7 The Centers of Oromo Land Before the 16th century
(Source: Mohammed Hassen, The Oromo of Ethiopia, 1990)
Causes of Oromo Population Movement and Expansion

Generally, the human, natural and demographic factors led to the population
movement of the Oromo.
• Human Factor: Wars and conflicts of the 15th and 16th centuries
in the Horn put pressures on the people of the Oromo. The pow-
er strength of Somali also forced them to evacuate their original
place.
• Natural Factor: Changes in the natural environment, such as cli-

matic changes and drought forced them to move out to other re-
gions.
• Demographic Factor: Population growth and substantial increase
of Oromo cattle led them to find additional land for themselves and
for their cattle.
Directions and Stages of Oromo Population Movement
and Expansion
Before the expansion of Oromo, the Oromo people were divided in to two
major groups: the Barentu and the Borena confederacies. Each group or
confederacy composed of smaller division and clans.
Oromo’s expansion had taken place in different directions and in different

time. The Barentu moved out in north easterly direction while Borena followed
a north westerly direction with in Ethiopia and also directions of Kenya and
Somalia.
The Oromo Socio-Political Institution

What do you think about the Gada system? Who were officials of Gada
system? What are essences of Gada system?
Gada system is a socio- political system which served as source of power to

conduct leadership. The Gada system was a system in which the peoples were
organized for political, economic and social purposes.
The male society is organized on the bases of age system. There are five Gada
grades in common and each grade lasts for 8 years and passes through the
complete cycle of the system. Under this system, Gada classes succeed each
other every eight years in providing political, military, ritual and military
leadership. Each gada grade represents the responsibility of the society within
it.

The male population was divided in to five major age groups or Gada
such as:
o Dabbale: childhood (0-8) years

o Folle Youth (9-16)
o Qondala: Early adulthood – some civil responsibilities were given
at this stage from 17-24 years
o Raba, warrior (25-32): the most important period in men’s life.
All administrative responsibilities were conducted by this group.
o Luba (Abba Boku 33-40) years-elder and advisor, he belonged to
the last age grade and chaired the assembly of the Luba members
called Chaffe. The Gada in power is known as Luba.
The Gada system is traditional example of democratic and egalitarian society.

Each member of the society has the right to elect and be elected and to make
laws common for the advantage of the society.
Chaffe was the main decision making body in the Gada system. Head of the
Chaffe was elected democratically from among the Gada age Grades.
The officials of Gada System

• Abba Boku or Abba Gada: he would serve for eight years as the spokes-
man of the assembly. He was the chairman of assembly meeting, the
chief speaker, and the representative of the group.
• Abba Dula (Father of War); commander of the warrior group from the
age of 25-32.
• Abba Sera: was in charge of the traditional Oromo laws.
• Religion of the Oromo: the Oromo also followed traditional religion.
They worshiped in one Chief god called Waqa or Sky God. In this reli-
gion, the Qallus (the male priests) and the Qallitis (female priestesses)
served as links between ordinary human beings and the gods.
Reasons for the Success of the Oromo Movement and

Expansion
▶ Use cavalry (horse men) helped them to become successful.
▶ The Gada system provided training and military organization to
fight bravely.
▶ The campaign System: Oromo made short campaign in group,
returning to their base after each campaign.
▶ The exhaustion of the two major powers, the Christian kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates, simplified their movement.
▶ The process of adoption called Mogassa and Gudifecha
facilitated the expansion.
Consequences of the Oromo Movement and Expansion

Population Interaction and Integration: The population movement and
expansion encouraged the assimilation and created the strong relationship
between peoples. Ethnic and cultural intermixing took place between the
Oromo and other peoples of the region. It also created intermarriage, and
consolidated the cultural and traditional bond between the people.
Economic Change: The economic basis of the Oromo before their expansion
was nomadic pastoralist and mixed farming. The nomadic pastorals life of the
Oromo was changed in to sedentary agriculturalist.
Religious life: After the expansion, most of Oromo adopted Christianity and
Islam religions.
Effects on Christian highland kingdom, Muslim Sultanates and na-

tive Peoples:
▶ It led to an end of an age-old conflict among Adal and Christian
Kingdom permanently.
▶ Christian Kingdom was highly weakened by the Oromo population
movement and shifted its seat to Lake Tana.

▶ The center of Adal was transferred to protected area of Aussa.

▶ The expansion eliminated ancient kingdoms and civilization
and even displaced the indigenous society from their original
homeland.
Activity 6.3

1. How many grades are in Gada system?
2. Why did Oromo population movement and expansion become
successful?
3. What were the causes for Oromo population movement and
expansion?
4. What were the consequences of Oromo population movement and
expansion?
5. Form a group composed of four, collect information on
indigenous organizations and culture in your locality and
present into the class. Gather information by using interview or
documents about when it was emerged, what are purposes, who
are involved, and how it is practiced.
6.4. ECONOMIC BASE OF STATES:

AGRICULTURE, TRADE AND
TRADE ROUTES, TAXATION
Competencies
✅ Explain the role that agriculture, trade and taxation play for
national development
Key Terms
🔑 Bale-gult 🔑 Rist
🔑 Caravan 🔑 Trade route
🔑 Gult 🔑 Tribute
Locate Adulis, Zeila and Dahlak on a map
What were economic base of Aksum, Zagwe dynasty and Solomonic dynas-
ty? What were trade items during Aksum period?
6.4.1. Economy Bases of the Aksum Kingdom

Agriculture and trade were main dominant economic activities of Aksumite.
As compared to agriculture, trade provided much revenue for the Aksumite
kingdom. At the early period, Aksumite economy was mainly based on plough
agriculture that was supported by the irrigation work. The land was much more
fertile and they produced surplus products that led prosperous. Main crops of
Aksumite were barley and wheat. They raised cattle, sheep, and camels. They
hunted wild animals for their body parts such as ivory and rhinoceros horns.

