TOPIC 1 ICT Assignment

a) Explain the meaning of ICT

b) Explain the uses of ICT
c) Describe ICT equipment / facilities found in organisations
d) Explain the impact of ICT in contemporary society

ICT (Information and Communications Technology)

It is an umbrella that covers any software or hardware product that can
store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in
digital form. It includes technologies, such as personal computers, digital tv,
email, robots, radio, mobile phones, networking hardware.

ICT- Reffers to the technology that provides access to information through

telecommunication.

The Positive And Negative Impacts Of Ict

A. Positive impacts of ict on society
B. Ict can have positive impacts on people
C. Ict can have a positive effect on organizations/business environment
D. Impact of ict on education
TOPIC 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: -
i. Explain the meaning and importance of a computer
ii. Describe the components of a computer
iii. Describe computer hardware
iv. Describe computer software
v. Explain the historical evolution of computers
vi. Describe the classification of computers
vii. Explain the benefits and challenges of computers
viii. Assemble computer components for use on a standalone computer
Introduction to Computers
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It
has the ability to accept input, process data, and produce output according
to a series of stored instructions. It can also be referred to as a device that
accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for
some result based on a program or sequence of instructions on how the data
is to be processed.
A computer system is a collection of three entities namely hardware,
software and live ware that work together to receive, process, manage and
present information in a meaningful format.
N/A: Program: A set of instructions that direct a computer to perform
certain tasks and produce certain results. The particular sequence of
operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than
one kind of problem. The interface between the computer and the human
operator is known as the user interface.
Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires,
transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are
called software.
The following terms are used in operation of computers:
System: A set of components that interact to accomplish a common purpose.
Data: Raw facts, figures, and details that cannot be used to make a decision
Information: Data that is organized, structured and presented in a given
context so as to make it useful. For example, multiplying the hours worked
by the hourly rate to get each employees gross earning, getting class
average score, most improved student, median score, etc.
Good, accurate, up to date information is used for decision making.
Business performance information is used for monitoring and control.
Hardware; consists of the physical and tangible components that make up
the computer system. They are classified into four categories namely input
devices, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices.
Software; Refers to the set of instructions that direct a computer on what
to do. Can also be referred to as the intangible components, which are also
called programs or applications. They are mainly classified into two
categories namely; system software and application software.
Liveware; This refers to the computer user. Other terms used are wetware,
grayware, orgware or humanware. These may include users, people who make
computer programs(programmers) and computer engineers. The user
commands the computer system to execute an instruction, for example,
copy, print, send and calculate among others.

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

             

       

CPU IS DEVIDED INTO 3.

 CONTROL UNIT.
-Components of CPU that directs the operations of the processor.
 ARITHMETIC LOGIC
-Part that performs arithmetic and logical operations.

 MEMORY UNIT
Used to store data instructions and information.
Memory unit is further Divided into ROM and RAM.
ROM-is read only cant be used for write.
- stores data for long even without power supply
RAM-Random Access Memory used for temporary storage of data.
-holds necessary data for processing and instruction
-keep track of processing data
-receives and transmit all inputs and output.

APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPUTERS/USES OF COMPUTERS

1. Education.
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process.  Learning and
teaching using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL)
and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).
-To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as
the Open University Concept.
-To analyze academic data.
                  

2. Communication industry.
The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the
transmission and reception of messages very fast and efficient.
-They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
-For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if
connected to a computer network.
                     

3. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
-Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
-Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
-Airports (Airline industry).  The computers are used;
 
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the
use of radar equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
4. Library services.
 
Computers can be used in a library:
 
To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of
books and other library materials.
To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
Employment:The emergence of computers has provided employment
opportunities to very many people.
 5. Domestic and Entertainment systems.
Computers are used at homes:
 -For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
-For storing personal information.
-For calculating and keeping home budgets.
-In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.
6. Multimedia applications.
-Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement
purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to
computers running slide shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. 
An overlaid voice is used to describe the product.
-Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
-In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo
sound & digital video clips, which make games more realistic
7. Defense
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems.
Some military areas where a computer has been used are
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
8. Police (Law enforcement agencies).
Computers are widely used in fighting crime.  The Police use computers to
keep databases on fingerprints and also analyze them.
 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring &
analysis, which help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and
other identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal
investigations speedily.
9. Government Institutions.
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this
category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
  Ecitizen online services
 Weather forecasting
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government
registries would make information recovery extremely difficult.
10. Offices.
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.
11. Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
The computers are being used in hospitals to
 keep the record of patients and medicines.
 scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care
Units (ICU).
  To enable medical experts in different countries to share their
expertise or labour, thus reducing the transportation of patients &
professionals.
  Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify
cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are
prepared by computer.
 Surgery : Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
12. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control
chemical & mechanical processes.  The computers are usually loaded with
specialized programs & each computer is designed to do a specific job.
13. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
-To manage financial transactions.  They use special cash dispensing
machines called Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide
cash deposit & withdrawal services.
-For processing of Cheques.
-For preparation of Payrolls.
-For better record keeping and processing of documents.
-To provide electronic money transfer facilities
14. Industries.
  The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. 
They are used:
-To monitor and control industrial processes.  The industries use remote
controlled devices called Robots.  A Robot is a machine that works like a
human being, but performs tasks that are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious
to be done by human beings.
-For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
-For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more
customers.
15. Supermarkets.
Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e.,
to help them manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been
sold, and what is out of stock.  The Management is automatically alerted
when a particular item or items are running out of stock and need to be
reordered.
For calculating customer’s change.
For production of receipts.
It can be used as a barcode reader.
16. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields.  They are used by:
 Scientists to analyze their experimental data, e.g., in weather
forecasting.
 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
17. Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation
and modification of images. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design
of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation
and improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and
equipment.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns,
designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using
both 2D and 3D drawings

ICT EQUIPMENT/ FACILITIES FOUND IN ORGANISATIONS.

 Computers, Printers, Scanners, Software's,data projectors.

Positive and negative impact of ICT in society

Positive
 Incraesed productivity
 Improved Communication
 Increased entertainment
 Leisure.

Negative
 Incraesed social isolation
 Decreased privacy
 Loss of jobs
 Reduced personal interaction.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer/ADVANTAGES

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of
simple machines.  Today, millions of people are using computers in offices
and at home to produce and store all types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely
accepted & used in the day-to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many
functions within a very short time. They can perform a much complicated
task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it
processed, the computer will give you misleading information.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make
mistakes. 
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong.  However,
when an error occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking
features in their electronic components that can detect & correct such
errors. 
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the
computer, thus the saying Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it
processed, the computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given
the correct instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the
computer a “Multiply” instruction, the computer will not know that you
intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the numbers supplied.
Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an
incorrect data; let say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will
produce the “wrong” answer 97 instead of 52.  However, note that, 97 is
‘correct’ based on the data supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the
instructions used & the data supplied.
4. Consistency:
This means that, given the same data & the same instructions, they will
produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Storage:
A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a
very small space.
A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/
retrieve this data when required so that the user can make use of it. 
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals
through the use of passwords
6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired
or bored.  Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one
with the same speed and accuracy as the first one.
7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device.  This is because, once given the
instructions, it is guided by these instructions and can carry on its job
automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined
procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of
different jobs depending on the instructions fed to it.
10. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods :
Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it
identifies and imposes rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to
process.
11. Computers help reduce paper work significantly.
12. Computers cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.
 DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
1. Initial cost of installation is high.
2. Can result into retrenchment of staff.
3. Computerization projects are not always cost effective.
4. Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
5. Computerization have led to increase in computer crimes especially in
Banks. The computer criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging
to various companies by transferring them out of their company
accounts illegally.  In addition, they destroy vital data used in running
the companies.
6. Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
7. Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
8. Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some
knowledge so as to operate a computer.
9. A computer, like any other machine can break down.
10. Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power
interruptions or machine breakdown.
11. The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already
bought computers could be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few
years.
12. Use of computers can lead to some health problems, especially if not
properly used. Some of the health risks include eye strain, backaches,
finger syndrome and wrist injuries.
13.
History of Computer/Evolution and Development of Computers
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones
& sticks to count and keep records.
1. Abacus
It emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and
is still in use today, may considered the first
computer. This device allows you to make
computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting
device.

It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In
1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year old of son of a French tax
collector, invented what he called a numeric wheel calculator to help his
 father with his duties but which used 8 movable dials to add sums up. I was
not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged.
In 1980s, Charles Babbage designed the ‘Difference Engine’ a machine which could
perform mathematical calculations. A 6 wheeled model was initially
constructed and demonstrated to a number of audiences. He also worked on
another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a revolutionary
device which was intended to be able to perform any arithmetical calculation
using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory
unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today’s
computers. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the analytical
machine. She is claimed to be possibly the first programmer.
Five generations of Modern computers
It took several years after Babbage designed the analytical engine to come
up with an electronic computer.
First generation computers. (1946-1959)
The 1st generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the
basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU. These tubes like
electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of
the installations, therefore were very expensive and could be afforded only
by very large organizations. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) was announced in 1946. The computer contained 17,486
vacuum tubes and consumed 150 kW of electricity. Another example of
computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I
(UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It
consumed 125 kW, and could
perform about 1,905
operations per second.

In this generation mainly

batch processing of data was
done. In this generation
Punched Cards, Paper tape,
Magnetic Tape Input & Output
device were used. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had
18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When this computer
was turned on for the first time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia.
Computers of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and
they had no operating system.
                  
Second generation computers (1959-1965)
Computers in this generation used the transistor were
cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size,
more reliable and faster than the first generation
machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation,
magnetic cores were used as primary memory and
magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.
In thus generation assembly languages and high level programming languages
like FORTRAN and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this
generation include IBM 300 series and the ATLAS.
NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch
electronic signals and electrical power. The difference between a transistor
uses a sandwich of silicon instead of tube filled with gas to do switching.
Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor nor
insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will be either
a conductor or insulator depending on some condition. In the case of
transistors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a conductor.

Third Generation Computers (1964 – 1970).

It is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC’s), in place of
transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along
with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this
generation Remote processing, Time sharing, Realtime, Multi-Programming
Operating systems were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL, PL/I, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc) were used during this
generation.
NB: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric
field.             
Fourth Generation (1970– 1979).
The 4th generation computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having
about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements and their associated circuits on a single
chip made it possible to have microcomputers of
fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal
computer revolution.
In this generation, time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used. All the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc
were used in this generation.
Fifth Generation Computers (1980 – Present).
In this generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large
Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components or more. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is
an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method
of making computers think like human beings. All the higher level languages
like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. Are used in this generation.
The trend in the computer’s technological revolution:
 Continual decrease in computer size
 Improved speed and power of processing
 Decrease in computer’s power consumption and its related facilities cost.
 Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. Classification by Representation of Numbers

Digital Computer:
This is the most commonly used type of computers. 
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only.  It
can process both numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2,
3…, A,B,C….
Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” &
“0”.  Therefore, any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first
be converted to digital form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are
widely used in different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.
Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since
the facilities provided are generalized.   
Examples:
 1. A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease
the volume.
2. Digital watches.
3. Calculators.
4. Microcomputers.  They are said to be digital because they possess the
ALU.

Analog Computer:
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change
that occurs in physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical
voltage, speed, currents, pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated
to a single task.  For example, specialized areas such as in:
Scientific or engineering experiments, Military weapons, controlling
manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures
and pressures., Weather stations to record & process physical quantities,
e.g., wind, cloud speed, temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced
by a plotting pen or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the
information can be read. 
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to
give information about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated
to a single task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
¨      The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots. 
The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by
the pilot to physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he
were controlling an actual aeroplane. 
¨      A Bathroom scale. 
It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over
calibrated scale, which shows the person’s weight. 
¨      Thermometer. 
It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature.  The Thermometer is
calibrated to give an exact temperature reading. 
¨      Speedometer. 
In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which
causes a pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.
¨      A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) &
converts the volume delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the
other showing the cost.
¨      A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a
charge for posting.
¨      A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
¨      A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the
volume.
¨      A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid Computer:
They are designed to process both analogue & digital data.  They combine
both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers. 
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital
computer & analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable
interfacing circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to
measure the functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital
signs.  These measurements may then be converted into numbers and sent to
a digital device, which may send an immediate signal to the nurses’ station if
any abnormal readings are detected.
NOTE: When referring to a portable or home user computer, hybrid
computer is a slang term used to describe a 2-in-1 PC. A 2-in-1 PC comprises
a screen and a detachable keyboard, combining the functionality of a laptop
computer and a tablet.

2. Classification by purpose or degree of specialization

There are two basic types – special and general-purpose computer.
Special Purpose Computer: This aspect of computer is designed to perform
one or more specific tasks. The program of this aspect of computer is in-
built into the machine permanently. For instance, special purpose computers
are used for solving navigation problems in aircraft and ships.
General Purpose Computer: These computers have the ability to handle a
wide variety of different programs and to solve many different problems
like personal computers, smartphones etc.

3. Classification by Types of Application

There are two types – Scientific and Business Applications.
Scientific Applications: These computers are designed to handle scientific
application more effectively. They require small volume of data input and
output.
Business Data-Processing Application: These computers are designed to
handle business data processing applications. They require large storage
capabilities of data input and output.

4. Classification by Size

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are largest, heavy and are usually kept under special
environmental conditions (i.e., in a special room) and operated by computer
specialists.

They are extremely fast processors used for processor intensive

calculations such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern
modelling. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Most
Supercomputers use multiple processors and a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution.  However, all the processors are controlled
by a single central processor. Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, &
therefore require special cooling systems.  Sometimes, the whole CPU is
dipped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide cooling.

A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users at the same time.

Most expensive and examples include: Cray and Fujitsu.

Mainframe computers

Mainframes are smaller, less powerful (very high processing speed), less
expensive than supercomputers. They also have a large backing storage
capacity.

They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can

support between 5–300 terminals). They can handle hundreds of users at the
same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users at a time. Mainframe
computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM).

Minicomputers (Midrange computers)

A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe.  However, it can

support the same peripheral devices supported by a mainframe. A
Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6
users at a time.  Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one
central minicomputer so that the users connected can share its resources
(C.P.U time, storage, etc). Minicomputers are easier to manufacture &
maintain compared to mainframes. Minicomputers are cheaper than the
mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers. They handle small
amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes. Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Manufacturers include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).

Personal computers (Microcomputers)

Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many
small offices.  They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are
designed to be used by one person at a time. They consist of very few
connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices (usually 1 or 2).
The term “microcomputer” was introduced with the advent of single chip
microprocessors. Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than
minicomputers.  Their design is based on Very Large-Scale
Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is
smaller than that of minicomputers.
These computers include:
● Desktop computers – A case and a display, put under and on a desk.
● In-car computers (“carputers”) – Built into a car, for entertainment,
navigation, etc.
● Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for entertainment
purposes (video games).

A separate class is that of mobile devices:

 ● Laptops, notebook computers and Palmtop computers – Portable and
all in one case. Varying sizes, but other than smartbooks expected to
be “full” computers without limitations.
● Tablet computer – Like laptops, but with a touch-screen, sometimes
entirely replacing the physical keyboard. Eg Ipads n galaxy
● Smartphones, smartbooks and PDAs (personal digital assistants) –
Small handheld computers with limited hardware.
● Programmable calculator– Like small handhelds, but specialized on
mathematical work.
● Handheld game consoles – The same as game consoles, but small and
portable.

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:  

o Training and learning institutions such as schools.

o Small business enterprises, and

o Communication centres as terminals. 

Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following

reasons:
1)        Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2)        Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3)        Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4)        Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5)        Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.

5. Classification by function

Servers

Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service.

For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database
server". "File servers" manage a large collection of computer files. "Web
servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller servers are
actually personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services
for other computers.

Client/Workstations
It is a desktop computer or workstation that is capable of obtaining
information and applications from a server.
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may
contain special hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer. It
is a special computer designed for technical or scientific applications.
THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up

a computer system. Computer hardware is made up of different parts which
include: - Input and output devices [Peripherals], processing devices,
storage devices, mother board/ system board, expansion cards, fan,
capacitors, heat sink and the system unit. Peripheral devices are hardware
used for input, auxiliary storage, display, and communication. These are
attached to the system unit through a hardware interface that carries
digital data to and from main memory and processors.

TYPES OF COMPUTER PORTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A hardware interface is a point of union between the system unit and

peripheral devices. Computer ports are connections to add peripheral
devices to the system board. They are generally located behind the system
unit cabinet or on the sides of portable computers. Some of the common
peripherals are mouse, keyboard, monitor, printer, speaker, flash drive etc.
The main function of a computer port is to act as a point of attachment,
where the cable from the peril can be plugged in and allows data to flow
from and to the device.