Trade was important source of revenue for the Aksumite state. Aksumite
economy became highly dependent of the income from the Red Sea trade. Both
import and export controlled by Aksumite rulers; and became main factor for
the prosperity of Aksumite economy. The local and international trade played
a significant role for the development of important towns including Aksum.
Aksum controlled Adulis port and this enabled the Aksumite state controlled
both the internal and external trade and became very much prosperous. The
Adulis port provided shipping services for which the merchants have to pay.
Aksumite collected taxes from port of Adulis.
The main exports of Aksum were agriculture products. The exporting items were
also included salt, gold, iron, ivory, incense, silver, tortoiseshell, rhinoceros
horn, slaves and exotic animals. Aksumite imported tools like spears, axes, and
sword, wine, olive oil, silver and gold plates for kings, jewelry, and cloth like
silk and spices.
Adulis was the main outlet for Aksumite kingdom. From this port, trade route
stretched into the interior of Aksum. Several land trade routes ran from Aksum
to westward to the Kingdom of Meroe and south and south west to the gold
producing and fertile land area.
Aksumite carried out both the trade of Red sea coast which extended as far
as the Indian Ocean. They traded with Romans, Byzantine, Egyptians and
Persian traders.
Aksumite rulers built a strong military force to protect trade and trade routes
from rivals. Aksumite kings further promoted trade by issuing coins as a
medium of exchange. These coins were minted in Aksum and coins of gold,
silver and bronze, which bear their images.
6.4.2. The Economic Bases of Zagwe Dynasty

The economy of the Zagwe Dynasty was mainly based on agriculture. Peasants
were majority of the population and they paid tribute in form of products.
Trade was also additional source of income for the Zagwe kingdom. District
governors were expected to organize an army to ensure peace for traders, trade
Economic Base of States: Agriculture, Trade and Trade routes, Taxation 177
routes and peasants.
The trade of the Kingdom was conducted through two outlets. These were:
i. The Zeila port was the main outlet for the trade of southern ter-
ritories of the Kingdom
ii. The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast that served as an out-
let for the trade northern part of the kingdom.
Trade Items
▶ Slaves, civet, ivory, and rare species animals were main exporting items.
▶ silver and copper vessels were imported items
Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and Palestine were trading countries with
Zagwe Kingdom.
6.4.3. Medieval Period

What do you understand about rist and gult system? Discuss in pair and
report to the class.
The main economic bases of Christian kingdom rulers of medieval period were
feudal system of agriculture and trade. Land tax was main important source of
income of emperors. The land taxes included fixed annual payment in form of
cattle, cattle product, grains and other products.
Kings or other governors appointed officials to administer occupied areas with

large armies. There were no salary and other payment system for army and
governors. These officials were given right to collect tribute from local people
over whom they were appointed. This system was known as Gult System.
Gult right was a right given to an official to share in the produce of peasantry
or right to levy tribute on rist owners. These officials were known as Bale-
Gult or Gult owners. Gult right was given to a state officials and arms to
collect tribute from the peasants in place of salary.
Rist was the hereditary right to land use by the members of families and clans
whose ancestors retained land for long period of time. It was communal birth
right to land.
After the restoration of Solomonic dynasty, the Christian highland state had
developed a very great interest in the Zeila trade and trade routes. Economic
strengthen was related to the control of the Zeila trade route. The need to
control the Zeila trade became the main source of conflict between the highland
Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates. Generally, the economy of Muslim
states was mainly based on agriculture and profit from long distance trade.
Figure 6.8 Major Trade Route
Activity 6.4

1. What were the contributions of trade for Aksumite kingdom?
2. What were economic bases of Zagwe Dynasty?
3. Why did Christian Kingdom use gult system?
Economic Base of States: Agriculture, Trade and Trade routes, Taxation 179
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Ethiopia and Horn was one of the regions where ancient civilization took
place. Before Aksumite kingdom, there were pre-Aksumite states such as
Punt and Damat. Aksumite kingdom was one of the ancient civilizations
that flourished in Northern part of Ethiopia and one of the four great
powers of the world at that time.
ʯ During its height of power, Aksumite controlled and ruled vast territories.
Christianity was introduced in to the Aksum in the middle of fourth century
AD during the reign of King Ezana. Aksumite built houses, palaces,
ships and temples from stones. Moreover, they produced beautiful stone
obelisks. Ancient Aksumite developed Sabean alphabets. The external
and internal factors were responsible for the decline and fall of Aksumite
Kingdom.
ʯ In 1150 AD Marra TekleHaymanot overthrew Aksum king Dilnaod and

established Zagwe Dynasty. The architectural achievement of the dynasty
is recognized and King Lalibela was the known for the construction of
the eleven monolithic rock-hewn churches.
ʯ There were several factors for the decline and fall of the Zagwe dynasty.
The problem of succession, strong religious opposition, internal conflict
with Damot and blockage of Zeila trade by Muslim sultanates were the
basic factors for the downfall of Zagwe Dynasty. Finally, YekunoAmlak
defeated the King Yitbarek in 1270 AD and restored Solomonic Dynasty.
ʯ After the 1270 or restoration of “Solomonic dynasty”, the Christian kings

ruled from mobile capitals. Due to threat of Adal and Oromo population
movement, Christian kingdom shifted its center from Shawan highlands
to Lake Tana region.
ʯ Gondar was founded by Fasilades around 1636. Gondar became famous

for its architectural achievements and building technology. Several kings
constructed beautiful castles, palaces and churches. Gondar achieved its
glory during the Fasilades, Yohannes I and Iyasu I. Gondar became the
center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and
crafts.
ʯ Following the introduction of Islam in to Ethiopia, many Muslim