A computer port is also called as a Communication Port as it is responsible

for communication between the computer and its peripheral device.
Generally, the female end of the connector is referred to as a port and it
usually sits on the motherboard.
In Computers, communication ports can be divided into two types based on
the type or protocol used for communication. They are Serial Ports and
Parallel Ports.
A serial port is an interface through which peripherals can be connected
using a serial protocol which involves the transmission of data one bit at a
time over a single communication line. The most common type of serial port is
a D-Sub miniature or a D-sub connector that carry RS-232 signals.
A parallel port, on the other hand, is an interface through which the
communication between a computer and its peripheral device is in a parallel
manner i.e. data is transferred in or out in parallel using more than one
communication line or wire. Printer port is an example of parallel port.
The article gives a brief introduction to different types of ports along with
their applications.
A) PS/2
PS/2 connector is developed by IBM for connecting mouse and keyboard. It
was introduced with IBM’s Personal Systems/2 series of computers and
hence the name PS/2 connector. PS/2 connectors are color coded as purple
for keyboard and green for mouse.
PS/2 is a 6-pin DIN connector. The pin out diagram of a PS/2 female
connector is shown below.

Even though the pinout of both mouse and keyboard PS/2 ports are same,
computers do not recognize the devise when connected to wrong port.
PS/2 port is now considered a legacy port as USB port has superseded it and
very few of the modern motherboards include it as a legacy port.
B) Serial Port
Serial (COM)
The serial port, also known as RS-232 or
COM (communication) ports, historically has
rivaled the parallel port in versatility. 
There are two types of serial ports that
are commonly found on a computer: DB-25
and DE-9.
DB-25
DB-25 is a variant of D-sub connector and
is the original port for RS-232 serial
communication. They were developed as the
main port for serial connections using RS-
232 protocol but most of the applications
did not require all the pins.
Hence, DE-9 was developed for RS-232 based serial communication while
DB-25 was rarely used as a serial port and often used as a parallel printer
port as a replacement of the Centronics Parallel 36 pin connector.

DE-9 or RS-232 or COM Port

DE-9 is the main port for RS-232 serial communication. It is a D-sub
connector with E shell and is often miscalled as DB-9. A DE-9 port is also
called as a COM port and allows full duplex serial communication between the
computer and it’s peripheral.
Some of the applications of DE-9 port are serial interface with mouse,
keyboard, modem, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and other external
RS-232 compatible devices.

The pinout diagram of DE-9 port is shown below.

The use of DB-25 and DE-9 ports for communication is in decline and are
replaced by USBs or other ports.
Serial ports have been used to connect the following:
 External modems - connect an external modem to a serial port.
 Serial mouse or pointing devices such as trackballs or touchpads
 Plotters
 Label printers
 Serial printers
 PDA docking stations
 Digital cameras
 PC-to-PC connections used by file transfer programs such as Direct
Cable Connection, LapLink, and Interlink

C) Parallel Port or Centronics 36 Pin Port

The parallel port, also known as the LPT (Line Printer) port, was originally
designed for use
with parallel
printers. However,
don't let the name
"LPT port" fool you.
Historically, the
parallel port has
been among the
most versatile of
I/O ports in the
system because it
was also used by a
variety of devices, including tape backups, external CD-ROM and optical
drives, scanners, and removable-media drives such as Zip drives. Although
newer devices in these categories are now designed to use USB or IEEE
1394 ports, the parallel port continues to be an important external I/O
device for older systems.
Parallel devices such as
printers use the Centronics
port (top), whereas the
computer's integrated
parallel port is a DB-25F port
(bottom). Some external
devices also use a DB-25F
port.
Accordingly, a parallel printer
cable also has different
connectors at each end.
The ends of a typical IBM-
style parallel cable. The Centronics 36-pin connector (upper left) connects
to the printer; the DB-25M connector (lower right) connects to the
computer's DB-25F parallel port.

D) SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface)

SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) is a very flexible interface

because it can accommodate many devices in addition to hard disk drives.
Currently, SCSI interfaces, either on the motherboard or as add-on cards,
are found primarily in servers and are used for mass storage (hard disk, tape
backup), although you might encounter workstations and PCs that use SCSI
interfaces for devices such as
 High-performance and high-capacity hard drives
 Image scanners
 Removable-media drives such as Zip, Jaz, and Castlewood Orb
 High-performance laser printers
 Optical drives
 Tape backups
So-called Narrow SCSI host adapters (which use an 8-bit data channel) can
accommodate up to seven devices of different varieties on a single
connector. Wide SCSI host adapters use a 16-bit data channel and
accommodate up to 15 devices on a single connector.
All true SCSI host adapters are designed to support multiple devices,
although some low-cost SCSI host adapters made especially for scanners
and Zip drives might not support multiple devices (also known as daisy-
chaining). Several SCSI features permit daisy-chaining:
 External SCSI peripherals have two SCSI ports, enabling daisy-
chaining of multiple devices.
 Internal SCSI ribbon cables resemble IDE data cables, only wider.
 Both internal and external SCSI peripherals enable the user to choose
a unique device ID number for each device to distinguish one
peripheral from another in the daisy-chain
When a SCSI host adapter
card with internal and external
connectors is used, the SCSI
daisy-chain can extend through
the card. Note that the devices
on each end of the chain are
terminated, and each device
(including the host adapter) has
a unique device ID number.
 E) 1/8-Inch Audio Mini-Jack
Audio ports are used to connect speakers or other audio output devices with
the computer. The audio signals can be either analogue (Analog
audio  consists of a continuous signal with varying voltages that represents
sound, directly from the source. The vibrations produced to create those
sounds are precisely what is recorded) or digital (a representation
of  sound  recorded in, or converted into,  digital  form. In  digital audio,
the  sound  wave of the  audio  signal is typically encoded as numerical samples
in a continuous sequence) and depending on that the port and its
corresponding connector differ.
The 1/8-inch audio mini-jack is used by sound cards and motherboard-
integrated sound for speakers, microphone, and line-in jacks.

To avoid confusion, most recent systems and sound cards use the PC99 color
coding listed as follows:
 Pink—Microphone in
 Light Blue—Line in
 Lime Green—Stereo/headphone out
 Brown—Left to right speaker
 Orange—Subwoofer

S/PDIF / TOSLINK
Many systems include both analogue audio (delivered through 1/8-inch audio
mini-jacks) and digital audio. Sony/Philips Digital Interconnect Format
(SPDIF) ports output digital audio signals to amplifiers, such as those used
in home theatre systems, and come in two forms: optical and coaxial.

Optical SPDIF uses a fiber optic cable, while coaxial SPDIF uses a shielded
cable with an RCA connector.
 SPDIF optical (top) and coaxial (bottom)
cables. Sound cards might incorporate
SPDIF ports into the card itself or into
drive bay or external extension modules.
By default, systems with both analog
and digital output use analog output. To
enable digital output, use the Sounds
and Audio Devices dialog in Windows
Control Panel or the proprietary mixer provided with some sound cards or
onboard audio devices.

UNDERSTANDING VIDEO CONNECTOR TYPES

When selecting a monitor or projector for use with a particular video card
or integrated video port, it's helpful to understand the physical and feature
differences between different video connector types, such as VGA, DVI,
HDMI, Component/RGB, S-video, and composite.
There are two basic ways of transferring video information from computer
to monitor: analogue or digital transmission. Digital transmission is the
easiest to comprehend: for each pixel in the display, the computer sends a
set of data with the necessary color and intensity information (pulses
equivalent to the binary digits 0 and 1). This also provides the most faithful
representation, as the monitor displays exactly what the computer intends.
Most LCD-type monitors use a digital connection.
Analogue transmission works not by providing color and intensity information
for each individual pixel, but as continuous electrical signals or waves. Such a
transmission scheme is used for CRT monitors, as the monitors themselves
have no concept of an individual "pixel".
However, computers work in a digital world.

F) VGA Port (Video Graphics Array)

VGA is an analogue display standard. The computer and video adapter
convert digital data into analogue format. A video adapter is an expansion
card or component that provides the ability to convert display information
into a signal that is sent to the monitor. It can also be called a graphics
adapter, video card or graphics card.
By varying the levels of red, green, or blue per dot (pixel) onscreen, a VGA
port and monitor can display an unlimited number of colours.  VGA port is
found in many computers, projectors, video cards and High-Definition TVs.
It is a D-sub connector consisting of
15 pins in 3 rows. The connector is
called as DE-15.
VGA port is the main interface
between computers and older CRT
monitors. Even the modern LCD and
LED monitors support VGA ports but
the picture quality is reduced. VGA
carries analogue video signals up to a
resolution of 648X480.

With the increase in use of digital

video, VGA ports are gradually being
replaced by HDMI and Display Ports.
Some laptops are equipped with on-board VGA ports in order to connect to
external monitors or projectors. The pinout of a VGA port is shown below.
Once the display information is in analog form, it is sent to the monitor
through a VGA cable. The cable connects at the back of the computer to an
analog connector (also known as a D-Sub connector) that has 15 pins in three
rows (see the diagram below):
1. Red out
2. Green out
3. Blue out
4. Unused
5. Ground
6. Red return (ground)
7. Green return (ground)
8. Blue return (ground)
9. Unused
10. Sync return (ground
11. Monitor ID 0 in
12. Monitor ID 1 in or data from
display
13. Horizontal Sync out
14. Vertical Sync
15. Monitor ID 3 in or data
clock
You can see that a VGA connector like this has three separate lines for the
red, green and blue color signals, and two lines for horizontal and vertical
sync signals. In a normal television, all of these signals are combined into a
single composite video signal. The separation of the signals is one reason why
a computer monitor can have so many more pixels than a TV set.
Because a VGA (analog) connector does not support the use of digital
monitors, the Digital Video Interface (DVI) standard was developed.

G) Digital Video Interface (DVI)

DVI keeps data in digital form
from the computer to the
monitor. There's no need to
convert data from digital
information to analog
information. LCD monitors work
in a digital mode and support
the DVI format. (Although,
some also accept analog
information, which is then
converted to digital format.)
At one time, a digital signal
offered better image quality
compared to analog technology.
However, analogue signal
processing technology has
improved over the years and
the difference in quality is now
minimal.

The DVI specification is based on Silicon Image's Transition Minimized

Differential Signaling (TMDS) and provides a high-speed digital interface. A
transmitter on the video adapter sends the digital information to a receiver
in the monitor. TMDS takes the signal from the video adapter, determines
the resolution and refresh rate that the monitor is using, and spreads the
signal out over the available bandwidth to optimize the data transfer from
computer to monitor.
DVI cables can be a single link cable that uses one TMDS transmitter or
a dual link cable with two transmitters. A single link DVI cable and
connection supports a 1920x1080 image, and a dual link cable/connection
supports up to a 2048x1536 image.

There are two main types of DVI connections:

 DVI-digital (DVI-D) is a digital-only format. It requires a video
adapter with a DVI-D connection and a monitor with a DVI-D input.
The connector contains 24 pins/receptacles in 3 rows of 8 plus a
grounding slot for dual-link support. For single-link support, the
connector contains 18 pins/receptacles.
 DVI-integrated (DVI-I) supports both digital and analog
transmissions. This gives you the option to connect a monitor that
accepts digital input or analog input. In addition to the
pins/receptacles found on the DVI-D connector for digital support, a
DVI-I connector has 4 additional pins/receptacles to carry an analog
signal.
If you buy a monitor with only a DVI (digital) connection, make sure that you
have a video adapter with a DVI-D or DVI-I connection. If your video
adapter has only an analog (VGA) connection, look for a monitor that
supports the analog format.

DVI-D connectors carry a digital-only signal and DVI-I adds four pins
for analog capability. Both connectors can be used with a single-link or
a dual-link cable, depending upon the requirements of the display.
DVI-A supports only analogue signals.

Mini-DVI
Mini-DVI port is developed by Apple as an alternative to Mini-VGA port and
is physically similar to one. It is smaller than a regular DVI port.
It is a 32 pin port and is capable of transmitting DVI, composite, S-Video
and VGA signals with respective adapters.
The following image shows a Mini-DVI port
and its compatible cable.

Micro-DVI
Micro-DVI port, as the name suggests is
physically smaller than Mini-DVI and is
capable of transmitting only digital signals.
This port can be connected to external devices with DVI and VGA interfaces
and respective adapters are
required. In the following
image, a Micro-DVI port can
be seen adjacent to
headphone and USB ports.

H) Display Port
Display Port is a digital display interface with optional multiple channel audio
and other forms of data. Display Port is developed with an aim of replacing
VGA and DVI ports as the main interface between a computer and monitor.
The latest version DisplayPort 1.3 can handle a resolution up to 7680 X
4320.

The Display Port has a 20 pin connector, which is a very less number when
compared to DVI port and offers better resolution. The pin out diagram of a
Display Port is shown below.
 I) HDMI
If you've shopped for an HDTV, a PlayStation 3, or an HD-DVD or Blu-ray
player, you've probably heard about HDMI. It can seem like just one of many
connections on televisions or home-theater receivers. But HDMI is more
than a port on the back of a TV (and the often-expensive cable that fits
inside). It's a set of rules for allowing high-definition electronic devices to
communicate.

HDTVs are digital. They use information in the form of ones and zeros. This
information travels through cables as distinct electrical pulses. HDTVs have
an aspect ratio of 16:9, so the picture is rectangular. They also have a higher
resolution -- current HDTV standards allow for resolutions of up to 1920 x
1080 pixels. HDTV signals can also be progressive, meaning that each frame
of the moving image is a whole picture rather than half of one. HDMI is
unique in its ability to support digital audio as well as video through a single
cable. With the right setup, HDMI can make a significant difference in a
home-theater system. The current standard can carry 1080p high-definition
signals, and it supports eight channels of uncompressed audio, enough for a
7.1 surround-sound system. HDMI can cut down on the number of cables
required to connect components, and it can even reduce the number
of remote controls needed to watch a movie.
But there's a catch. In order to take advantage of everything HDMI has to
offer, all of the components of a home theater have to be compatible with
them. 
HDMI uses transition minimized differential signaling (TMDS) to move
information from one place to another. TMDS is a way of encoding the signal
to protect it from degrading as it travels down the length of the cable.
Here's what happens:
 The sending device, such as an HD-DVD player, encodes the signal to
reduce the number of transitions between one (on) and zero (off).
Think of each transition as a sharp drop-off -- as the signal travels,
this drop-off can begin to wear away, degrading the signal. The
encoding step helps protect signal quality by reducing the number of
chances for the signal to degrade.
 One of the cables in the twisted pair carries the signal itself. The
other carries an inverse copy of the signal.
 The receiving device, such as an HDTV, decodes the signal. It
measures the differential, or the difference between the signal and
its inverse. It uses this information to compensate for any loss of
signal along the way.
HDMI also has the ability to protect data from piracy. It uses high-
bandwidth digital copy protection (HDCP) to accomplish this. HDCP is
an authentication protocol. Basically, each home-theater device has
identification data and encryption data stored on its extended display
identification data (EDID) chip. The source device, such as a Blu-ray player,
checks the authentication key of the receiving device, such as an HDTV. If
both keys check out, the sending device moves on to the next step. It
generates a new key and shares it with the receiving device. In other words,
it creates a shared secret. Ideally, this whole process, known as
a handshake, takes place almost instantaneously.
The source device encodes its information using the key it generated it. The
receiving device decodes it using the same information. If an unauthorized
device tries to intercept the data, the source device stops transmitting. It
also makes sure that the key hasn't changed and that the system is still
secure every few minutes. All HDMI-compatible devices are required to
support HDCP, but the companies that manufacture and distribute high-
definition content aren't required to enable it. In the United States, this
content-protection ability is mandated by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).
Many HDTV early adopters rely on DVI, since it hit the market before
HDMI did. Since DVI and HDMI both use the TMDS protocol, they're
compatible. All you need to connect an HDMI cable to a DVI port is a passive
adapter.
The DVI and HDMI connectors have some other similarities. Both use a grid
of pins to transmit signals from the cable to the device. While DVI has a 29-
pin connector, HDMI's type A connector has 19 pins. A DVI connector also
uses a pair of built-in screws to anchor it to the device. HDMI plugs don't
have this extra support, and some users have expressed concern that this
puts unnecessary strain on the device's circuitry. There's also a miniature
version of the HDMI connector for use on smaller devices like digital
camcorders as well as a 29-pin type B connector, although most consumer
devices use type A.
From the HDMI connector's pins, signals travel through twisted pairs of
copper cable. Three audio and video channels travel through two pins each,
for a total of six pins. The TMDS clock, which allows devices to synchronize
the incoming data, travels through one pair of pins. Each of these four total
pairs has a shield -- another wire that protects it from interference from
its neighbors. The TMDS channels, the clock and the shields make up the
bulk of the cable pairs inside the HDMI cable.
The other signals that
travel through the HDMI
cable need only one pin.
One such channel is
the consumer electronics
channel (CEC). If your
devices support it, this
channel allows them to
send instructions to one
another. For example,
an HD-DVD player could
automatically turn on a
home-theater receiver and
an HDTV when it started
playing a disk. The hot plug
detect channel, which uses
one pin, senses when you
plug in or unplug a device,
re-initializing the HDMI
link if necessary. The one-
pin display data channel (DDC) carries device information and the HDCP
encryption information discussed in the previous section. Other channels
carry encryption data and electricity to power communication between
devices.
The cables themselves come in two categories. Category 1 has a speed of
74.25 MHz. Category 2 has a speeded of 340 MHz. Most consumer cables
are the faster category 2 variety.

The HDMI connector consists of 19 pins and the latest version of HDMI i.e.
HDMI 2.0 can carry digital video signal up to a resolution of 4096×2160 and
32 audio channels. The pinout diagram of an HDMI port is as follows.

J) Component Video/RGB
Component Video is an interface where the video signals are split into more
than two channels and the quality of the video signal is better that
Composite video.
Like composite video, component video transmits only video signals and two
separate connectors must be used for stereo audio. Component video port
can transmit both analogue and digital video signals.
The ports of the commonly found Component video uses 3 connectors and
are colour coded as Green, Blue and Red.

K) Composite
The lowest-quality video signal supported by PCs is composite video, which
uses a single RCA cable and port to transmit a video signal. Video cards sold
in Europe usually use a composite signal for their TV-out signal.
Composite video can be used by standard definition TVs (SDTVs) and VCRs.
If you need to connect a PC with an S-video port to a TV or VCR that has a
composite port, you can use an S-video to composite video adapter.
RCA Connector
 RCA Connector can carry
composite video and stereo audio
signals over three cables.
Composite video transmits
analogue video signals and the
connector is as yellow colored RCA
connector.
The video signals are transmitted
over a single channel along with
the line and frame
synchronization pulses at a
maximum resolution of 576i
(standard resolution).
The red and white connectors are
used for stereo audio signals (red for right channel and white for left
channel).

L) S-Video
S-video divides a video signal into separate luma and chroma signals,
providing a better signal for use with standard TVs, projectors, DVD
players, and VCRs than a composite signal. The so-called "TV-out" port on
the back of many video cards is actually an S-video port.
S-Video or Separate Video connector is used for transmitting only video
signals. The picture quality is better than that of Composite video but has a
lesser resolution than Component video.
The S-Video port is generally black in color and is present on all TVs and
most computers. S-Video port looks like a PS/2 port but consists of only 4
pins.
Out of the 4 pins, one pin is used to carry the intensity signals (black and
white) and other pin is used to carry color signals. Both these pins have their
respective ground pins. The pinout diagram of an S-Video port is shown
below.

The figure below compares component, S-video, and composite video cables
and ports to each other. Note that composite video cables are often bundled
with stereo audio cables, but can also be purchased separately.
 M) USB (Universal Serial Bus)
USB have largely replaced PS/2 (mini-DIN) mouse and keyboard, serial
(COM), and parallel (LPT) ports on recent systems. Most recent desktop
systems have at least four USB ports, and many systems support as many as
eight or more front- and rear-mounted USB ports.
USB port can be used to transfer data, act as an interface for peripherals
and even act as power supply for devices connected to it. There are three
kinds of USB ports: Type A, Type B, Type B mini-USB and Micro USB, Type
C.
Although a cable has two differently shaped connectors, it takes the name
of whichever connector is not USB Type-A. That’s because USB Type-A is
the most commonly used USB port and connector so an alternative type is
the most distinguishing feature.
For example, a cable with both a USB Type-A and a Type-C connector is a
USB Type-C cable.
TYPES OF USB CONNECTOR
USB connectors are sometimes referred to as “male” connectors, as they
plug into a “female” port.
There are three standard types of USB ports you need to know:
 USB 1.1
 USB 2.0 (also called Hi-Speed USB)
 USB 3.0 (also called SuperSpeed USB)

MINI CONNECTORS
USB Type-A Mini
 Developed to allow On-The-Go (OTG) peripheral devices such as
smartphones and tablets to function as host devices for keyboards
and mice
 Superseded by USB Type-B Mini and Type-B micro connectors
USB Type-B Mini
 Found on digital cameras, external hard drives, USB hubs and other
equipment
 Used by USB 1.1 and 2.0
MICRO CONNECTORS
USB Type-A Micro
 Found on USB On-The-Go (OTG) devices such as smartphones and
tablets
 Doesn’t have a dedicated port but instead fits into a special AB port
which accommodates both USB Type-A Micro and USB Type-B Micro
 Mostly superseded by USB Type-B Micro
USB Type-B Micro
 Used by modern Android devices as their standard charging plug and
port
TYPES OF USB PORT
The port (also called a socket, jack or receptacle) is the part of your device
the USB connector plugs into. USB ports are sometimes referred to as
“female”, as they accept a “male” connector.
The different types of port—shown by USB version—are as follows:

USB Type A
USB Type-A port is a 4-pin connector. There are different versions of Type
– A USB ports: USB 1.1, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0. USB 3.0 is the common
standard and supports a data rate of 400MBps.
USB 3.1 is also released and supports a data rate up to 10Gbps. The USB 2.0
is Black color coded and USB 3.0 is Blue. The following image shows USB 2.0
and USB 3.0 ports.
The pinout diagram of USB Type – A port is shown below. The pinout is
common to all standards of Type – A.
There is a USB type-A to micro-HDMI
You might use one of these cables when connecting a smartphone or tablet
to a larger display, such as a computer monitor, high-definition TV or video
projector.
Micro-HDMI is also known as HDMI Type-D, and is a very similar shape to
the USB Type-B Micro connector.

USB TYPE-B

You’ll typically find USB Type-B ports on larger devices you connect to your
computer, such as printers and scanners. You might also have external
storage devices or drives that use them.
Most USB Type-B connectors are at one end of a USB Type-B to USB Type-
A cable. You plug the Type-B connector into the printer, scanner or other
device and the Type-A connector to the standard USB port on your
computer.

USB Type C
USB Type – C is the latest specification of the USB and is a reversible
connector. USB Type – C is supposed to replace Types A and B.
Still fairly new (2014), so used by only a limited number of devices, such as:
 Apple MacBooks (for charging, transferring data and playing video)
 some of the latest laptops
 Nintendo Switch games console
The port of USB Type – C consists of 24 pins. The pinout diagram of USB
Type – C is shown below. USB Type – C can handle a current of 3A.
This feature of handling high current is used in the latest Fast Charging
Technology where a Smart Phone’s battery will reach its full charge is very
less time.

Ethernet Port – This port is used for networking and fast internet
connections.
RJ-45 Ethernet is a networking technology that is used to connect your
computer to Internet and communicate with other computers or networking
devices.
The interface that is used for computer networking and telecommunications
is known as Registered Jack (RJ) and RJ – 45 port in particular is used for
Ethernet over cable. RJ-45 connector is an 8 pin – 8 contact (8P – 8C) type
modular connector.
The latest Ethernet technology is called Gigabit Ethernet and supports a
data transfer rate of over 10Gigabits per second. The Ethernet or a LAN
port with 8P – 8C type connector along with the male RJ-45 cable is shown
below.
The un-keyed 8P – 8C modular connector is generally referred to the
Ethernet RJ-45. Often, RJ-45 ports are equipped with two LEDs for
indicating transmission and packet detection.
As mentioned earlier, an Ethernet RJ-45 port has 8 pins and the following
picture depicts the pinout of one.

RJ-11
RJ-11 is another type of Registered Jack that is used as an interface for
telephone, modem or ADSL connections. Even though computers are almost
never equipped with an RJ-11 port, they are the main interface in all
telecommunication networks.
RJ-45 and RJ11 ports look alike but RJ-11 is a smaller port and uses a 6
point – 4 contact (6P – 4C) connector even though a 6 point – 2 contact (6P –
2C) is sufficient. The following is a picture of an RJ-11 port and its
compatible connector.

The following image can be used to compare RJ-45 and RJ-11 ports.
e-SATA
e-SATA is an external Serial AT Attachment connector that is used as an
interface for connecting external mass storage devices. Modern e-SATA
connector are called e-SATAp and stands for Power e-SATA ports.
They are hybrid ports capable of supporting both e-SATA and USB. Neither
the SATA organization nor the USB organization has officially approved the
e-SATAp port and must be used at user’s risk.

The above image is of an e-SATAp port. It shows that both e-SATA and
USB devices can be connected.

IEEE 1394 (Firewire)

IEEE 1394 is a family of high-speed bidirectional serial transmission ports
that can connect PCs to each other, digital devices to PCs, or digital devices
to each other.
 The most common
version of IEEE 1394
is known as IEEE
1394a, and is also
known as FireWire
400. Sony's version is
known as i.LINK. At
400Mbps, IEEE
1394a is one of the
fastest and most
flexible ports used on
personal computers.
IEEE 1394a can be
implemented either as
a built-in port on the motherboard
Firewire transmits data at 400 Mb/s. Firewire 1394B (the new firewire)
transmits data at 3.2 Gb/s. Firewire has declined in recent years as USB
emerged as the industry standard.
PERIPHERAL DEVICES
A peripheral device is a device that connects to a computer system to add
functionality. Peripheral devices are the hardware components that include:
input, output, and secondary storage devices. Although often located close
to the system unit, they are outside the main processing circuitry and thus
are considered peripheral.

Input Devices:
Input devices are used for entering data or instructions to the central
processing unit (CPU). The data obtained is converted from human readable
form to machine language (0s and 1s) commonly referred to as binary digits
(bits). The process of converting data to binary digits is called digitizing.
Data and instructions from input devices must be digitized in order for them
to be understood by the computer.
Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter
data.

KEYBOARD
A keyboard is a device that converts letters, numbers and other characters
into electrical signals that are machine-readable, so that they can be
recognized by the computer processor. The keyboard is used to enter
textual data. Most computer keyboards follow the QWERTY order, which
refers to the sequence of the alphabetic keys on the top left row on a
standard keyboard. Another keyboard layout is the AZERTY, which is
common in European countries.
During the typing in process, the keyed data and instructions are displayed
on the screen. They are sent as electric signals to the CPU through
electrical pathways called buses where they are digitized, that is, converted
to digital data. They are then displayed back on the screen in human
readable characters, that is, converted to analog data.
In the key-to-store method, data are input directly, saved or stored in a
hard disk, a magnetic tape or a diskette.
The keyboard is divided into several groups based on function:
1. Alphanumeric Keys - Also known as typing keys. They are labelled with
alphabetic letters A to Z,numbers arranged in line 1,2,3……..0 and special
symbols such as ?,%,$ .This group also includes the following keys:Caps
Lock,Enter,,Tab, Spacebar and Backspace.
2. Function keys - usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are labelled
F1,F2….up to F12.They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs.
For example pressing F1 key in most programs starts the Help menu.
3. Curser movement and Editing Keys – used to move cursor on the screen. They
include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys. 
a) Arrow keys: To move the cursor one character to the right in a
Word processing document, press the Right arrow  key; to move
the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow  key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow  key; to
move the cursor one line down, press the Down arrow  key.
b) Page Up & Page Down: To move the cursor up one page in case
the document has many pages, press the Page Up  key; to move
the cursor down one page, press the Page Down  key.
c) Home & End keys: To move the cursor to the beginning of the
current line, press the Home  key; to move the cursor to the
end of the current line, press the End key.
4. Editing keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document.  These are:
a) Backspace key. It has a backward arrow (¥) marked on it. Used
to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right
to left on the same line). When pressed, it makes the cursor
move one space backwards and the immediate letter or number
to the left is erased.
b) Delete (Del) key. It is used to erase characters to the right of
the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
c) Insert (Ins) key. Used in a word processor to switch between
the Insert mode & Overtype mode.  When pressed, it helps
 the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace a
character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).
Special purpose keys: used in combination with other keys to give certain commands
to a computer. Examples: Esc,Tab,Shift,Ctrl,Alt,Enter,Num Lock,Scroll Lock, CAPS
Lock.
A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.
It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used
to give the command for saving the text/objecNumeric Keys – numeric keypad
consists of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and arithmetic signs like +(addition),-
(subtraction),/(division).They are located on the right hand side of the keyboard.
Only used when the Num Lock keypad is turned on

Types of keyboard
1. Standard/Traditional keyboard ; Is the most common type of keying
device. Though standard keyboards have undergone considerable
changes in design over the last 20 years, their basic layout remains
similar. The average number of keys on a regular keyboard is 105,
though some older versions have keys in the range of 95-103.
2. Flexible keyboard; Is more portable and can be folded and packed into
a bag.
3. Ergonomic Keyboard; Is specially designed to provide comfort and
alleviate wrist strain. This is to prevent Carpal Tunnel Syndrome,
which causes numbness and tingling sensation in the hands and fingers
after typing for a long duration.
4. Braille keyboard;  Is a keyboard designed for use by the blind. It
consists of keys identified by raised dots.
5. Keypad; This are small /miniature keyboard which are mostly used on
portable computers such as palmtops, laptops, mobile phones and
PDAs.
6. Wireless keyboards these keyboards do not need to be connected to
the computer via a wire. This makes it very convenient for the user to
use the keyboard comfortably. Three basic types of connections,
Bluetooth, Infrared (IR), and Radio Frequency to connect to the
computer. Radio Frequency (RF) keyboards have a limited range of
only about 6 feet, but are much cheaper than Bluetooth keyboards,
and much more effective than Infrared keyboards. The latest models
of RF keyboards have no issues like frequency disturbance, and can be
the best bet if you do not need more than around 5 feet of freedom.
 Infrared (IR) keyboards, have a major drawback. They need to be in
the line-of-sight of the transceiver. This makes it very difficult to
use such keyboards effectively, and almost impossible to use mice
featuring this technology. Though they are not as expensive as
Bluetooth keyboards, and have a decent range of about 12 feet, the
line-of-sight problem makes this type very ineffective.
7. Compact keyboards are slim and usually do not have the numeric
keypad that is present on the right side of other keyboards. These
are typically used in laptops, where sizing issues make it difficult to
accommodate a standard keyboard. To make up for the small size,
these keyboards rely on the use of multiple keys to carry out
functions that would only use a single key on a standard-sized
keyboard. Some models also include a touch-pad that can be used
instead of the mouse.
 8. Internet keyboards have special keys, called hot keys, which perform
functions related to Internet usage.
Typical hot keys have functions like back, forward, bookmarks list,
e-mail inbox, Google search, YouTube, shopping online, etc. This
makes browsing the Internet
very convenient, as the user does
not have to go through the
process of clicking buttons via a
mouse.
These days, many standard keyboards
have adopted the concept of Internet
keyboards by placing internet hot keys
at the top, since almost every kind of
work requires the use of the Internet.

9. Gaming keyboards are designed specifically for gamers. They include

features meant to enhance gaming experience, as well as provide
convenient usage.
They include features like volume
control, key lighting, programmable
keys, interchangeable keys, touch
screens to customize the keyboard, in-
built joysticks etc. For instance, first-
person shooter games require the
direction keys to be placed in a manner
that do not cause repetitive stress to
the fingers and wrists.
Gaming keyboards come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from round
keyboards to v-shaped ones, but this is mainly done as a marketing
gimmick to attract gamers. Many gaming keyboards are designed for
specific types of games.
10. Virtual keyboards are
software devices that let
you input data just like a
hardware keyboard.
They open up as an
application and can be
 controlled by a mouse or via a touch screen. They are mainly used in
devices which do not necessarily require a keyboard, like a tablet or a
smart-phone. They are useful as they aid in making the size of the
device smaller. Virtual keyboards are also used in situations
concerning security, as anything entered on an ordinary keyboard is
recorded in a key log.
This leads to security risks associated with passwords or PIN numbers.
This is the reason many banks provide the facility of a virtual keyboard in
their online banking operations.
This was a little information on the different types of keyboards available.
Based on your requirement, you can choose any of the keyboards
mentioned above. When choosing a keyboard, remember that the most
important thing to look for is comfort.
Computer keyboard shortcuts
Computer Keyboard shortcuts are very essential on PC that can help you to
work fast and speed up the task in every case. There are almost 200
Computer Keyboard shortcuts to be used but here we will tell you top ten
shortcut keys that are used regularly to speed up the task.
Top Ten Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys
       Cut, Copy and Paste
● Ctrl+C or Ctrl+Insert for Copy
● Ctrl+X for cut
● Ctrl+V or Shift+Insert for paste
        Undo and Redo
■ Ctrl+Z for undo any change
■ Ctrl+Y to redo any undo
■  Ctrl+F opens Find in any program
■  Alt+Tab or Ctrl+Tab allows you switch between running applications
■ Ctrl+P to open a print window
■ Ctrl+Backspace to delete a full word of a single character
■ Ctrl+S saves a file
■ Ctrl+Home move the cursor to beginning of document and Ctrl+End will
move the cursor to end of document
■ Windows key+L will lock the Computer
■ Ctrl+Alt+Delete will launch the Task manager
 ■ Alt+F4 will close the currently running application

POINTING DEVICES
Pointing devices are used for controlling a pointer cursor on the screen. The
items to be entered are selected by either pointing to or clicking on them.
Apart from the mouse, other pointing devices include; trackball, joystick,
light pen and touch sensitive screens.
Mouse
It is used to point to and select items on your computer screen. It has two
buttons: a primary button (left) and a secondary button. Mouse clicking
techniques:
1. Pointing and Single Clicking
2. Double clicking
3. Right clicking
4. Dragging and dropping
5. Scrolling
Types of mouse
1. Standard mouse; The standard mouse or traditional mouse has a ball
underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll button located between
the left and right buttons.
2. Optical mouse; A pointing device found on most PCs. Sensors on the
bottom of the mouse detect when the mouse is moved. Data about this
movement is sent to the computer.
3. Cordless mouse; cordless or wireless mouse, is a battery powered
mouse that uses radio or infrared waves instead of being physically
connected to the system.
4. Joystick/Joypad
Used mainly for playing games. The user
moves the joystick left/right,
forward/back and data about these
movements are sent to the computer.
Small joysticks
can also be found on some mobile
phones.