sultanates were emerged since the 9th century AD. Some of these Muslim
sultanates of the region were Dahlak, Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Dara,
Arbabani, Sharaka, Bali, Hadiya and Adal. The first Muslim Sultanate in
Ethiopia was the sultanate of Shewa which was established around 896
AD by Makhzumite.
ʯ The need to control the Zeila trade became the main source of conflict
between the highland Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates. Ifat
controlled a vast territory through which the long distance trade routes
of Zeila. Ifat became the major rival of the Christian highland state. Adal
launched a war against the Christian kingdom. Ahmed Grange organized
low land Muslims against Christian Kingdom defeated at Shmbura Kure
in 1529. Christian highland kingdom force defeated Ahmed Gragn at
Woiyna Dega in 1543.
ʯ The population movements of the Afar, and the Somali had begun before
Oromo expansion and continued through the first half of the sixteenth
century. The largest population movement and expansion of the period
was the Oromo. Medda Walabu was served as political and religious
center of the Oromo. The human, natural and demographic factors led to
the population movement of the Oromo.
ʯ Gada system is a socio- political system which served as source of power

to conduct leadership. Chaffe was the main decision making body in the
Gada system.
ʯ Reasons for the Success of the Oromo expansion were Gada system,
use of cavalry, campaign system, exhaustion of Christian Kingdom and
Muslim Sultanates; and process of adoption. Consequences of the Oromo
expansion were population interaction and integration, change in religion
and economic life of Oromo, and effects on Christian highland kingdom,
Muslim Sultanates and ingenious peoples.

ʯ Initially, Aksumite economy mainly depended on agriculture. Later,

Aksumite economy highly depended on the income of Red Sea trade.
Aksum controlled port of Adulis. Aksumite traded with Egyptians,
Roman, Persians and Indians. Aksum’s kings issued coins. The local and
international trade played important roles for strengthens of Aksum.
ʯ The economy of the Zagwe kingdom was mainly based on agriculture.

Trade was also additional source of income for the Zagwe kingdom.
The trade of the Kingdom was conducted through the Zeila Port and the
Dahlak Islands.
ʯ The main economic bases of Christian kingdom rulers of medieval period

were feudal system and trade. Land tax was main important source of
income of emperors. Gult was a right given to an official to collect tribute
and service from rist owners. The Christian highland state had developed
interest in the Zeila trade and trade routes and this led to conflict with
lowland Muslim sultanates.

GLOSSARY
Abba Boku: The Father of scepter of the staff or chairman of Chaffe.
Abba Dula: The war leader or the commander of the warriors
Abba Sera: Leader who have responsibility for traditional Oromo laws.
Bale-gult: Glut owners or officials who have right to collect tribute or service
from peasants.
Caravan: company of merchants making a long journey together for safety.
Chaffe: Main decision making body in Gada assembly
Gada: an egalitarian social and political organization that based on age
grades.
Gudifecha: a form of a parent adopting a child.
Gult: a right given to an official to collect tribute and service from peasants.
Kingdom: a country, state, or territory ruled by a king or queen.
Luba: the Gada in power and last stage in Gada age grade
Meda-Walabu: Original homeland of Oromo
Mogassa: a form of adoption in to a clan of a tribe.
Qallu: Spiritual leader of the traditional religion of Oromo
Rist: hereditary land ownership system
Trade route: a long-distance route along which commercial goods are
transported.
Tribute: goods or money paid by conquered peoples to their conquerors

REVIEW EXERCISES
True or False Items: Write true if the statement is correct

and write false if statement is wrong.
1. Aksum was the first state in Ethiopia and Horn.
2. Aksumite Kings issued coins to promote trade purpose.
3. The Succession problem to the throne was one problem for the downfall
of Zagwe Dynasty.
4. Rock-hewn churches were built by Aksumite kings.
5. Jaberti were Muslim merchants in the trade of Gondar.
6. Zagwe Dynasty destroyed cultural tradition of Aksumite.
7. Fermnatos was the first Bishop of Aksum or Ethiopia.
8. In 1270, Solomonic Dynasty was restored by Yitbarek.
9. Before Oromo population movement, there was no population
movement in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
10. Barentu and Borena confederacies were two major groups of the
Oromo.
11. The Oromo population movement led to the interaction of different
people with the Oromo.
12. In Oromo, all male were organized according to the Gada system.
13. Bala-Gult collected tribute and use free labor from peasants.
14. The Sultanate of Ifat was the oldest Muslim Sultanate.
15. The Muslim Sultanate of Shewa was founded by the Makhzumite
Dynasty.

Matching Items: Match the items under column “B’ with

the items under column ‘A’.
A B
1. Founder of Zagwe Dynasty A. Abba Boku
2. Main decision making body in the B. Abba Dula
Gada system C. Abba Sera
3. Leader of traditional Oromo law D. Chaffe
4. Spokesman of Gada in power E. King Caleb
F. King Fasilades
5. The war leader of Oromo
G. Luba
6. The Last stage of Gada system H. King Ezana
7. Aksumite King who controlled I. Mentwab
South Arabia J. Marra TekleHaymanot
8. Restored Solomonic dynasty K. King Yekuno Amlak
9. Gondarian Powerful women
10. Founder of Gondar city

given alternatives.
1. The main cause for the decline of Aksumite kingdom was
A. The internal rebellions from peoples like Beja
B. The rise of Islam and loss of control on Red Sea trade
C. The loss of Aksum’s control of South Arabian and Red Sea area
D. All of the above
2. The Main port of Aksum was

A. Zeila C. Metemma
B. Adulis D. None of the above
3. One of the contribution of Aksum was the

A. Obelisks C. Orthodox Church hymn
B. Sabean Alphabets D. All of the above

4. Who was the last king of Aksum?

A. Dilnoad C. Merra TekleHaymanot
B. Yitbarek D. YekunoAmlak
5. The first Aksumite king who accepted Christianity was

A. Zoskales C. Caleb
B. Ezana D. Menelik I
6. One of the following was feature of Aksumite kingdom.

A. Ship building technology
B. Developed complex governance system
C. Agriculture with irrigation
D. All of the above
7. One of the following was not trade partner of Aksum