    
3. Touch sensitive screens.
A touch screen is an alternative to a separate pointing device. With a touch
screen the user selects items on the screen by touching the surface. This
makes touch screen systems very intuitive and simple to use. Often used for
information terminals in public places e.g. libraries or museums where mice
or keyboards may be stolen or damaged.
4. Light pens and stylus
A light pen is a light sensitive pen-like device connected by a cable to the
computer system. The user brings the light pen to the desired point on the
screen and presses the pen button, which identifies the screen location on
the computer. Commonly used as design aids. Also used as selecting items on
mobile phones, tablets, PDAs.
5. Touchpad
A pointing device found on most laptops. Used instead of a
mouse since it takes up less space. The user moves a finger
across the touch pad and this movement data is sent to the
computer.
 6. Pointing Stick
A pointing stick is a small joystick with a pressure
sensitive nub about the size of a pencil eraser. The user
pushes the nub around (not pressing it down) to make the
pointer move in that direction. More pressure makes the
pointer move faster. A pointing stick is usually on the
keyboard of a laptop between the G, H, and B keys. A
pointing stick needs either a touchpad or separate keys
to create clicks like the left and right mouse buttons.

7. Light Pen
A light pen is a device used as a pointing device or to
‘write’ on the screen of a computer. Light pens are rarely
used today since graphics tablets and high-quality touch
screens provide similar functionality.

SCANNING DEVICES
Their first goal was to avoid mistakes in data entry by making the initial
entering of the data as automatic as possible. The second goal was to avoid
having to re-enter data to perform a different task with it. Scanners are
generally classified into two: flatbed and handheld scanners. Flatbed
scanners are named after the flat bed of glass that the item to be scanned
would lie upon, they resemble the top half of a photocopier.
1. Optical scanners.
Optical scanners capture data using a beam of light. A light beam passes
over an object and the image is analyzed by specialized software.

2. Optical Bar-Code
Reader/Recognition
Used to capture data coded in lines of
varying thickness known as barcodes or
Universal Product Code(UPC). Barcodes
holds manufacturer’s details and the
product code but not price details
because prices vary from one place to
another.
Optical Marks Reader
OMR detects human marked data from document forms such as surveys and
tests. OMR is used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
This is how, for instance standardized tests such as KCPE, SAT or GMAT
are scored. These marks can then be detected by an OMR scanner.
Common uses of OMR are multiple-choice exam answer sheets and lottery
number forms. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.
OCR
Optical Character Recognition: An OCR
scanner is used to read handwritten
characters, typewritten or printed text
into machine encoded text. Today, a
more advanced OCR scanner called a
flat-bed scanner is used to capture
pictures and real objects. An OCR
software is used in this process.
Documents must be carefully checked for wrong conversions. If the original
print was not very crisp and clean, errors are very likely. Manually checking
for proper conversion is necessary. These programs are getting really good
if they have a clear scan to work with.
Some use of OCR
 Handling sales orders
 Clearing Cheques

Magnetic scanners
Magnetic scanners are used to capture data written using magnetic ink or
coded onto a magnetic strip. This device uses the principle of magnetism to
sense the document characters, which have been written using magnetized
ink. The ink is magnetized using particles of iron(II) oxide.
Common examples of magnetic scanners are, the Magnetic Ink Character
Reader/Recognition (MICR), Magnetic Strip Readers (MSR) and card
readers.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a technology that allows
details from bank cheques to be read into a computer quickly and accurately.
The cheque number and bank account
number are printed at the bottom of each
bank cheque in special magnetic ink using a
special font. These numbers can be
detected by an MICR reader.The details of
the cheque, for example, serial number, bank
branch number, and account holder’s number, among others are coded in
magnetic ink.
It is more secure against forgery than the OCR. Reading speed is high.
One disadvantage of MICR is that the system is expensive.

Magnetic Stripe Readers (MSR)/Credit card

readers
A magnetic stripe reader is a device designed to
read the information stored within the magnetic
stripe of special cards such as credit cards and
ATM cards. Usually the data stored on this strip
in the same data shown on the front of the card
(e.g. the credit card number, expiry date and customer name). The stripe
allows this data to be input to a computer system faster and more
accurately than by typing it in.
A magnetic strip/stripe reader is used to read the data from the stripe.
This is usually done by ‘swiping’ the card through a slot on the reader.

Smart Card /Card Chip Reader

Modern credit cards and ID cards don’t use a magnetic strip.
Instead they have a tiny ‘chip’ of computer memory
embedded inside them. (These cards are often referred to as
smart cards.)
Data can be stored in this memory and read back using a ‘chip’
reader.
A card is inserted into the reader where metal contacts connect to the
metal pads on the front face of the card. The reader can then access the
memory chip and the data stored on it.
Smart cards can store much more data than magnetic strip cards, e.g. an ID
smart card would store not only the owner’s name and card number, but
might also have a digital image of the person.
Satellite TV decoders use smart cards to store which channels a user has
paid for. The data is encrypted so that it is not easy to alter (you can’t add
new channels without paying!) Many types of card use this system: id cards,
phone cards, credit cards, door security cards, etc.
NFC Reader
Near Field Communication devices need to be very close to the credit card,
ID card, or smartphone to get the information needed. This might be for a
credit card transaction with a smartphone app like Apple Pay or Android Pay,
or to unlock a secured door or your car with a chipped key chain fob.
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification uses special tags that contain chips which
are programmed with information. A RFID reader device sends a signal to
the chip which makes the tag send a short-range radio signal with the
information. These tags have a wide variety of uses with more being used
every day.
Examples:
● Shipping containers - what's in the container, where it came from,
where it is going
● Surgery equipment - to get a count of items to make sure none are
still in the patient
● Patient ID bracelet - patient name, medical info
● Pet ID tag - pet's name, medical info, owner's name and contact info
● Library book - book ID for automatically checking books out and back
in
Product on store shelf - auto-scan at checkout, auto-scanning for theft at
the exit, auto-update of inventory.
QR Codes
A QR reading app translates an odd square pattern into information like a
web site URL or product information. QR stands for Quick Response. This
code was created originally for shipping/product information.
The example is for this site, www.jegsworks.com. A QR app on a smart phone
takes a photo of the QR code, translates it, and then loads the web page.

Input: Digitizer
Digitizers convert analog or physical input into digital images. This makes
them related to both scanners and mice, although current digitizers serve
completely different roles. They can be used by the computer to create a
picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Modern digitizers
appear as flat scanning surfaces or tablets that connect to a computer
workstation. The surface is touch-sensitive, sending signals to the software,
which translates them into images on the screen.
Digitizers carry out important work in
computer-aided design, graphics design
and engineering. They also help convert
hand-drawn images into textures and
animation in video games and movie CGI
[The common gateway interface (CGI) is a standard way for a Web server to
pass a Web user's request to an application program and to receive data
back to forward to the user].

N/B:
Stylus-The flat surface may be a screen on a monitor or mobile device, a
signature capture pad, or a graphics tablet. A stylus is a small metal or
plastic device that looks like a tiny ink pen but uses pressure instead of ink.
Digital Pen-A digital pen, which is slightly larger than a stylus, typically
provides more functionality than a stylus, featuring electronic erasers and
programmable buttons. Most digital pens, often simply called pens, are
pressure-sensitive.

SPEECH RECOGNITION DEVICES

Speech recognition devices are also called Voice Recognition Devices. Voice
recognition is a type of input method to enter data in form of spoken words
into the computer. They convert speech into a digital code.
This method is mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those with
impaired hands.
It can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into
certain areas or to use certain devices.
Although this is a fast and easier method, it has some disadvantages. It is
complex to develop and it does not take care of speech related problems
such as accents, inflections and tone. This implies that the device must learn
the unique speech of an individual.
The most widely used voice input device is the microphone.

Voice Input can also be done in the following ways:

● Speaker recognition -Security measures can require you to speak a
special phrase. The computer must recognize your voice to let you in.
● Speech to text -Translating spoken words direct to type would suit
some authors just fine.
A number of companies are now using speech recognition in their telephone
systems. For example to find out what your bank account balance is, instead
of punching in your account number on the phone keypad and choosing option
3 for current balance, you could speak your account number and say "Current
balance". The computer will even talk back and tell you what it thinks you
said so you can make corrections.
Input: Camera
A digital camera takes still photos but records the pictures
on memory cards. The information contained can be uploaded
to a computer for viewing. Many cell phones include a camera.
Some have two, one to take a picture of your face and one to
show what you are looking at.
A camcorder records moving pictures that can be uploaded to the computer.
Video formats take huge amounts of storage.
A web cam is a tiny video camera designed especially to sit
on your computer. Some laptops have one built into the case.
It feeds pictures directly to the computer. Of course you are
limited by the length of the cable that connects the camera
to the computer. But like any camera, it will take a picture of
what you point it at!
So what do people do with a web cam? They use it for video conferencing
over the Internet or Skype video phone calls. They show the world what's
going on outside their window (weather, traffic). They take digital pictures
and make movies of family, pets, snow storms, birthday parties, whatever.

Streaming video, movies, and television can now play

on your desktop and mobile devices using Internet services like YouTube or
using apps from subscription services, like DirecTV or NetFlix. 

Output devices
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out
information produced after the processing operations. There are two types
of output devices namely the softcopy and the hardcopy  output
devices. Softcopy refers to intangible output mainly displayed on the screen
or through other output devices such as speakers. A hardcopy  is a tangible
output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.
Softcopy output devices.
Some of the softcopy output devices are;

i. Monitors/video display unit (VDU)

It displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor
operations carried out by the computer.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
● Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
● Flat-Panel Display

For a long time,

monitors have been
designed using a long
tube called
the cathode ray tube
(CRT) that emits
light. The screen of a
cathode ray tube is
curved slightly
outward forming a
convex shape. However, new flat displays have come which do not use CRT
technology.

CRT Flat-Panel Display

Bulky Portable/Flexible/reduced weight
Consume a lot of power compared to Reduced/low power requirement
Flat-Panel Display.
Large in Size Reduced volume
High power consumption
Has sharpness or clarity of an image
Relatively bright Screen is rounded
or bent which distorts images when
viewed from acute angles.
Give off electric, magnetic
radiations.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more
than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in
the word help.
Why it has a large back: It has to have large tube lights at the back of the
panel in order to light up the front. There are additional layers between the
back and the front to spread light out and diffuse light coming from the
tube lights so that you get a nice even backlight.
The other reason is that there is a power circuitry built right into the
monitor because with regular LCDs it would be quite bulky if you had it
outside but with led backlight LCD, they are so efficient that you can have a
little tiny power brick on the power cable.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The
screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on
the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are
capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
● Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert
electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-
Emitting Diodes). LEDs are used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic
signals, camera flashes, lighted wallpaper, horticultural grow lights,
and medical devices. Plasma works by sandwiching a neon/xenon gas
mixture between two sealed glass plates with parallel electrodes
deposited on their surfaces. The plates are sealed so that the
electrodes form right angles, creating pixels. When a voltage pulse
passes between two electrodes, the gas breaks down and produces
weakly ionized plasma, which emits UV radiation. The UV radiation
activates color phosphors and visible light is emitted from each pixel.
● Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to
convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphic
patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). LCD is a flat panel
display technology commonly used in TVs, digital watches laptops,
tablets, smartphones and computer monitors. LCD displays utilize two
sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between
them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the
crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal
therefore is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or
blocking the light. TFT(Thin Film Transistors) is a type of LCD flat
panel in which each pixel is controlled by from one to four transistors.
 TFT technology provides the best resolution of all the flat panel
techniques , but it is also the most expensive.
There are two types of monitors namely monochrome and colour monitors.
Monochrome monitors display images and text in only one color mostly
black and white. Colour monitors can display images and text in multiple
colors. For a monitor to display information it must be connected to a
separate piece of circuit board, plugged into the motherboard called the
video card or graphics adapter. However, some motherboards have on-
board video capability therefore there is no need fora video card.

Output devices
The most common hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters.

Output: printers
Printers produce a hardcopy of information on papers. The quality of the
hardcopy depends on the printers printing mechanism. There are two types
of printers namely impact and non-impact printers−
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which
is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
● Very low consumable costs
● Very noisy
● Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
● There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
● Character printers
● Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character
at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
● Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
● Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These
printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists
of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
● Inexpensive
● Widely Used
● Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
● Slow Speed
● Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals
of Daisy flower which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers
are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters
to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages
● More reliable than DMP
● Better quality
● Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
● Slower than DMP
● Noisy
● More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −
● Drum Printer
● Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The
surface of the drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are
equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum
will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast
in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
● Very high speed
Disadvantages
● Very expensive
● Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain
Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
● Character fonts can easily be changed.
● Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
● Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page
Printers.
These printers are of two types −
● Laser Printers
● Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
● Faster than impact printers
● They are not noisy
● High quality
● Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the
dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
● Very high speed
● Very high quality output
● Good graphics quality
● Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
● Expensive
● Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single
printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.
Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many
styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some
models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
● High quality printing
● More reliable
Disadvantages
● Expensive as the cost per page is high
● Slow as compared to laser printer

Fax Machine
A device that sends and receives printed pages or images over telephone
lines by digitizing the material with an internal optical scanner and
transmitting the information as electronic signals. Surprisingly, fax machines
are still used routinely in many places. In fact, faxes were once at the
forefront of communication technologies. Even today, it is regularly used by
law enforcement agencies for bail postings or the delivery of public records.
Businesses also still use it as a “network effect”; “Because other people are
using it”.

Plotters & Their Types

A plotter resembles a printer but specializes in producing big charts such as
maps, pictures and drawings. They are mostly used for printing geographical,
architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to
be placed on billboards, machine parts etc. 
a) Drum Plotter
A drum plotter is a pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a
pin feed attachment. The drum then rotates the paper as pens move across
it and draw the image. It was the first output device used to print graphics
and large engineering drawings. There are two types of drum plotters,
external and internal. With an external drum plotter, the paper is wrapped
around its external surface, while the internal drum plotter uses a sheet of
paper wrapped around its internal surface.

b) Flat-Bed Plotter
A flat-bed plotter is a mechanical drafting device used with many CAD
programs for designers. The paper remains stationary on a flat surface while
a pen moves across it horizontally and vertically. This plotter may use
several different pen colors to create the graphics. The size of the graphic
is limited to the size of the flat-bed plotter's surface.
c) Inkjet Plotter
The inkjet plotter creates an image by spraying small droplets of ink on to
paper. A popular choice for advertising agencies and graphic designers,
inkjet plotters are used generally for large outputs, such as banners and
billboards and large signs often seen along roadsides. They are available in
thermal or piezoelectric models. Thermal inkjet plotters use heat to apply
droplets of ink, while piezoelectric plotters use charged crystals to apply
the ink. Inkjet plotters typically produce better quality graphics than other
plotter types.
d) Cutting Plotter
The cutting plotter is a large scale cutting device that produces ready-cut
mylar or vinyl lettering and graphics. Automated plotter knives cut into a
sheet of the material lying on the plotter's flat surface area, carving out
the design stored in the attached computer. Used for sign making, billboard
advertising and vehicle graphics, the devices offer far greater speed and
precision than can be achieved with the traditional method of creating sign
lettering and logos by hand.
Voice Output Devices
Use prerecorded vocalized sounds to produce output. The computer speaks
synthesized words. Most widely used voice output devices are stereo
speakers and headphones. Devices are connected to a sound card in the
system unit. Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.
Examples of voice output uses:
 Telephones and in cars
 Learning - help student study foreign language
  In supermarkets at the counter to confirm purchases.
 Assist the physically challenged
Output: Speakers
Speakers are used to output sound from a computer. Sound may be inform of
music, warning, video, interactive communication with a computer etc.
Speakers are used to connect to a computer to generate sound, which are
one of the most common output devices. Some speakers are designed to
connect with any kind of sound system, while some can be hooked up only
with computers. ... The amplitude and frequency define the sound produced
by speakers.

Soundcard is one of the physical components of hardware that makes up

your PC/Mac, turning digital code into sounds. Not just music of course,
but also the exploding gunfire from the latest video games to the latest cat
video on YouTube you've been sending to all your friends.

 Digital Out (white or yellow; words: "Digital" or "Digital Out") - Used

with surround sound or loudspeakers.
 Sound in or line in (blue; Arrow pointing into waves) - Connection for
external audio sources, (e.g., tape recorder, record player, or CD
player.)
 Microphone or Mic (pink) - The connection for a microphone or
headphones.
 Sound out or line out (green; Arrow pointing out of waves) - The
primary sound connection for your speakers or headphones. This sound
card also has a second (black) and third (orange) sound out connector.
 Black. Analog line-level audio output for surround speakers. 3.5 mm
minijack

ii. Video cards

A graphics card (also called a video card, display card, graphics adapter,
or display adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed of output
images to a display device (such as a computer monitor). 

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) also known as the Processor is the most
important component of the computer. It is actually regarded as the brain
of the computer. This is so because all data processing and control
operations are coordinated here. In microcomputers, the CPU is housed
inside the system unit. It is mounted on a circuit board known as, the
motherboard or the system board. The CPU is also known as the processor
or microprocessor. The CPU is the electronic circuitry responsible for
executing a sequence of stored instructions called a program.
The CPU has three
essential sets of
transistors that work
together in processing
digital data: a control
unit, an arithmetic
logic unit, and
memory unit.
Control Unit
Control unit coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input,
storage and output operations. It determines which operation or instruction
is to be executed next. To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses
a system clock. The system clock sends electric signals as its means of
communication, just like the way the traffic signals or a traffic officer does
in a roundabout or junction to direct motorists and other road users. The
number of pulses per second determines the speed of a microprocessor. The
faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU hence the faster the computer
can process data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a unit of central processing unit where all
arithmetic and logical operations are carried out. It contains programmed
transistors or subsections that perform mathematical and logical
calculations on the data.
Arithmetic Section- The basic arithmetic operations includes; addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logic Section- Logic operations are based on the computers capacity to
compare two or more values. For example, it may compare whether a piece of
data is greater than or less than, equal to or not equal to etc. It performs
operations such as comparing, matching, and merging of data.
In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary
storage locations called registers, which holds the data just before
processing. It also holds the results after processing.
Registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU. Examples
of registers are:
An accumulator: This temporarily holds the results of the last processing
step of the ALU.
Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just before it is
interpreted into a form that CPU can understand it.
An address register: This temporarily holds next piece of data waiting to
be processed.
Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way
to and from the CPU and the main memory.
N/B: The primary  difference between register  and Random-Access
Memory is that  register  holds the data that the CPU is currently
processing whereas, the memory holds the data that will be required for
processing.

Memory Unit
The CPU transfers instructions and, when necessary their input data, called
operands, from the Main Memory into the registers of the CPU. The CPU
executes the instructions in their stored sequence (one after another)
except when the execution sequence is explicitly altered by a branch
instruction. When necessary, the CPU transfers results from the CPU
registers into the Main Memory (RAM). The RAM can store instructions,
data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units
of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or
the main memory or the primary storage or Random-Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Functions of the memory unit
are −
● It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
● It stores intermediate results of processing.
● It stores the final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
● All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

An instruction cycle (also known as the fetch–decode–execute cycle or the

fetch-execute cycle) is the basic operational process of a computer.
Machine cycle
An instruction is a command which is
given by the user to a computer.
The  computer  retrieves a program
instruction from its memory,
determines what actions the
instruction dictates, and carries out
those actions. The control unit
fetches data and instructions from a
part of the computer’s memory,
called RAM (random access memory). It transports the digital bits through
an electronic bus, stores the instruction in registers, and decodes the
instruction for the arithmetic logic unit.
The ALU executes the instruction (performs simple addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and logic operations, such as OR and AND) and
returns the result to an accumulator register and storage register.
Eventually there is an instruction to store the results and the control unit
moves data from its temporary storage register to a specific address in
RAM.
CPU Performance technologies
Various performance features of the CPU determine the efficiency of this
basic machine cycle. These include clock speed, word size, bus width, and
techniques such as pipelining, RISC processing, multiprocessing, and
multicore technology.
1. Cache memory
Cache memory, as mentioned previously, improves system performance by
enabling the processor to reuse recently retrieved data or instructions
without needing to fetch them from main memory.
It is a high-speed access area that can be a reserved section of main
memory or on a storage device (memory cache and disk cache). Memory
cache is a portion of the high-speed SRAM (static random access
memory) and is effective because most programs access the same data or
instructions repeatedly. By keeping as much of this information as
possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM,
making the computer perform faster and more efficiently. Today, most
computers come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older computers
included only L1 cache. Below is an example of the Intel i7 processor and
its shared L3 cache.

Processors from AMD and Intel feature at least two levels of cache:
 Level 1 (L1) cache is built into the processor core. L1 cache is
relatively small (8KB–64KB). When the processor needs to access
memory, it checks the contents of L1 cache first.
 Level 2 (L2) cache is also built into the processor. On older slot-
mounted processors, L2 cache was external to the processor die, and
ran at slower speeds than the processor. On socketed processors, L2
cache is built into the processor die. If the processor does not find
the desired memory locations in L1 cache, it checks L2 cache next.
 Level 3 (L3) cache is found on some very high-performance processors
from Intel (such as the Core i7 series) and on several high-
performance and mid-level processors from AMD. L3 is also built into
the processor die. On systems with L3 cache, the processor checks L3
cache after checking L1 and L2 caches.
If cache memory does not contain the desired information, the
processor retrieves the desired information from main memory, and
stores copies of that information in its cache memory (L1 and L2, or
L1, L2, and L3). Processors with larger L2 caches (or L2 and L3 caches)
perform most tasks much more quickly than processors that have
 smaller L2 caches for two reasons. Cache memory is faster than main
memory, and the processor checks cache memory for needed
information before checking main memory.
With Internet browsers, cache is a temporary storage area where
website data is stored. By caching this data, the web browser can
improve performance by loading data from your disk, instead of the
Internet, if it is ever needed again. In most cases, each time you open
a web page, the page and all its files are sent to the browser's
temporary cache on the hard drive. If the web page and its resources
have not changed since the last time you viewed it, the browser loads
the data from cache rather than downloading the files again. Cache
saves lots of time, especially if you use a modem, and can also help
save on bandwidth for the website owner.
Tip
Anyone concerned about their privacy or want to hide pages they have
visited can clear their Internet cache. If you clear your Internet
browser cache frequently, you may also want to consider using
incognito mode
2. Clock Speed/rate
Microprocessor Transistors Clock Speed
Word Size
Intel Pentium IV 42 million 2.4 GHz 32
bit
AMD Athlon64 105.9 million 2.2 GHz 32 bit
AMD K10 758 million 1.6 GHz 64 bit
Intel i7 Quad 731 million 2.93 GHz 64
bit
Intel Atom Z540 47 million 1.86 GHz 64
bit
Intel i7 Six Core 2.2 billion 3.9 GHz 64
bit
An internal system clock synchronizes the machine cycle. On each
clock tick, the CPU executes another instruction. Clock speed is the
rate at which the CPU carries out its basic instructions. Computers
execute instructions very rapidly, at speeds measured in hertz.
Microcomputer clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz, millions
of cycles/second) or gigahertz (GHz, billions of cycles/second).
Newer chip set designs combined with faster electronic storage are
making it is difficult to rate CPU performance solely on clock speed.
Increasing internal clock speed is just one method of improving the
performance of a CPU. Other performance features must also be
optimized to take full advantage of the processor’s power.
3. Word Size
One important factor that contributes to CPU power is the amount of
data or instructions that are moved through a processor in one
machine cycle.
Word size refers to the group of bits that a processor can manipulate
as a unit in one machine cycle. A 64-bit processor can manipulate 64
bits (or 8 bytes) of data at one time, clearly an advantage over a 32-
bit (4 bytes) processor.

4. Bus Width
Another performance factor is the width of the system bus between
the processor and memory. A bus is an electronic path for the flow of
data. The system bus is an electronic pathway between the CPU,
memory, and other system components. The processor has two bus
connections to memory: the data bus and the address bus. The data
bus is the set of pathways that carries the actual data between
memory and the CPU. A 64-bit data bus can move 8 bytes of data to
the processor in the same machine cycle. The data bus width should
be matched to the word size of the CPU for optimum performance.
The address bus is the electronic pathway that carries information
about the memory locations of data. The width of the address bus
determines how much potential memory a processor can recognize.
Larger address buses mean the processor can address more memory.
Processors that use a 64-bit address bus can access a potential of 16
GB of memory. The processor’s ability to access a large address space
is important for multimedia applications. Digital video, sound, and
images produce large data files. Larger address buses support faster
multimedia processing by allowing these files to be moved from hard
drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and other peripheral storage devices to the
computer’s electronic memory where they can be processed and
displayed faster.

N/B:- Control Bus  : The control bus carries the control signals that
make sure everything is flowing smoothly from place to place.

5. Pipelining
Microprocessor manufacturers such as Intel, Motorola, and IBM
utilize additional techniques to maximize the CPU’s speed. Pipelining
increases CPU efficiency by reading an instruction, starting
processing, and reading another instruction before finishing the
previous one. Using pipelining, different steps of the machine cycle
can be carried out on several instructions simultaneously. This reduces
CPU idle time and increases the speed at which instructions can be
executed.
Processors have multiple pipelines (separate internal buses) that
operate simultaneously. To understand pipelining, take the example of
a fast-food restaurant. In the restaurant, assume that there are five
steps (and one employee per step) involved in making a burger and
giving it to the customer. First, (1) take the order and input it into the
computer system; (2) brown the buns and cook the burgers; (3) add
the condiments to the buns and burgers; (4) wrap the burgers, add
fries, and insert them into the bag; and then (5) take the customer’s
money and give the bag to the customer. Keep in mind that the person
taking the customer’s order and inputting the order can serve another
customer once he or she has completed this task for the first
customer. The same is true for each person along the line. (1) Make
your employees work faster; (2) break the tasks into smaller tasks
(such as seven steps instead of five and have seven people); or, (3)
have more lines of people doing exactly the same process tasks.
To relate this to processors, making the employees work faster is the
same as increasing the CPU clock speed. Breaking the tasks into
smaller tasks is the same as changing the structure of the CPU
pipeline. Instead of performing the standard 5 tasks, the CPU might
perform 6, 7, 14, 20, or even more steps. This allows each step to be
acted upon more quickly, the task to be smaller, and production to be
faster. Having more lines of people doing the same complete process is
like having multiple pipelines.
A 32- or 64-bit CPU can have separate paths, each of which handles
32 or 64 bits. For example, if a processor has two pipelines, the Dear
Mom letter can be in one pipeline, while a photo upload using a
different application can be in the other pipeline.
A processor might have 12 pipelines for integers and 17 pipelines for
floating-point numbers. (A floating-point number is a number that can
include a decimal point.) Other processors contain anywhere from 20-
to 31-stage pipelines. Debate continues about whether a longer
pipeline improves performance.
 6. Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing can also improve system performance. Multiprocessing
is a combination of multiple processors on the system board that
execute instructions simultaneously. There are several approaches to
multiprocessing. Computers may have a CPU and math coprocessor or
graphics coprocessor working together to increase the overall
performance of a system.
The Apple G5 computer has dual processors that speed CPU
operations using 64-bit chips, reaching processing power comparable
to a supercomputer. Multimedia development may also employ parallel
processing, a technique of linking multiple processors to operate at
the same time on a single task. Parallel processing is often used to
speed the final stage of 3-D animation, known as rendering.

7. Multicore Technology
Multicore processors are an increasingly popular approach to
multiprocessing in personal computers. A processor core is a CPU’s
“computational engine,” that is, those components that directly
execute instructions. Older processors were single core. The CPU was
built around a single computational engine that fetched and executed
each command in the pipeline as fast as it could. To improve
processing capacity, engineers increased clock speeds and made other
improvements that added transistors to the CPU. However, the extra
electronics increased the heat on the chip and did not achieve the
performance gains necessary for current computing demands.
Manufacturers looked for a different strategy to increase processing
speeds while reducing heat and improving energy efficiency. The
result was the multicore architecture. Multicore technology combines
two or more processor cores and cache memory on a single integrated
circuit. A dual-core processor has two execution cores and two L2
memory caches. These two “cores” work together simultaneously to
carry out different tasks. More cores can be added to further
improve computer response time for increasingly complex operations.
[For example, intel(R) core (TM) 2 Duo CPU). To achieve these
computing gains however, the operating system and applications must
be adjusted to take advantage of the multiple cores using a technique
called multi-threading, or passing tasks simultaneously to different
cores to execute.
 Multicore processors can significantly improve performance in
multitasking work
Environments where one processor core can address one task while a
second task is completed by another core. For example, one core
might be directed to writing a DVD and a second one to editing images
in Photoshop. A multicore processor would execute both tasks faster
because each core could address a separate task. This can speed the
process of multimedia development. The technology also has benefits
for multimedia playback, particularly for graphics-intensive
applications. Multicore processors are used in many video gaming
consoles where they speed real-time rendering of complex graphics
and player interactions. The fetch/execute cycle of the CPU is
optimized by a variety of techniques to increase speed and deal with
more complex data types. By increasing clock speed, word size, and
the system bus, the control unit and ALU can process data faster.
New developments in pipelining, multiprocessing, and multicore chips
are producing faster processors that can handle increasingly complex
commands for manipulating multimedia data. Research continues to
improve the speed and performance of the CPU. Moore’s Law suggests
that manufacturers can double the speed of a processor every 18
months. Future computers may use nanotechnology to achieve smaller
and faster processors. Reliance on electronics may be replaced with
optical circuitry to increase the speed of processing to “light speed.”
Whatever the technique, we can expect new computer processors to
continue to show improvements in performance.
BUS SYSTEM
What is Computer Bus is the electrically conducting path along which data
is transmitted inside any digital electronic device. The Computer bus helps
the various parts of the PC to communicate. A Computer bus consists of a
set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional wires, copper tracks on
a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic aluminum trails on the surface
of a silicon chip.
A computer bus normally has a single word memory circuit called a
LATCH attached to either end, which briefly stores the word being
transmitted and ensures that each bit has settled to its intended state
before its value is transmitted.
If there was no bus, you would have an unwieldy number of wires connecting
every part to every other part. It would be like having separate wiring for
every light bulb and socket in your house. 
The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines) that contain addressing
information that describes the memory location of where the data is being
sent or where it is being retrieved.
How Does Computer Bus Work?
A bus transfers electrical signals from one place to another. An actual bus
appears as an endless amount of etched copper circuits on the
motherboard’s surface. The bus is connected to the CPU through the Bus
Interface Unit.
Each wire in the bus carries a single bit of information, which means the
more wires a bus has the more information it can address. For example, a
computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a
computer with a 36-bit bus can address 64 GB of memory.
A computer or device's bus speed is listed in MHz, e.g., 100 MHz FSB. The
throughput of a bus is measured in bits per second or megabytes per second.
Data travels between the CPU and memory along the data bus. The location
(address) of that data is carried along the address bus.
A clock signal which keeps everything in synch travels along the control bus.
The clock acts like a traffic light for all the PC’s components; the “green
light” goes on with each clock tick. A PC’s clock can “tick” anywhere from 20
to 65 million times per second, which makes it seem like a computer is really
fast. But since each task (such as saving a file) is made up of several
programmed instructions, and each of those instructions takes several clock
cycles to carry out, a person sometimes has to sit and wait for the computer
to catch up.

Classification of computer buses

A bus is capable of being a parallel or serial bus and today all computers
utilize two bus types, an internal bus or local bus and an external bus, also
called the expansion bus. Internal bus vs. external bus
An internal bus enables the communication between internal
components, such as a video card and memory. An external bus is
capable of communicating with external components, such as
a USB or SCSI device.
Parallel bus vs. serial bus
A computer bus can transmit its data using either a parallel or serial
method of communication. With a parallel bus, data is transmitted
several bits at a time. However, with a serial bus, the data is
transferred one bit at a time. Currently found in PCI express, SATA,
USB
Types of Computer Bus
Before 1980s, major components were connected together by one bus called
the system bus. To reduce cost and space, the system bus had 3 functions,
address bus, control bus and data bus. After the 1980s, the CPU started to
use Northbridge and Southbridge chipsets to communicate with components.
This arrangement gave some components priority over others. This
arrangement also made systems more efficient and much faster. The south
bridge is not directly connected to the CPU but is connected to the
Northbridge by an internal bus.

There are a variety of buses found inside the computer.

Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth between
the microprocessor (CPU) and memory (RAM). The data bus is bidirectional
(moving or operating in two directions).
Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the location of
data in memory. The address bus is unidirectional (moving or operating in one
direction).
Control Bus: The control bus carries the control signals that make sure
everything is flowing smoothly from place to place. The control bus is
unidirectional (moving or operating in two directions).
Expansion Bus: If your computer has expansion slots,  there’s an expansion
bus. Messages and information pass between your computer and the add-in
boards  you plug in over the expansion bus. 
Although this is a bit confusing, these different buses are sometimes
together called simply “the bus.” A user can think of the computer’s “bus” as
one unit made up of three parts: data, address, and control, even though the
three electrical pathways do not run along each other (and therefore don’t
really form a single “unit”) within the computer.