A. Americans C. Romans
B. Indians D. Persians
8. When was Gondar established?

A. 1543 C. 1769
B. 1636 D. 1855
9. Gondar achieved its highest stage during the reign of the

A. Fasilades C. Iyasu I
B. Yohannes I D. All of the above
10. Who was the founder of the Zagwe Dynasty

A. Yekuno Amlak C. MerraTekleHaymanot
B. Yitbarek D. Menelik I
11. The Zagwe was founded by the people of

A. Agaw C. Amhara
B. Tigre D. Argoba
12. The Zagwe Dynasty was known by its

A. Medium of currency
B. Destruction of Aksumite architectural achievements
C. Monolithic rock-hewn churches
D. Large scale territorial expansion
13. Main out let for Zagwe Dynasty was

A. Dahlak Island C. Metemma
B. Zeila D. A& B are correct answers
14. The Oromo socio- political and military organization was based on
A. Gada system C. Qallu system
B. Military institution D. Monarchical system
15. What was cause for the Oromo population movement

A. Population growth
B. Natural disaster
C. Shortage of grazing land
D. All of the above are answers
16. Hereditary right to land use by members of families and clans called
A. Bale- Gult C. Rist
B. Gult D. All of the above
17. The right to collect tribute and service from peasants who had
hereditary land rights
A. Gult C. Bale-Gult
B. Rist D. All of the above
18. In order of sequence from the earliest to latest capital, the correct order
is
A. Lalibela , Gondar, Aksum C. Aksum, Lalibela, Gondar
B. Gondar , Lalibela, Aksum D. Aksum, Gondar, Lalibela
19. When Ahmed Gragn was defeated and killed

A. 1529 C. 1533
B. 1531 D. 1543
20. Original homeland of Oromo was

A. Madda Walabu C. Damot
B. Harar Plateau D. Bizamo

Short Answer or Essay type Items

1. What were consequences of Oromo population movement and
expansion?
2. What is Gada system?
3. What were Mogassa and Gudifecha in Oromo society?
4. Describe Gada age grade system.
5. Discuss internal and external factors that contributed to the decline and
fall of Aksumite kingdom.
6. What was the major reason that led king Lalibela to construct rock-
hewn churches?
7. What factors brought the Zagwe dynasty to an end?
8. What factors did contribute decline and downfall of Gondarian period?
9. Who was Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim or Ahmed Gragn?
10. What was major cause of conflict between Highland Christian kingdom
and lowland Muslim Sultanates?

UNIT SEVEN
7. CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL

ISSUES
Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
✅ Describe the idea of environment;

✅ Explain the impacts of people on their surrounding;
✅ Identify major global and local environmental problems;
✅ Reflect their roles as participants in local environmental actions.
✅ Describe the meaning and impacts of terrorism on socioeconomic
development and human life;
✅ Explain causes and consequences of illegal human trafficking
Introduction
In the previous unit, you have learned about States and Peoples of
Ancient and Medieval Ethiopia such as Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar,
Islamic Sultanates, Population movements, interaction and integration
(Gada and other indigenous organizations) and Economic base of states
such as agriculture, trade and trade routes and taxation. This unit deals
with Contemporary Global Issues. You will learn about environment and
its problems such as pollution, global warming, ozone layer depletion,
waste disposal, and loss of biodiversity, Protecting the environment,
demographic overload, terrorism and human trafficking.
7.1. ENVIRONMENT
Competencies
✅ Examine human activities impacting their surrounding
environment.
✅ Explain the importance of community participation in solving
environmental problems.
✅ Reflect their roles and identities as environmental actors in their
locality.
Key Terms
🔑 Environment 🔑 Biodiversity
🔑 pollution 🔑 Reuse
🔑 Global warming 🔑 Reduce
🔑 Ozone layer 🔑 Recycle
7.1.1. Understanding the environment

What is environment?
Our environment means our physical surroundings and the characteristics of the
place in which we live. Environment refers to the wider natural world of land,
sea and atmosphere. The natural world as a whole or in a particular geographical
area, are affected by human activities. It is anything that surrounds us and it can
be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic) things. It includes physical, chemical
and other natural forces.
190 UNIT SEVEN CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES

7.1.2. Environmental problems

What are the major current environmental problems?
Environmental problems are caused by the dominance of a world-view in

which human beings are different from and superior to all other creatures, in
fact, giving, them the right to exploit nature for their own sake. Our environment
faces several problems and many of these seem to be worsening with time,
bringing us into a time of a true environmental crises. The major environmental
problems are pollution, global warming, ozone layer depletion, natural resource
depletion, overpopulation, waste disposal, and loss of biodiversity.
1. Pollution
Environmental pollution is currently the biggest challenge facing the word
today. There are many sources of pollution and each one has its own effect on
the environment and living organisms. It caused by factories, combustion of
fossil fuels, acid rain, oil spill and industrial waste by toxins such as plastics,
heavy metal and nitrates. The causes of pollution are not just limited to fossil
fuels and carbons emissions. There are many other types of pollution including
chemical pollution into bodies of water and soil through improper disposal
practices and agricultural activities, and noise and light pollution created by
cities and urbanization as a result of population growth.
2. Global warming
Global warming begins when sunlight reaches the Earth. The major cause for
global warming is increment of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They
include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and in some cases chlorine and
bromine containing compounds. The build-up of these gases in the atmosphere
changes the radiate equilibrium in the atmosphere. Their overall effect is to
warm the Earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere because greenhouse
gases absorb some of the outgoing radiation of Earth and re-radiate it back
towards the surface.
Environment 191
Figure. 7.1 Global warming 2019
Effect of Greenhouse: One of the most immediate and obvious effects of global
warming is the increase in temperatures around the world. The average global
temperature has increased by 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees Celsius)
over the past 100 years, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA).
The emission of greenhouse gases due to human activities causes global

warming, which in turn Cause an increase in temperature that then leads to
rising sea level, melting of polar ice caps, flash flood and desertification etc.
Fig. 7.2 melting of polar ice.