There are different sizes, or widths of data buses found in computers

today. A data bus’ width is measured by the number of bits that can travel
on it at once. The speed at which its bus can transmit words, that is, its bus
BANDWIDTH, crucially determines the speed of any digital device. One way
to make a bus faster is to increase its width;
for example, a 16-bit bus can transmit two 8-bit words at once, ‘side-by-
side’, and so carries 8-bit data twice as fast as an 8-bit bus can. A
computer’s CPU will typically contain several buses, often of differing
widths, that connect its various subunits. It is common for modern CPUs to
use on-chip buses that are wider than the bus they use to communicate with
external devices such as memory, and the speed difference between on- and
off-chip operations must then be bridged by keeping a reservoir of
temporary data in a CACHE. For example, many of the Pentium class of
processors use 256 bits for their fastest on-chip buses, but only 64 bits for
external links.
An 8-bit bus carries data along 8 parallel lines. A 16-bit bus, also called ISA
(Industry Standard Architecture), carries data along 16 lines. A 32-bit bus,
classified as EISA (Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture) or MCA
(Micro Channel Architecture), can carry data along 32 lines.
The speed at which buses conduct signals is measured in megahertz (MHz).
Typical PCs today run at speeds between 20 and 65Mhz.

MEMORY AND STORAGE DEVICES

..\CRM\NOTES\MEMORY.docx
..\CRM\NOTES\STORAGE DEVICES.docx
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE
Anything that can be stored electronically is software. Data is part of
software but refers to any content that is stored in computer storage
devices but cannot control/direct the activity of a computer.
Program: - is an ordered set of instruction, which is executed by a
computer to carry out a particular task.

B) System Software
The software that helps to activate the computer system and provide
operating environment for other application software is called system
software. Its primary work is to control, integrate and manage the individual
hardware components of the computer system. System software is the basic
requirement of a computer system. System software is further classified
into:
(i) Operating Systems
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of
programs.
The operating system is the most important program that runs in
every computer to manages the resources of a computer i.e hardware and
software.
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all
the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.
There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.
● Linux is free, however people generally do not use it for home purpose.
● Apple OS X works only on Apple desktops.
● Windows 7 is very popular among desktop users.
● Most of the computers come pre-equipped with Windows 7 Starter
edition.
● Windows 8 is recently introduced and is available in the market.
● Windows 7 and Windows 8 come in multiple versions from starter,
home basic, home premium, professional, ultimate, and enterprise
editions.
(ii) Utility software
 These are system softwares designed to help analyze, configure, optimize
or maintain the computer. Utility software usually focuses on how the
computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating
system, application software and data storage) operates..
● Anti-virus used to scan for computer viruses in memory and storage
devices.
● Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk
and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or
selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
● Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer
operation, or take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner
helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.

● Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are

broken across several locations on the hard disk, and move the
fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

● Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical

drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the
operating system and treated as an individual drive.

● Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by

getting the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in
folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.

● Screensavers  used mostly for entertainment, security or passing

some information.
(iii) Compilers, Interpreters & Assemblers
These are programs designed to translate program code, written in one of
the vast arrays of programming languages, into the machine language of the
computer that is going to run the program. A compiler is a special system
software that processes a program written in a particular programming
language usually referred as source code and turns them into machine
language referred as object code that a computer's processor uses.
Typically, a programmer writes language statements in a language such as
Java, Pascal or C. The programmer then runs the appropriate language
compiler, to compile the source code to object code then run to execute the
program.

(iv) Device Driver

A device driver is a software that informs and guides the operating
system and other software how to communicate with a specific type
of hardware.
NB An antivirus program is a utility software that prevents, detects, and
removes viruses from a computer’s memory or storage devices.

a) Application Software: Application software is usually in

two categories; the programming languages and application packages.
An application package is a set of one or more programs designed to
solve a specific problem or do a specific task. These software are
developed using High Level Languages in the form of creative project
works in the software industries.
Classification according to acquisition
(i) Off-the-shelf Package (or proprietary) Software:  This is a
standard ready-made software which provides the user with the basic
services that are common in most organizations. One advantage is that
the system is tried and tested by other companies and updates are
readily available.
(ii) Tailor-made Software: Tailor made software is a software that is
made to the specifications/needs of a client. In other words it is
custom made

A. PACKAGED SOFTWARE
  Advantages of packaged software Disadvantages of packaged
software
1) No development time. They can easily If procured from foreign vendor without
Development be installed immediately and run. local representative, offering support and
time customization, the application package may
not readily yield the special MIS reports the
user wants.

2) They are readily available for almost Unless dealing with a local vendor or a
Completeness any task. foreign vendor with local presence, technical
of solution support may be expensive to access (long-
distance phone calls) and/or involve robotic
systems with no human touch.

3) Cost They are less expensive to acquire than  Some packaged software products can be
the cost of developing in-house very difficult to use since they have very
software. many option thefre by confusing the user.
User must choose wisely.

4) They can easily be modified

Modification (customized) to meet specific user’s
 needs without involving expert
programmers
5) No errors Since they are thoroughly tested
before they are released, chances of
errors in them are rare.
B. TAILOR-MADE SOFTWARE
  Advantages of customized software
1) Development time It is developed to fit all aspects and
requirement of the organization/user
there by bring in ease of use and giving
expected Information
2) Completeness of It accommodates changes in
solution
the organization and
government requirement.
3) Cost  There is user participation thereby
giving less user resistance which is a big
challenge to system implementation.
4) Technical support If dealing with an established vendor
organization, tech support is available.
for a price.
The table below gives examples and uses of common application packages
APPLICATION USES
accessing websites and
Web browsers
conducting research
Disadvantages of
customized software
Require significant development
time and cost in the quest to
tailor the application to the
customer which goes together
with time and cost in testing and
debugging
Requires that the developer be
expert in all aspects required in
the software programming.
(a) Cost is usually significantly
higher than that of comparable
off-the-shelf packages. Distinct
possibility of cost overruns. (b) If
cost is low, customer is probably
dealing with a freelancer;
reliability and technical support
may then be suspect.
Unless dealing with a established
organization, technical support
may not be reliable, or even
available at all.
EXAMPLES
Internet Explorer, Chrome,
Firefox, MS Edge, Safari
 assist the users in creating
Microsoft’s PowerPoint, Google
Presentation software presentations with information
Slides, and Apple’s Keynote
and ideas
allow easy calculations through Microsoft Excel, Google
Spreadsheet software
formulas and functions. Sheets, and Apple Numbers.
allows easy editing of visual Adobe Photoshop and
Graphic software
data PaintShop pro.
allows formulation, Appleworks, Wordpad,
Word processors beautification, and Notepad, Google Docs,
manipulation of text. Microsoft Word Docs,
helps with effective data MS Access, Oracle, and
Database software
management MySQL
allows easy creation of audio,
Multimedia software
video, or pictorial files
enhances the learning
ProProfs, Schoology, Google
Education software experience is called education
Classroom, TalentLMS, Litmos
software
COMPUTER SELECTION AND ACQUISITION
Introducing a computer into the business is an act that should be considered
with great concern, because it involves capital expenditure and as such
should only be done if it is really necessary and its acquisition should be in a
cost-effective manner.

The alternatives to the computer as a processing tool or as an investment

to the organisation intending to introduce the computing facilities, and the
effects of introducing the computer into the organisation should be
investigated in great depth before the computer and its related facilities
are acquired. This is to ensure that adequate returns are expected from
such an investment.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SOTWARE SELECTION

1. Total lifecycle cost. This cost includes initial costs such as

purchase, installation and training, plus the on-going cost of maintenance
and support.
2. Maintainability. This criterion addresses the ability to administer
and perform corrective, adaptive or perfective maintenance within
defined tolerance for cost and service, using vendor and/or internal
support.
3. Interoperability: Should include flexibility in supporting changes
over time and among multiple systems.
4. Portability. This criterion addresses the ability of an existing
software component to move from one physical or logical position in the
IT infrastructure with minimum impact on cost and service;
5. Scalability. This criterion ensures that acceptable software
products enhance the ability of the system to support future growth and
increased throughput necessary to meet required goals;
6. Availability/Accessibility. This seeks to maintain a system's
operational readiness and required level of service without disruption
from software failure. This is achieved through robust and/or redundant
(e.g., fault tolerant) software. Operational readiness will include the
ability of users an operators to access the system, in a timely fashion, to
perform its intended functions;
 7. Reusability. This criterion addresses the ability to make repeated
use of the software products for additional requirements with minimum
additional cost;
8. Security. This criterion addresses the need to protect system data
and the operational environment from loss or compromise.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN HARDWARE SELECTION

1. Processor speed
The processing power and speed of a computer mainly depends on the
processor speed. A good computer must have high processor speed.
2. Memory capacity
Although, a computer may have a very fast processor, it may not perform as
expected if it has low memory capacity as expected. Because of the current
multimedia driven applications, a good computer should have sufficient
memory to handle
the heavy applications that require a lot of memory space in order to run. A
computer with at least 128 MB of RAM is recommended for most
contemporary applications.
RAM is packaged as either dual in-line memory Module. (DIMM) or single in-
line memory module (SIMM).
Therefore, before one buys a memory module for the computer the following
factors have to be considered:
1. The type of module supported by the computers motherboard.
2. Does the motherboard have an empty memory slot?
3. Will the module work well (be compatible)with the other existing modules
on the motherboard?
4. What is the capacity of the module?
Warranty
A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells
out terms and conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or
malfunction. The most important consideration to make is whether the
seller is ready to actually provide after sales services. On top of the
actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a
certain percentage charge to cover the
warranty.
A good warranty should cover the following points:
1. Scope of cover for example six months, one year etc.
2. Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should
the supplier take to repair a fault or replace the product, and if he/she
delays who bears the cost.
3. Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals
etc.
Cost
The cost of a computer system depends on:
1. Its processing capability.
2. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more
expensive than their equivalent clones. This is because of their reliability
and good after sale services.
3. Its size. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop
equivalents because of the superior technology involved in manufacturing
smaller components without losing performance abilities. It is important
to do a market survey from magazines, newspapers, and electronic media
or visit a number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a
computer. Computer information and technology exhibitions also enlighten
a buyer on current trends and costs.
Upgradeability and compatibility
When buying a computer, the best option would be to get one that can
easily be upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. For examples
older computers cannot support large hard disks available in the market
today hence, difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are
no longer in circulation
Portability
The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major
consideration because smaller devices enhance mobility.
User needs
When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique needs of the
user. For example if the users have special disability like in ability to use
 their hands, consider buying input devices that capture data through
voice input. The user needs also determine the type of data that will be
processed hence, the choice of the type of hardware most appropriate to
satisfy the needs. For example in a supermarket a special computerized
devise called a point of sale (POS) terminal is most suitable to record
transactions.

Procedure of selection and acquisition of hardware and software

Computer acquisition necessitates the formation of a steering committee,

whose purpose is to supervise the computer feasibility study and
subsequently to monitor the Electronic Data Processing (EDP) operations.
The steering committee is made up of personnel from the various
departments at various levels that are affected by the introduction of the
computer into the organisation:

1. Feasibility study

The feasibility study, that is computer feasibility study and not project
feasibility study, should establish:

i. The need to acquire the computer facilities.

ii. How to finance the equipment, i.e the methods of procuring the
equipment needed.
iii. The computer equipment implementation considerations e.g user
training, change-over, timescales etc.
iv. The reaction of the personnel within the data processing
department e.g. their resistance to change.

Prior to feasibility study, preliminary survey is conducted to judge the

expected costs and benefits, computer work load so as to determine
whether carrying out feasibility study is necessary and to specify its
objectives. A detailed investigation of the work area is carried out, based on
the objectives set out from the preliminary survey and a schedule is drawn,
which takes care of both present and the future application requirements of
the EDP system. Once the schedule is drawn the suppliers are asked to give
a detailed quotation. Using the schedule, the supplier should specify the
facilities necessary e.g.:
 i. The required hardware and software and the maintenance offered by
the manufacturers.
ii. The cost estimates, depending on the method to be adapted in
financing the facilities.
iii. Back up equipment or procedures provided and the capital invited in
maintaining such strategies.
iv. Adaptability of the proposed system to enhanced data Processing
operations.
v. Training, advice or seminars offered by the manufacturer.
vi. Delivery dates etc.
2. Feasibility study report

The replies are evaluated by the steering committee and the decisions taken
are contained in the feasibility study report, which contains the following:

i. The recommended hardware, software and other facilities.

ii. The method of procuring the recommended equipment.
iii. Cost-benefit appraisal of the recommended equipment against
rejected ones.
iv. Installation consideration and the expected growth in the work load
v. The effect of computerisation to the organisation.

Note: The report is handed to the top management for a decision, to

either acquire the facilities of particular model or to take no action.

3. Methods of Procurement of a Computer: The four methods of

acquiring and/or financing the computer costs are: Selecting hardware
and software for implementing information system in an organization
is a serious and time-consuming process that passes through several
phases. The main steps of the selection process are listed below:

COMPUTER ACQUISITION
There are several methods that can be applied in acquiring Hardware and for
an organization. Some major options are buy, lease, develop in-house, or
outsourcing a system from any other companies.
In the past anything that has been deemed strategic has been built in-house
but the trend to outsource and buy more systems has grown. Below are some
critical factors that should be evaluated prior to choose preferable IS
procurement strategy, whether to buy, lease, build in-house, or outsource.
1. Outright purchase
The computer facility is obtained by payment of the amount that is
equivalent to the value of the computer to the supplier.
It involves purchase of the facility followed by transfer of ownership from
the supplier to the purchasing firm. Payment can be made in cash, loan
arrangements or hire purchase.
Advantages
• The computer becomes an asset to the buyer
• Can be used for loan acquisition in bank as security.
• The choice of the facility solely depends on the buyer.
• It may be cheaper in the long run
• Frequent expenditure is not expected since the facility is bought
once
• The buyer may decide to resell the facility to generate cash
depending on the market value of the equipment.
• No charge for additional work done like in renting.
Disadvantages
• High initial cost
• In the long run the computer may become obsolete due to
technological changes
• High maintenance costs
• The computer at times may be below or beyond the configuration
capabilities.
• It may not sometimes be able to process certain types of data
• In case of loss, the buyer is affected directly
2. Rental method
This involves installation of the facility at the user’s premises in an
agreement to pay a fixed periodic charge to the owner. The period is
usually short for example a day, week or month.
Advantages
● Cheaper in the short run
 ● The effects of technological change are minimized since up-to-date
facilities are always rented
● No large initial expenditure is needed
● Maintenance of the facility is a responsibility of the owner
● Obsolescence is not a concern of the user.
●
Disadvantages

● The facility doesn’t become an asset to the user

● The facility cannot be used to obtain loans
● Continuous renting becomes expensive in the long run
● In breach of the rental agreement, the facility may be repossessed by
the supplier, putting the user’s operations to a stand still
● Extra costs may be incurred for extra work done
3. Leasing method
The leasing company (Leaser) enters a contract with the intending user
(Lessee) to install the facility at the Lessee’s premises for a longer period
of time for a fixed charge payable to the lessor. Leasing agreements are
similar to rental agreements but differ in period of time and charges.
Leasing contracts run for a much long period of time beyond months and the
charges are lower.
Advantages
● It is cheaper compared to rental and outright purchase
● Extra work done with the facility is not paid for
● The period of time enjoyed by the Lessee is longer compared to rental
method
● Leasing may lead to eventual ownership of the facility.
Disadvantages
● The facility doesn’t become an asset to the lessee during the leasing
period.
● The lessee incurs the maintenance costs
● In event of loss of the facility the lessee is liable to pay
● The facility may become obsolete during the period and this directly
affects the operations of the lessee
4. Outsourcing/Using a computer bureau
Outsourcing is a strategic use of outside resources to perform activities
traditionally handled by internal staff and resources. A computer bureau is
an organization that renders computer services to clients in areas of data
processing at a small fee. A computer bureau offers a cross section of data
processing tasks. These may range from short and small service to full
service. For example, payroll production, word processing etc.

Advantages
● It’s the cheapest method especially in the short run
● Makes it possible for companies without capital to purchase their own
facility, to have the service
● Organisations can use a computer bureau in case of peak loads.
● Good for those without the expertise.
● Can be used in case of loss or failure of the in-house system
● It is faster at processing client’s work
● As a means of evaluation facilities before installing
● Staffing costs are spread over all the bureau users
Disadvantages
● The facility doesn’t become an asset to the clients
● Clients may not be able to gain the necessary experience since the
processing is done for them
● Client’s confidential information can be leaked
● Mistakes are likely to be made
● May not provide all the services as desired by the client

Roles and skills requirements of various computer personnel

Computer professional are individuals that have obtained sufficient
education and training in the field of computer, and earn their living from
the chosen profession.
1. Computer Programmer
Creates the code for software applications and operating systems. After
a software developer designs a computer program, the programmer
writes code that converts that design into a set of instructions a
computer can follow. They test the program to look for errors and then
 rewrite it until it is error-free. The programmer continues to evaluate
programs that are in use, making updates and adjustments as needed.
2. Web developer
3. Computer scientist
They work as theorists, researchers or inventors since they study how
data and instructions are processed, stored and communicated by
computing devices. It involves designing software and addressing
fundamental scientific questions about the nature of computation but
also involves many aspects of hardware and the architecture of large
computer systems. Computer scientists create the brains in our
smartphones, they keep airplanes from falling out of the sky, they help
surgeons do a better job and they automate aspects of manufacturing,
to name but a few.
4. Computer engineer
Computer engineers use their extensive knowledge of hardware and
software design and computer programming to make computing platforms
and applications more efficient and effective. Seamlessly integrating the
latest innovations, computer engineers develop new computer hardware,
design and implement software applications, and enhance the capabilities
of networks and communications systems.
5. Network engineer
6. Computer security specialist
Cyber Security Specialist is responsible for providing security during the
development stages of software systems, networks and data centres.
The professionals have to search for vulnerabilities and risks in
hardware and software. They manage and monitor any attacks and
intrusions.
7. Computer support specialists
A computer support specialist assists users who are having problems
with software, computers, or peripherals such as printers or scanners.
Some—called computer user support specialists—assist companies'
customers, while others—known as computer network support specialists
—provide in-house support to an organizations' information technology
(IT) staff.
8. Computer operator
Responsibilities include troubleshooting software and hardware
problems, monitoring batch processing, maintaining and improving system
performance and online availability, maintaining all system and application
documentation, and assisting personnel with computer problems. Other
responsibilities depend on the employer but might include system
 backups, maintaining computer room equipment including printers and
tape storage devices, and providing customer support.
9. Computer Designer
Systems design consists of design activities, which produce systems
specifications satisfying the functional requirements developed in the
systems analysis stage. In small organizations system designers and
system builders are often the same but in large organizations they are
not.
10. Computer Analyst
Computer systems analysts research the hardware and software that
are part of an organization’s computer systems in addition to the ways in
which the systems are being used. As well, they need to analyse the work
being done by an organization to identify the ways in which it best can be
served by a computer system.
Through this research, computer systems analysts develop new systems
or work to update or improve current systems. This includes analysing
the costs and benefits of purchasing new hardware and software and the
time necessary to train staff on how to use it.

11. Computer and information systems managers

They plan and coordinate activities such as installing and upgrading
hardware and software, programming and systems design, the
implementation of computer networks, and the development of Internet
and intranet sites. They are increasingly involved with the upkeep,
maintenance, and security of networks.
12. Database administrator
The database administrator (DBA) is the person who manages, backs up
and ensures the availability of the data produced and consumed by
today’s organizations via their IT systems. The DBA is a critically
important role in many of today’s IT departments, and by extension,
their organizations overall.
For example, consider a commercial bank: the DBA is the person who
ensures that the bank teller has easy, fast access to your information,
and can quickly access your bank balance and transaction history. In this
example, the DBA is a system or application-database administrator—a
general DBA role responsible for most aspects of the organization’s
databases. However, this is not the only kind of DBA.
13. Network and computer systems administrators
Network and computer systems administrators are responsible for the
day-to-day operation of these networks. They organize, install, and
 support an organization's computer systems, including local area
networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), network segments,
intranets, and other data communication systems.
14. Network manager
A network manager is the person who oversees a company’s entire
computer network system. The purpose of a network is to allow a
company’s staff to share access to records, documents and files
instantly, which would otherwise make the retrieval of these files time
consuming. The network also enables user access to computer systems,
email programs or the internet as well as print documents from any
department. Network managers set up localized networks or
international networks via satellite linkage.
15. Data entry clerks
Transferring data from paper formats into computer files or database
systems
Typing in data provided directly from customers
Creating spreadsheets with large numbers of figures without mistakes
16. Librarians
The traditional concept of a Library is being redefined from a place to
access paper records or books to one that also houses the most
advanced electronic resources, including the Internet, digital libraries,
and remote access to a wide range of information sources.
Consequently, librarians, often called information professionals, combine
traditional duties with tasks involving quickly changing technology. Librarians
help people find information and use it effectively for personal and
professional purposes. They must have knowledge of a wide variety of
scholarly and public information sources and must follow trends related to
publishing, computers, and the media to oversee the selection and
organization of library materials. Librarians manage staff and develop and
direct information programs and systems for the public and ensure that
information is organized in a manner that meets users' needs.
COMPUTER SAFETY
Computer security is the protection of computer systems an information
from harm, theft and unauthorized use.
It is also the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use o a
computer system.
Computer Security threats
These are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning
of your computer.
a) Malware (malicious software) is a program or code
that is created to do intentional harm to a computer,
network, or server.
Cybercriminals develop malware to infiltrate a computer system
discreetly to breach or destroy sensitive data and computer systems. 
Virus

A  virus is a piece of code that inserts itself into an application and

executes when the app is run. Once inside a network, a virus may be used
to steal sensitive data, launch DDoS attacks or conduct ransomware
attacks.

Worms

Worms target vulnerabilities in operating systems to install themselves

into networks. They may gain access in several ways: through backdoors
built into software, through unintentional software vulnerabilities, or
through flash drives. Once in place, worms can be used by malicious
actors to launch DDoS attacks, steal sensitive data, or conduct
ransomware attacks.

Worm Example:

Stuxnet was probably developed by the US and Israeli intelligence forces

with the intent of setting back Iran’s nuclear program. It was introduced
into Iran’s environment through a flash drive. Because the environment
was air-gapped, its creators never thought Stuxnet would escape its
target’s network — but it did. Once in the wild, Stuxnet spread
aggressively but did little damage, since its only function was to
interfere with industrial controllers that managed the uranium
enrichment process.
Ransomware

Ransomware is software that uses encryption to disable a target’s access

to its data until a ransom is paid. The victim organization is rendered
partially or totally unable to operate until it pays, but there is no
guarantee that payment will result in the necessary decryption key or
that the decryption key provided will function properly.

Ransomware Example:

This year, the city of Baltimore was hit by a type of ransomware named 
RobbinHood, which halted all city activities, including tax collection,
property transfers, and government email for weeks. This attack has cost
the city more than $18 million so far, and costs continue to accrue. The
same type of malware was used against the city of Atlanta in 2018,
resulting in costs of $17 million.

2. Fileless Malware

Fileless malware doesn’t install anything initially, instead, it makes

changes to files that are native to the operating system, such as
PowerShell or WMI. Because the operating system recognizes the edited
files as legitimate, a fileless attack is not caught by antivirus software —
and because these attacks are stealthy, they are up to  ten times more
successful than traditional malware attacks.

Fileless Malware Example:

Astaroth is a fileless malware campaign that spammed users with links to

a .LNK shortcut file. When users downloaded the file, a WMIC tool was
launched, along with a number of other legitimate Windows tools. These
tools downloaded additional code that was executed only in memory,
leaving no evidence that could be detected by vulnerability scanners.
Then the attacker downloaded and ran a Trojan that stole credentials
and uploaded them to a remote server.

3. Spyware
Spyware collects information about users’ activities without their
knowledge or consent. This can include passwords, pins, payment
information and unstructured messages.

The use of spyware is not limited to the desktop browser: it can also
operate in a critical app or on a mobile phone.

Spyware Example:

DarkHotel, which targeted business and government leaders using hotel

WIFI, used several types of malware in order to gain access to the
systems belonging to specific powerful people. Once that access was
gained, the attackers installed keyloggers to capture their targets
passwords and other sensitive information.

4. Adware

Adware tracks a user’s surfing activity to determine which ads to serve

them. Although adware is similar to spyware, it does not install any
software on a user’s computer, nor does it capture keystrokes.

The danger in adware is the erosion of a user’s privacy — the data

captured by adware is collated with data captured, overtly or covertly,
about the user’s activity elsewhere on the internet and used to create a
profile of that person which includes who their friends are, what they’ve
purchased, where they’ve traveled, and more. That information can be
shared or sold to advertisers without the user’s consent.

Adware Example:

Adware called  Fireball infected 250 million computers and devices in

2017, hijacking browsers to change default search engines and track web
activity. However, the malware had the potential to become more than a
mere nuisance. Three-quarters of it was able to run code remotely and
download malicious files.

5. Trojan

A Trojan disguises itself as desirable code or software. Once downloaded

by unsuspecting users, the Trojan can take control of victims’ systems
for malicious purposes. Trojans may hide in games, apps, or even software
patches, or they may be embedded in attachments included in phishing
emails.

Trojan Example:

Emotet is a sophisticated banking trojan that has been around since

2014. It is hard to fight Emotet because it evades signature-based
detection, is persistent, and includes spreader modules that help it
propagate. The trojan is so widespread that it is the subject of a  US
Department of Homeland Security alert, which notes that Emotet has
cost state, local, tribal and territorial governments up to $1 million per
incident to remediate.

6. Worms

Worms target vulnerabilities in operating systems to install themselves

into networks. They may gain access in several ways: through backdoors
built into software, through unintentional software vulnerabilities, or
through flash drives. Once in place, worms can be used by malicious
actors to launch DDoS attacks, steal sensitive data, or conduct
ransomware attacks.

Worm Example:

Stuxnet was probably developed by the US and Israeli intelligence forces

with the intent of setting back Iran’s nuclear program. It was introduced
into Iran’s environment through a flash drive. Because the environment
was air-gapped, its creators never thought Stuxnet would escape its
target’s network — but it did. Once in the wild, Stuxnet spread
aggressively but did little damage, since its only function was to
interfere with industrial controllers that managed the uranium
enrichment process.

7. Virus

A  virus is a piece of code that inserts itself into an application and

executes when the app is run. Once inside a network, a virus may be used
to steal sensitive data, launch DDoS attacks or conduct ransomware
attacks.

Viruses vs. Trojans 

A virus cannot execute or reproduce unless the app it has infected is

running. This dependence on a host application makes viruses different
from trojans, which require users to download them, and worms, which do
not use applications to execute. Many instances of malware fit into
multiple categories: for instance, Stuxnet is a worm, a virus and a rootkit.

8. Rootkits

A rootkit is software that gives malicious actors remote control of a

victim’s computer with full administrative privileges. Rootkits can be
injected into applications, kernels, hypervisors, or firmware. They spread
through phishing, malicious attachments, malicious downloads, and
compromised shared drives. Rootkits can also be used to conceal other
malware, such as keyloggers.

Rootkit Example:

Zacinlo infects systems when users download a fake VPN app. Once

installed, Zacinlo conducts a security sweep for competing malware and
tries to remove it. Then it opens invisible browsers and interacts with
content like a human would — by scrolling, highlighting and clicking. This
activity is meant to fool behavioral analysis software. Zacinlo’s payload
occurs when the malware clicks on ads in the invisible browsers. This
advertising click fraud provides malicious actors with a cut of the
commission.

9. Keyloggers

A keylogger is a type of spyware that monitors user activity. Keyloggers

have legitimate uses; businesses can use them to monitor employee
activity and families may use them to keep track of children’s online
behaviors.

However, when installed for malicious purposes, keyloggers can be used to

steal password data, banking information and other sensitive information.
Keyloggers can be inserted into a system through phishing, social
engineering or malicious downloads.

Keylogger Example:

A keylogger called  Olympic Vision has been used to target US, Middle

Eastern and Asian businessmen for business email compromise (BEC)
attacks. Olympic Vision uses spear-phishing and social engineering
techniques to infect its targets’ systems in order to steal sensitive data
and spy on business transactions. The keylogger is not sophisticated, but
it’s available on the black market for $25 so it’s highly accessible to
malicious actors.

10. Bots/Botnets

A bot is a software application that performs automated tasks on

command. They’re used for legitimate purposes, such as indexing search
engines, but when used for malicious purposes, they take the form of
self-propagating malware that can connect back to a central server.

Usually, bots are used in large numbers to create a botnet, which is a

network of bots used to launch broad remotely-controlled floods of
attacks, such as DDoS attacks. Botnets can become quite expansive. For
example, the Mirai IoT botnet ranged from 800,000 to 2.5M computers.

Botnet Example:

Echobot is a variant of the well-known Mirai. Echobot attacks a wide

range of IoT devices, exploiting over 50 different vulnerabilities, but it
also includes exploits for Oracle WebLogic Server and VMWare’s SD-
Wan networking software. In addition, the malware looks for unpatched
legacy systems. Echobot could be used by malicious actors to launch
DDoS attacks, interrupt supply chains, steal sensitive supply chain
information and conduct corporate sabotage.

11. Mobile Malware

Attacks targeting mobile devices have risen  50 percent since last

year. Mobile malware threats are as various as those targeting desktops
and include Trojans, ransomware, advertising click fraud and more. They
are distributed through phishing and malicious downloads and are a
particular problem for jailbroken phones, which tend to lack the default
protections that were part of those devices’ original operating systems.

Mobile Malware Example:

Triada is a rooting Trojan that was injected into the supply chain when
millions of Android devices shipped with the malware pre-installed.
Triada gains access to sensitive areas in the operating system and installs
spam apps. The spam apps display ads, sometimes replacing legitimate ads.
When a user clicks on one of the unauthorized ads, the revenue from
that click goes to Triada’s developers.

12. Wiper Malware

A wiper is a type of malware with a single purpose: to erase user data and
ensure it can’t be recovered. Wipers are used to take down computer
networks in public or private companies across various sectors. Threat
actors also use wipers to cover up traces left after an intrusion,
weakening their victim’s ability to respond.

Wiper Malware Example:

On Jan. 15, 2022, a set of malware dubbed WhisperGate was reported to

have been deployed against Ukrainian targets. The incident is widely
reported to contain three individual components deployed by the same
adversary, including a malicious bootloader that corrupts detected local
disks, a Discord-based downloader and a file wiper. The activity occurred
at approximately the same time multiple websites belonging to the
Ukrainian government were defaced.

Signs You Have a Malware Infection

Signs and symptoms of malware can be obvious or discrete. Here are a

few common signs that may indicate you have a malware infection:

 Slow computer
 Very frequent ads and pop-ups, especially if they appear in unexpected places
 Battery drains rapidly
 System crashes
 Sudden loss in disk space
  Browser settings change on their own
 Browser redirects on its own
 Unfamiliar apps appear on mobile device
 Increase in system’s internet activity
 Disabled antivirus product
 Lost access to files or computer
 Deleted files
 Contacts receive strange messages from you

How to Prevent Malware

For most businesses, deploying a breach prevention solution or platform that

continuously monitors for malware attacks will be the first line of defense.
Here are a few more tips to help you and your organization minimize the risks
of a malware attack:

 Keep your software updated: Set up automatic updates on all your devices

because outdated software is more vulnerable to malware attacks.
 Stay cautious and practice user vigilance: Anytime you are online you are
vulnerable. Be wary of pop-ups, advertisements, and suspicious websites or links.
Do not click on links in emails, mobile text messages, or social media messages sent
from unknown users.
 Use virtual private networks: VPNs allow you to go online safely, securely, and
anonymously so your data and privacy stays protected.
 Be wary of email attachments: Email phishing is one of the most common malware
attacks. Never open emails from unknown senders or click on their attachments or
images.
 Only download apps from official app stores: Downloading trusted apps on your
devices decreases your risk for malware.
 Use strong passwords and multi-factor authentication
 Don’t lend out your devices to others
 Stay educated: Learning more about malware will keep yourself and any endpoint
users aware of the risks involved while on the internet.
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics refers to the study of methods that can reduce stress on
muscles to avoid repetitive strain injury. It mostly deals with optimizing
posture and technique while working, so the work can be carried out in the
easiest manner with the least possible strain on any muscle, joint, or organ.
However, poor interaction with and positioning of computer equipment can
lead to health problems such as eyestrain, swollen wrists and backache.
Problems can be avoided by good workplace design and by good working
practices. Prevention is easiest if action is taken early through effective
analysis of each workstation. There are a number of practical steps that can
be taken to achieve an ergonomically positive environment and, furthermore,
to promote a safer learning environment.
These are:
 Positioning of the person and equipment
 Arranging a safe learning environment
 Taking regular breaks
Note: For students with disabilities, it is advisable to consult with an
occupational therapist in relation to ergonomics.
Positioning Body positioning and the positioning of equipment are
fundamental to ensuring a comfortable and healthy interaction with
computers. The following recommendations can help to reduce the risk of
health problems:
 Sit up straight rather than slouch forward
 Use supports such as foot rests, wrist rests and adjustable chairs
 Adjust equipment to the correct height, distance and angle
The diagrams below highlight some positive and negative body and
workstation positioning.