3. Ozone layer depletion

This is caused by the presence of chlorofluorocarbon(CFC’s)in the air react to
create a hole in the ozone layer, which protect the earth from harmful UV(ultra
violet) radiation from the sun. However, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and other Ozone-Depleting substance (ODS) are slowly eating away at the
stratospheric ozone layer, creating a major potential health hazard. Past and
current emission of ODS result in increasing of ultraviolet radiation reaching
the earth surface which contribute to several health effects.
Some of these are:
▶ Increase of disease and melanoma skin cancers;

▶ Reduce the effectiveness of immune system;
▶ Impact on nutrition (e.g. reduce plant yield)
▶ Damage to ocean ecosystem and reduces fish yield
4. Waste disposal
As population increases, human activities increase which eventually increases
the amount of waste produced. An excessive amount of waste is produced
and dumped in the oceans’ nuclear waste is particularly dangerous, as well as
plastic and electronic waste. Nowadays the problem of solid waste pollution
is more in developing countries than developed ones. If the solid waste is not
managed properly then it might lead to more and more diseases. There are
several reasons why the management of solid waste is not done properly. Some
of reason includes.
▶ Improper funding to disposal of the waste regularly and

properly.
▶ Absence of equipment to handle the solid waste.
▶ Less social involvement in properly disposing of waste.
▶ Fewer infrastructures from the respective government’s
side to make sure the solid waste is collect, transferred, and
disposed of properly.
Environment 193
5. Loss of biodiversity
Species and habitats are becoming extinct due to human activities. This
cause an imbalance in nature processes like, pollution and poses a threat to
ecosystem-coral ridge distraction of habitat. Both plant and animal species
have been disappearing at 50 to 100 times the natural rate, due to such factors
as the large scale clearing and burning of forest, over harvesting of plant and
animals (hunting), indiscriminate use to pesticide, draining and filling of wet
land, destructive fishing practice, draught, conflict, climate change, wildfire,
floods, position in food chain, etc.
7.1.3. Protecting the environment

What is environmental protection?
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment

by individuals, organizations and governments. It always been practiced by
humans in one form or another. Environmental protection is best achieved
through the use of operation and has been a serious concern, which has been
gradually drawing in the last 50 years with the increase intense of industrial
activities.
Reforestation and Afforestation

Reforestation is the planting of trees on land previously forested but from
which the trees have been removed by natural causes or by cutting, burning or
other means.
Afforestation refers to the planting of land, not formerly so covered, with trees
to make a forest for commercial or other purpose (actions of environmental
protection).

Figure 7.3 Afforestation and reforestation
Educating people
What does mean environmental education?
Environmental education deals with the need to protect the environment

because global warming, pollution, and many other issues are ruining our
environment badly. We know the importance of a healthy environment, and
we should take all the possible measures to keep our environment healthy. One
of the most effective means to promote healthy environment is giving proper
education to both new as well as old generations. Environmental education and
protection are crucial for the benefit of both the environment and humans, its
importance cannot be overemphasized.
Role of Awareness in society

The primary purpose of education when it comes to environmental protection
is offering awareness to everyone in a society. Education can provide better
awareness of a variety of ecological issues that take place day by day. Everyone
in society including kids, youths, adults and mature people can understand and
become aware of the various environmental issues if they get proper education
by Government, NGOs, Media and concerned institution. Education can give
right knowledge on how natural environment functions, and how human beings
can deal with behavior and ecosystems for sustainability.
Environment 195
Reduce, Reuse / recycle

What is the difference between reduce, reuse & recycle?
Fig.7.4 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
The 3 ‘R’s – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle – are the best way to make a positive
impact on our environment. It’s important to put these practice, as landfill space
is quickly running out, the plastic pollution in our ocean are increasing, and our
environment is deteriorating at a faster pace all about minimizing the amount
of waste we produce, reusing products as much as we can, and remembering
to recycle any materials that can be used for a new purpose. These three ‘R’
words are an important part of sustainable living, as they help to cut down on
the amount of waste we have to throw away.
Reduce: choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste
generated.
Reuse: instead of using one-time use items, like plastic water bottle or
plastic grocery bags, select in for a reusable option.
Recycle: Using old products in a new ways. It is beneficial in so many

ways. Not only we are preventing recyclable item from ending
up in landfill where it can take 100’s of years to decompose,
but we are giving recyclable item a chance to get made in to
something else.

Activity 7.1

1. What are the current environmental problems of the world?
2. Explain the ways to make a positive impact on our environment
7.2. DEMOGRAPHIC OVERLOAD
Competencies
✅ Discuss the impacts of uncontrolled population growth on
natural environment.
Key Terms
🔑 Demographic overload 🔑 Deforestation
What do mean by demographic overload?
Demographic overload refers to a human population that is too large to be

sustained by its environment in the long term. Human population is growing
at an alarming rate which cannot be continued by current systems. The 95%
of the world’s poorest countries have stated that rapid population growth
is a key factor contributing to ongoing poverty, resource degradation and
related problems. It results in a level of resource consumption which exceeds
Demographic overload 197

the environment’s carrying capacity, leading to population overshoot. With

the growing population, degradation increases due to the great demands on
resources leads to negative effects on natural environment more specifically,
the problem is the highest in developing countries than developed countries.
Impacts of Overpopulation on natural environment

Scarce fresh water
Growth of global overpopulation resulted in the pressure on water and
results shortage for drinking water use as well as sewage treatment and
effluent discharge. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population may face
water shortages. Some countries, like Saudi Arabia, use energy-expensive
desalination to solve the problem of water shortages.
Depletion of natural resources: especially fossil fuels.

Pollutions: increase levels of pollution of air, plastic and noise increase of
carbon dioxide and decrease of ozone in the atmosphere
Deforestation and loss of ecosystems:

About eight million hectares of forests are lost each year. Every minute, forest
with the size of 20 football fields is cut down. By the year 2030, the earth
might have only 10% of its forests; if the deforestation isn’t stopped, it could
go less than 100 years. The three countries experiencing the highest levels of
deforestation are Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia.
However, Indonesia tackling deforestation; is now seeing the lowest rates since
the beginning of the century.
Causes of deforestation: Agriculture is the most leading cause of deforestation

due to need land for cultivation, need for fuel wood, Forest products for industry
use etc.
Impacts of deforestation:- deforestation can cause climatic change, resulting

in problems like desertification, Soil loss through erosion, habitat destruction,
animals may migrate and extinction of some of the wild animals and plants

Figure. 7.5 deforestation
What we can do to reduce deforestation? Consider the following important

points:
▶ Raising the people’s awareness of the importance of forests

▶ Changing the way people make their living at the present time
Activity 7.2

1. Discuss the impacts of uncontrolled population growth on natural
environment.
2. Explain what does demographic overload mean?
3. What are the main causes for deforestation?
4. What are the three countries highly experienced deforestation?
Demographic overload 199

7.3. TERRORISM
Competencies
✅ Describe the meaning and impacts of terrorism on
socioeconomic development and human life
Key Terms
🔑 • Terrorism
Meaning of terrorism
What is terrorism?
There is no universal agreement on legal definition of terrorism because of its

complex and multidimensional meanings. The term “terrorism”comes from
French “terrorime”, from Latin: “terror” which means” great fear”, “dead”.
It is related to Latin verb; terrere’” to frighten”. We do have two approaches
to define terrorism:
International terrorism- means violent, criminal acts committed by

individuals and /or groups who are inspired by, or associated
with, designated foreign terrorist organization or nations
(state-sponsored).
Domestic terrorism- means violent, criminal acts committed by individuals

and/or groups to further ideological goals stemming from
domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious,
racial, or environmental nature.

7.3.1. Impacts of terrorism on socioeconomic

development and human life
Terrorists act can cause ripple effects on the economy that have negative impacts.
The most clear one is the direct economic destruction of property and human
lives. Terrorism indirectly affects the economy by creating market uncertainty,
xenophobia, loss of tourism, and increased insurance claims. The following are
some of the ways through which terrorism affects the economy.
A. Direct Economic Destruction

The most direct and measurable impact of terrorism is physical destruction.
Terrorists destroy existing plants, machines, transportation systems, workers,
and other economic resources. On smaller scales, acts of terrorism may blow
up cafes, churches, or roads. Large-scale attacks, most infamously the World
Trade Center bombed on Sept. 11, 2001. This attack Planned by the Al-Qaeda
leader Osama bin Laden, targeting the US and killed approximately 2,996
people, injured more than 6,000 and destroyed property and infrastructure
worth more than $10 billion. The economic loss totaled about $3 trillion. The
impact of terrorism and war is always negative for the economy, and physical
destruction. The physical destruction is a live witness of all how terrorism
impact on socioeconomic destruction.
i. Increased Uncertainty in the Markets

International investment and cooperation are lower in a world full of terrorism.
Even if you do not live anywhere near terrorist attacks, you might still be
negatively impacted indirectly. This is because all kinds of markets hate
uncertainty, and terrorism creates a lot of it.
ii. Affects Insurance, Trade, Tourism, and foreign

direct investment
There are two clear industries especially vulnerable to the effects of terrorism,
insurance and tourism. Terrorism is a risky business for everyone, and
insurance companies hate risk as much as anyone else. Tourism is even more
Terrorism 201
concerning, in France, for example, tourism accounts for approximately 7% to

8% of total gross domestic product (GDP expected a 30% decline in visitors to
France in the month after the Nice attacks 2016 and France killed at least 129
people in 2015.
Terrorism damages international trade increase cost in business and increase

price in product, deficits and higher inflation. It reduces export and imports
more specially the developing countries, because they are more venerable than
the developed countries.
Terrorism also damage foreign direct investment (FDI) because of foreign

people always gives choice conducting business with less-terror-prone country.
These effects damage to labor and capital, loss in productive workers and leads
to country reduce income.
iii. Increases government expenditure

Terrorism increases government expenditure because the government must
spend more on security issues to maintain law and order in the country, this
reallocation of government resources decreases expenditure on social sector
development such as health and education. It will decrease economic growth.
iv. Increases nationalism and foreign doubt

The fourth one risk to the economy is a political risk. This is already on display
in the United States and Europe in 2016, where there has been a rise in disbelief
of foreign cultures, businesses, immigrant workers, and refugees. Closing
down borders to trade and immigrant workers reduces the size and diversity of
economic transactions and limits productive resources.
B. Social impacts
Impact of terrorism reaches many aspects of health and health care: acute
and chronic symptoms of anxiety and depression, changes in health-related
behaviors, and long-term damage and tension.

C. The impacts of terrorism on human life

It includes loss of life, serious injuries such as broken bones, soft tissue injuries,
disability, long-term chronic pain and sensory disturbance. The following table
shows the top ten worst terrorist attacks in history.
Rank Terrorist Attack Country Year dead (Es-

timated)
1 September 11 Attacks United States 2001 2,996

2 Camp Speicher Massacre Iraq 2014 1,566
3 Christmas Massacre Democratic 2008 860
Republic of the
Congo
4 Yazidi Communities Bomb- Iraq 2007 795
ings
5 Sri Lankan Police Officers Sri Lanka 1990 774
Massacre
6 Mogadishu Bombings Somalia 2016 655
7 Ankara Suicide Bombings Turkey 2015 508
8 Cinema Rex Fire Iran 1978 420
9 Massacre of Trujillo Colombia 1990 400
10 Beslan School Hostage Cri- Russia 2004 385
sis
Fig 7.6 Terrorists attack
Terrorism 203
Activity 1.2

1. What is terrorism?
2. List down the impacts of terrorism on economic development?
3. Explain the impacts of terrorism on human life?
4. How does terrorism affect developing countries?
5. What are the social effects of terrorism?
7.4. HUMAN TRAFFICKING
Competencies
✅ Explain causes and consequences of illegal human trafficking
Key Terms
🔑 Human trafficking 🔑 mental pain

🔑 physical pain
What do mean human trafficking?
Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour,
sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others.
This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or

the extraction of organs or tissues. Human trafficking is a crime against the

person because of the violation of the victim’s rights of movement through
coercion and because of their commercial exploitation. The International
Labour Organization (ILO) has reported that child workers, minorities,
and irregular migrants are at considerable risk of more extreme forms of
exploitation. Human trafficking can occur at local, domestic and international
levels. Human trafficking is the third largest crime industry in the world,
behind drug dealing and arms trafficking, and is the fastest-growing activity of
trans-national criminal organizations. Human trafficking is a national threat as
it blocks national growth and development.
There are eleven countries which have the biggest number of illegal human

trafficking are Thailand, China, Ghana, Uganda, Nepal, Sri Lanka, India,
Pakistan, Haiti, Brazil and including our country Ethiopia.
Human trafficking in numbers:
▶ 51% of identified victims of trafficking are women,

▶ 28% children and 21% men.
▶ 72% peoples exploited in the sex industry are women.
▶ 63% of identified traffickers were men and 37% women.
▶ 43% of victims are trafficked domestically within national borders.
▶ About 40 million people victims were modern slavery in 2018.
Causes of Human Trafficking
Some of the common factors are: poverty, oppression, violation of human rights,
and lack of social or economic opportunity, dangers from conflict or instability,
war, natural disasters, search for a better life, and demand for cheap labor,
unemployment, lack of knowledge and cultural practice etc,.
Consequence of human trafficking:

Human trafficking is a global, complex, and heartbreaking issues, can have
physical, emotional, and psychological effects on anyone involved. It has
the power to impact someone’s life forever. It hindersnational growth and
development.
Human trafficking 205

1. Mental pain- stress, difficulty in relationships, depression, memory loss,

anxiety, fear, guilt, shame, and other severe forms of mental disturbance
2. Physical pain- physical injuries, those who have been sexually exploited
are often abused by their traffickers and customers. They may be raped,
beaten, and subjected to abuse over a long period of time. There is also
a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, infections,
diabetes, cancer, and other illnesses.
3. Lack of independent living style- unable to attend school or go to
college. After being confined to the same job for a long period of time
and not being allowed to learn new skills, victims can become dependent
and they may have a hard time living on their own.
Fig. 7.7 human trafficking (Source: ILO)
Activity 7.3

1. Define the human trafficking
2. Explain the causes of the human trafficking
3. Describe the consequences of illegal human trafficking
4. How many people was estimated modern slavery in 2018
5. Mention the mental pain of the human trafficking

Things to do
Nowadays the problem of uncontrolled population growth is very
critical issues by main reason and students have to understand the rapid
population growth impacts on natural environment. You have to prepare
case study on the topic of impacts of uncontrolled population growth on
natural environment in their Woreda/Kebele. Then you will observe and
write a short report: discuss, understand and share ideas and present it
in the class.
Human trafficking 207

UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Environment refers to the wider natural world of land, sea and atmosphere.
In short, environment is the surroundings in which people, plants, animals,
living and non-living things live.
ʯ The major environmental problems are pollution, global warming,

ozone layer depletion, natural resource depletion, overpopulation, waste
disposal, and loss of biodiversity.
ʯ Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural

environment by individuals, organizations and governments. Best
achieved through operation like educating people, afforestation and
reforestation and Reuse, Recycle and Reduce of natural resources.
ʯ Demographic overload occurs when a species’ population becomes so

excessive that people deem it must be managed.
ʯ Human population is growing at an alarming rate which cannot be

sustained by current system. The 95% of the world’s poorest countries
have stated that rapid population growth is a key factor contributing to
ongoing poverty due to negative impacts on natural environment such as
resource degradation.
ʯ There is no universal agreement on legal definition of terrorism because

of its complex and multidimensional meanings.
ʯ The term “terrorism” comes from French“terrorime”, from Latin:“terror”

which means” great fear”, “dead”.
ʯ International terrorism- means violent, criminal acts committed by

individuals and /or groups who are inspired by, or associated with,
designated foreign terrorist organization or nations (state-sponsored.
ʯ Domestic terrorism- means violent, criminal acts committed by

individuals and /or groups to further ideological goals stemming from
domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious, racial

ʯ Terrorism have negative impact on economy, such as economic

destruction, increasing uncertainty on market, damaging trade, insurance,
tourism, foreign direct investments, increasing nationalism and foreign
doubt and increases government expenditure.
ʯ The impacts of terrorism on human life include loss of life, serious

injuries such as broken bones, soft tissue injuries, disability, long-term
chronic etc.
ʯ Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour,

sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or
others. The major victims are 51%women and 28% children. Causes of
human trafficking includes: poverty, oppression, lack of human rights,
and lack of social or economic opportunity, dangers from conflict etc.
ʯ Human trafficking is a global, complex, and heartbreaking issues can

have physical pain, mental pain, emotional, and psychological effects on
anyone involved.

GLOSSARY
Bio diversity: The variety of plant and animals life in a particular habitat.
Deforestation: cutting down or burning tree
Demographic overload: a species’ population becomes so excessive that people
think it must be managed.
Global warming: is increase in the average temperature of earth’s surface air &
oceans.
Human trafficking: is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour,
sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or
others.
Environment: The surroundings or condition in which a person, animal or plant
lives or operate.
Mental pain: Stress, difficulty in relationships, depression, memory loss, anxiety,
fear, guilt.
Ozone layer: A layer in the earth’s stratosphere at an altitude of about 10 km.
(6.2 mile) contain a high concentration of ozone (O3)
Physical pain-physical injuries, those who have been sexually exploited are
often abused by their customers.
Pollution: Contaminate (water, air etc.) with harmful or poison substance.
Recycle: Convert (waste) in to reusable material return material a previous
stage in cyclic process. Reduce: Make or become a smaller or less in
amount, degree, or size.Reuse: Use again or more than once.
Terrorism: means “great fear “dead” related to Latin verb; terror’” to frighten

REVIEW EXERCISES
Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and False‟
if the statement is incorrect in the space provided in
front of each statement
1. Environmental degradation has a positive consequences for the
ecosystems.
2. Environmental education has a vital role to protect our ecosystem.
3. The emission of greenhouse gases due to human activity causes global
warming.
4. The most direct and measurable impact of terrorism is physical
destruction.
5. The major victims by human trafficking are only men.
Part II: The terms under column “B” are described by the
statements under column “A”.
A B
1. Reduce A. stress and depression
2. Reuse B. using items more than once
C. putting a product to a new use instead of
3. Recycle
throwing it away
4. Mental pain
D. planting of land, not previously so covered
5. Afforestation with trees
6. Reforestation E. to minimize the amount of waste we create
F. physical injuries and loss of life
G. forests are replanted through planting young
trees.

Direction: Answer the following questions by choosing

the best possible answer from the given four alternatives.
1. Which of the following green house gases contribute to the global
warming?
A. carbon monoxide C. carbon dioxide
B. sulpher dioxide D. oxygen gas
2. One of the following is currently the biggest environmental challenges

of developed countries?
A. air pollution C. Overpopulation
B. scarcity of fresh water D. deforestation
3. One is not the effect of global warming?

A. Rising of sea level
B. Melting of polar ice caps
C. Flash flood and desertification
D. Deforestation
4. Who is responsible body to protect and conserve natural environment?

A. Government and non-governmental organization only.
B. civic society only
C. All citizens
D. Community leaders only.
5. All are the impacts of deforestation except?

A. improve the natural environment
B. habitat destruction
C. Soil loss through erosion
D. Climate change
6. The violent and criminal acts committed by individual or groups to

further idealogical goals is known as______
A. demographic overload C. human trafficking
B. terrorism D. migration

I. Fill in the blank space with the correct word or phrase

1. _______________ is the pollutant responsible for ozone hole.
2. ________________have negative impacts on physical, emotional,
mental and psychological on anyone involved.
3. The September 11, 2001.terrorist attack planned by____________
targeting the USA and killed______________ people.
II. Give short answers to the following questions
1. List down the reasons why the management of solid wastes in not done
properly
2. Explain the effects of ozone layer –depleting substances on human
health, plants and animals as well as on agricultural production.

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SOCIAL STUDIES

1. Cover the book with protective material, such as plas-

Reviewers Debebe Biftu (M.A.)

Advisory and Quality Debebe Biftu (M.A.)

Illustrator Anteneh Million (B.A.)

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

This book is prepared by the Sidama National Regional State Education

©The book is the official copyright of the Sidama Regional Education

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

Proclamation, 10 th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.

UNIT FIVE  131

UNIT SEVEN 189

1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

✅ explain the origin of the earth and the solar system;

1.1. ORIGIN OF THE EARTH AND

🔑 Galaxy 🔑 Solar system

🔑 How the earth was formed?

1.1.1. Origin of the earth

Figure 1.1 solar system

Origin of the earth and solar system 3

1.2. EXTERNAL COMPONENTS AND

Answer the following questions

4 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

1.2.1. External Components of the earth

Biosphere is life-supporting part of the earth’s surface. It extends from the

Atmosphere is a mixture of gases. Its components are grouped into major

External components and internal structure of the earth 5

found within altitude of 16k.m and about 99 % is concentrated in the first 30

Answer the following questions

1.2.2. Internal Structure and Sources

6 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

• Oceanic crust: is denser and thinner and mainly composed of

• Continental crust: is less dense, thicker and mainly composed

External components and internal structure of the earth 7

Figure 1.2 layer of the Earth

Sources of information about the internal parts of the

The inside of the earth can be described as being made up of layers, in a

1. Observation of rocks at the surface,

8 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

planet. Our present understanding of the structural features and

Answer the Following Questions

1.3. MATERIALS FORMING THE CRUST

Materials forming the crust of the earth 9

1.3.1. Major Elements

1.3.2. Major Minerals

1.3.3. Major rocks forming the crust

10 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

Figure 1.3 Intrusive Igneous rocks

Materials forming the crust of the earth 11

Figure 1.4 Extrusive igneous rocks

Figure 1.5 The formation of Igneous rock

Figure 1.6 Layer of sedimentary rock

Materials forming the crust of the earth 13

Metamorphism: is the process of transformation of pre-existing Igneous and

▶ Marble from lime stone

Figure 1.7 Metamorphic rock

Figure 1.8 Rocks formation processes (Rock Cycle)

14 UNIT ONE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

Answer the Following Questions

1.4. DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR ROCKS

After completing this lesson, you will be able to

Distribution of different rock types in Ethiopia

Distribution of Major Rocks and Their Economic values in Ethiopia 15

UNIT FIVE 131

UNIT SEVEN 189