Arranging a Safe Learning Environment

The term ‘workstation’ refers collectively to the computer, the monitor, the
keyboard, the desk, the chair and the space provided for doing work.
Workstations should be comfortable and have sufficient space to allow for
freedom of movement. A minimum of 4.65 square metres of floor space for
adults is recommended for office or similar environments. Adequate space
between workstations should be provided for students both in a classroom
and computer suite context. This should exclude space taken up by fixtures
such as presses and filing cabinets. As computers can generate heat, a well-
ventilated room is an important consideration. Coiled cables also give off
heat and may need to be rerouted (The resistance caused by the
outer  coiled wire  creates  heat  and magnetism). In addition, securing and
covering trailing cables is necessary if hazards are to be avoided. The
following table identifies how specific aspects of our environment can be
organised to create the right ergonomic conditions for a safer learning
environment.
Environmen Health and safety Ergonomic Recommendations
t considerations
VDU (visual Avoid discomfort caused by Take adequate breaks regularly.
display unit) reflective glare and eyestrain. Adjust contrast and brightness.
Protect eyes against moisture Look away into the distance in
loss. order to rest the eyes for a
short while every 10 minutes or
so. (To focus on a  near  object –
the lens becomes  thicker; this
allows the light rays to refract
(bend) more strongly.
To focus on a  distant  object –
the lens is pulled  thin, this allows
the light rays to refract
slightly).
Change the text and background
colours. We recommend black
characters on white or yellow
background, or yellow on black,
white on black, white on blue and
green on white. Avoid red and
green and yellow on white.
Try not to put the screen near
a window. If it is unavoidable
ensure that neither the
screen nor the operator faces
 the window.
Use an anti-glare screen with
older monitors.
Adjust height so that the top of
the screen is at eye level.
Position in a downwards viewing
angle
Make sure the screen surface is
clean
Keyboards Prevent wrist strain which can Use a wrist rest.
develop into RSI (repetitive Type with wrists floating above
strain injury) the keyboard.
Keep elbows relaxed.
Keep mouse at the same height
as keyboard.
Tilt the keyboard to the most
comfortable position.
Chair Prevent back problems Adjust chair to a suitable height.
Tilt seat for lumbar support
(anything that provides
extra  support  to
the  lumbar  region, which most
people just call “the lower
back.”).
Allow adequate knee clearance
under the desk.
Do not sit in the same position
for long periods.
Light Prevent visual fatigue. Provide natural light if possible.
Avoid reflective glare. Position monitors at right angles
to windows, otherwise use blinds.
Avoid strong artificial lighting.
Noise Minimise distraction caused by Use headphones for software
noise. containing audio.
Position printers or photocopiers
away from workstations.
Heat Prevent accidents Ventilate rooms but avoid
creating draughts (Make  sure
your curtains close well, and that
there are no gaps around the
edges).
Turn off equipment when not in
use.
 Consider air conditioning.
Electrical Prevent accidents Leave technical repairs to
Safety experts.
Reroute, secure and cover stray
leads.
Replace frayed leads and
damaged plugs.
Avoid overloading extension
leads.
Be aware of coiled cables
overheating.

Regular Breaks
Computer users, both in workplaces and in schools, should be encouraged to
take regular breaks if working for protracted periods on a computer. This
may mean leaving the workstation for a few minutes every hour to avail of a
work-break or to engage briefly in some other work-related activity. Not
only will this allow eye muscles to re-adjust, it will also refresh all of the
body’s muscles, promoting personal health and a safe learning environment.
By encouraging such practices in schools, teachers are reinforcing the
importance of human– computer interaction, allowing students to form
positive habits at an early stage in their development, ones that they can
take with them into the world of work.
Computer Laboratory: The computer laboratory or simply computer lab is a
special room set aside and prepared specifically for safe installation and use
of computers.
Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.
i. Standard and Enough furniture.
ii. Good ventilation.
iii. Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv. Free from Dust and Moisture.
v. Enough floor space.
vi. Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii. Firefighting equipment. Fitted with gaseous fire extinguisher.
viii. Good lighting equipment.
ix. Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

The computer lab, just like any other lab, should be setup with safety
precautions in mind. Safety precautions and practices can be divided into
1. Measures that are meant to protect the computer.
 2. Measures that are meant to protect the users
Measures that protect computers
1. Burglar proofing the room. Includes fitting grills on doors, windows
and the roof to defer forceful entry into a computer room, alarm
installation and guards.
2. Installing fire prevention and control equipment e.g. smoke
detectors, non-liquid based and non-powder based fire extinguishers.
Recommended: Gaseous extinguisher
3. The room should be well laid out. Enough space of movement.
4. Providing stable power supply.
5. Dust and dump control.
6. Cables and power sockets should be well insulated.
7. Users should not eat or drink in the computer lab.
Measures that protect the user
1. All cables should be insulated. To avoid danger of electric shock to
the user
2. Providing standard furniture. To avoid poor posture which may lead to
strain injury and limb fatigue
3. Cables should be laid away from user paths to avoid stripping on them
4. Providing antiglare screens (light filters) and adjustable screens to
avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by over bright CRT monitors. LCD
do not strain the eye
5. The room should be properly ventilated to avoid dizziness caused by
lack of enough oxygen and to allow computers to cool
6. Overcrowding in computer room is not allowed. This may cause
suffocation
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
A computer network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources such as printers, storage devices, exchange files/data, or allow
electronic communications.
Computer network or data network can also be described as a telecommunications
network which allows computers to exchange data. In computer networks,
networked computing devices exchange data with each other using a data link. The
connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless
media.

EXPLAIN NETWORK SERVICES OR USES

Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently
and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls,
and video conferencing.
Advantages of Computer Networks
The computers connected in a network share files, folders, applications and
resources like scanner, web-cams, printers etc. It is also used as a Communication
medium to exchange information and send messages. The following are the benefits
of computer networks.
 Cost factor It greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared.
 It enhances communication and availability of information. Instant
messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to other
people wherever they are in the world, which is a huge boon for businesses.
Also, it allows access to a vast amount of useful information, including
traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news and current
events.
 It makes file sharing easier. It allows easier accessibility for people to
share their files, which greatly helps them with saving more time and effort,
since they could do file sharing more accordingly and effectively.
 It boosts storage capacity.
Disadvantages of Network:

 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.

 Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network

manager usually needs to be employed.
 If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible.
Email might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be
used but are isolated.

 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.

 There is a danger of cyber-attacks such as hacking, particularly with wide area

networks. Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

TELECOMMUNICATION
Telecommunication is the science and practice of transmitting information by
electromagnetic means. Telecommunications are the means of electronic
transmission of information over distances. The information may be in the form of
voice telephone calls, data, text, images, or video. ... Telecommunications links that
form a channel through which information is transmitted from a sending device to a
receiving device. Digital transmission is employed in order to achieve high reliability
and because the cost of digital switching systems is much lower than the cost
of analog systems. In order to use digital transmission, however, the analog signals
that make up most voice, radio, and television communication must be subjected to a
process of analog-to-digital conversion. (In data transmission this step is bypassed
because the signals are already in digital form; most television, radio, and voice
communication, however, use the analog system and must be digitized.) In many
cases, the digitized signal is passed through a source encoder, which employs a
number of formulas to reduce redundant binary information. After source encoding,
the digitized signal is processed in a channel encoder, which introduces redundant
information that allows errors to be detected and corrected. The encoded signal is
made suitable for transmission by modulation onto a carrier wave and may be made
part of a larger signal in a process known as multiplexing. The multiplexed signal is
then sent into a multiple-access transmission channel. After transmission, the above
process is reversed at the receiving end, and the information is extracted.
TYPES OF A NETWORK/TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Networks are categorized based on the following characteristics:
1. Network coverage/scale/scope/size: LAN, MAN, WAN
2. Network topologies. How the computers are connected together
3. Network technologies
4. Network architecture/functionality

Network coverage/scale/scope/size
Network coverage/scale/scope/size

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is

mainly of four types:

1. PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters. Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network. Thomas
Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network. Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet. Personal computer
devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN. Appliances use for
PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 Wireless Personal Area Network – It is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network – It is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
 Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a
person establishes a network connection and then creates a connection
with another device to share the information.
 Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so
it is also known as a home network. A home network is designed to
integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but they are
not connected to the internet.
 Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the
internet and to a corporate network using a VPN.
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
WLAN
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple
devices using wireless communication within a limited area like home,
school, or office building. It gives users an ability to move around within a
local coverage area which may be connected to the network. Today most
modern day's WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic

area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
  In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.
4. WAN(Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a
large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.

Examples of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44
offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by
the telecom company.
Network Topology
Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see
their logical or physical relations to one another. Computer networks may be
classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based.
What is Network Topology
The term Network Topology defines the geographic Physical or logical
arrangement of computer networking devices. The term Topology refers to the
way in which the various nodes or computers of a network are linked together
logically or physically. It describes the actual layout of the computer network
hardware. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
Topology determines the data paths that may be used between any pair of devices
of the network.
The selection of a Network Topology for a network cannot be done in isolation as
it affects the choice of media and the access method used. Because it determines
the strategy used in wiring a building for a network and deserves some careful
study. 

 
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability- produced in a range of capabilities
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.
Types of Topologies

Basic Network Topology 

The three simple Topology that are combined to form a basic Network Topology.
They are, Bus Topology, Ring and Star Topology. 
Bus Topology 
The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely used of the
network designs.
It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) or backbone cable that is
shared by all the nodes in the network. It transfers messages in both directions by
broadcasting to all the stations.
All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk. This is accomplished
using short drop cables or direct T-connectors.
A terminating resistor (terminator) at each end absorbs the signal that is missed
or not recognized, when it reaches the end of line. Without a terminator the
electrical signal would reach the end of copper wire and bounce back, causing
errors on the network. The number of devices and the length of the trunk can be
easily expanded.
The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative
ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.
 CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to
detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop
transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
  CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to
avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or
not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This
technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not
work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus Topology 

 Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the

cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies. In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room
require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus,
this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through
the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest
point on the backbone.

 Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in

bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.

 Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the

installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.

 Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology 

 Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a

lot of cabling.

 Difficult troubleshooting:  If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would

disrupt the communication for all the nodes. A fault or break in the bus
cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of
the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions. It requires specialized test
equipment to determine the cable faults.
  Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously,
then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.

 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow

down the network. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation
can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices
connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore
require modification or replacement of the backbone.

 Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication

issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology 

o The physical ring Topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links.

Messages travel around the ring from node to node in a very organized
manner. Each workstation checks the message for a matching destination
address. If the address doesn't match, the node simply regenerates the
message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts
the message and sends a reply to the originating sender. Each device in ring
incorporates a repeater. The data flows in a single loop continuously known
as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the
data.
 o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.

• There are two kinds of ring topologies:

1. Single Ring
2. Dual Ring

              

1. Single ring - In single ring network, a single cable is shared by all the devices and
data travel only in one direction.

Each device waits for its turn and then transmits. When the data reaches its
destination, another device can transmit.

2. Dual ring: This topology uses two rings to send the data, each in different
direction. Thus allowing more packets to be sent over the network. Dual-
ring Topology 

The type of  Topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to

two other nodes in the network, with two connections to each of these nodes, and
with the first and last nodes being connected to each other with two connections,
forming a double ring – the data flows in opposite directions around the two rings,
although, generally, only one of the rings carries data during normal operation, and
the two rings are independent unless there is a failure or break in one of the rings,
at which time the two rings are joined to enable the flow of data to continue using
a segment of the second ring to bypass the fault in the primary ring.

Advantages of Dual-ring Topology

• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
• Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load.
• Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers.

Disadvantages of Dual-ring Topology

• One malfunctioning workstation or bad port can create problems for the entire
network.
• Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network.
• Much slower than and bus network under normal load.

Advantages of Ring Topology 

 Fault isolation is simplified: in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.

If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and
its location.
  Network Management: A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbours (either physically
or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).

 Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network

operation and monitoring are available.

 Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system

is not dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a single ring, a break

in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.
This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of
closing off the break.

 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow

down the network.

 Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of

nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology 

Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected

to a central connection point hub, switch or a central computer.

The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.

Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star

topology.

Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

The routing function is performed by the central controller which centrally

controls communication between any two computers by establishing a logical path
between them. It means that if one computer A wants to send data to another
computer B, Computer A sends the data to the controller & this controller then
sends the data to computer B.

               

This Topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling. This design provides an

excellent platform for reconfiguration and trouble-shooting. Changes to the
network are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub and a break in the
LAN is easy to isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star

topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has
to inspect the kilometres of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.

 Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.

 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each

device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number
of others.

 Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added

to the open ports on the hub.
  High data speeds: Its cable supports a bandwidth of approx. 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

o Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub: If the
central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be
able to communicate with each other.

o Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a
star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology, each node is connected to every

other node in the network i.e.  each node has a
dedicated point to point link to every other node as
shown. Dedicated means that the link carries the
traffic only between two devices it connects.

In this way there exist multiple paths between two

nodes of the network. In case of failure of one
path, the other one can be used.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

 Fully connected mesh topology - In a full

mesh topology, each computer is
connected to all the computers available in
the network. It makes it possible for data to be simultaneously
transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes. The physical
fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a
small number of nodes to be interconnected.

 Partially connected mesh topology - In a partial mesh topology, not all

but certain computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh Topology 

  Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.

 The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its
own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by multiple devices.

 There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travel

along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.

 Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Traffic can be routed (selecting a path) to avoid links with suspected
problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise
location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

 Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

 Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

  Disadvantages of Mesh Topology 

 Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such

as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.

 Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult

to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then
the communication link failure goes undetected.

 Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces

the efficiency of the network.

 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in
walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.

Tree Topology

Tree or Hierarchical Topology: The type of  Topology in which a central 'root'

node, the top level of the hierarchy, is connected to one or more other nodes
that are one level lower in the hierarchy i.e., the second level, with a point-to-point
link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node,
while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central
'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy, i.e., the third level, connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the
top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in
the hierarchy – the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the network
having a specific fixed number, f, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level
in the hierarchy, the number, f, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the
hierarchical tree.

    

Advantages:

 It is most-suited in networking multiple departments of a university or

corporation, where each unit (star segment) functions separately, and is
also connected with the main node (root node).

 Easily expandable: As long as one connection exists, the new line can
expand the reach of the network by creating another simple point of
access.

 Easily manageable: Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the

central bus. Thus, failing of one segment does not affect the rest of the
network.

 Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
  The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus,
scalability is achieved.

Disadvantages:

 Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
 Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are
high. Also, configuration is difficult in comparison to that in other
topologies.
 Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on
the capacity of the central bus and on the cable type.
Hybrid Topology 

The hybrid Topology is a type of Topology that is composed of one or

more interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon different
physical topologies in a single network.

                               

 When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as

Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not
result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch
of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these
two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
 o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.

o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to

the requirements of the organization.

o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a

way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the
network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design

of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the
Hybrid network.

o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.

o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid

network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
By Functional Relationship (Network Architectures)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships
which exist between the elements of the network. This classification also called
computer architecture. There are two type of network architecture 
A. Peer-to-Peer Architecture
In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.
Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are
considered equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on
this network. Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared
drive, each computer that’s connected to this network would act as the server for
the files stored on it.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network

 Does not require a dedicated server which means its less costly.
 If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the
network will continue working.
 Installation and setup are quite painless because of the built-in support in
modern operating systems.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

 Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
 As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network. performance,
security, and access become a major headache.

B. Client/Server Architecture
In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful computer(server) acts as
a hub in which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server
is the heart of the system, which manages and provides resources to any client
that requests them.

Advantages of a client/server network

 Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Not restricted to a small number of computers.
 Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a client/server network
 Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking
devices such as hubs, routers, and switches.
 If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
 Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

Connection method
Connection method
Communication Systems can be Wired or Wireless and the medium used for
communication can be Guided or Unguided. In Wired Communication, the medium is
a physical path like Co-axial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables and Optical Fiber Links
etc. which guides the signal to propagate from one point to other.
On the other hand, Wireless Communication doesn’t require any physical medium
but propagates the signal through space. Since, space only allows for signal
transmission without any guidance, the medium used in Wireless Communication is
called Unguided Medium.
Generally, in a communication system, information is transmitted from transmitter
to receiver that are placed over a limited distance. With the help of Wireless
Communication, the transmitter and receiver can be placed anywhere between few
meters (like a T.V. Remote Control) to few thousand kilometers (Satellite
Communication).

a) Wired technologies
Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-
pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires
twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. Compared to
a single conductor or an untwisted balanced pair, a twisted pair reduces
electromagnetic radiation from the pair and crosstalk between neighbouring pairs
and improves rejection of external electromagnetic interference. The transmission
speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second.
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and
other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminium
wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high
dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers
of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range
from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.
Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in
protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances.
Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission
speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber
optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times
faster than a twisted-pair wire.
b) Wireless technologies
If there is no physical medium, then how does wireless communication transmit
signals? Even though there are no cables used in wireless communication, the
transmission and reception of signals is accomplished with Antennas.
Antennas are electrical devices that transform the electrical signals to radio
signals in the form of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves and vice versa. These
Electromagnetic Waves propagates through space. Hence, both transmitter and
receiver consist of an antenna. We can divide wireless transmission into three
broad groups:
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared waves
Radio Waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their
use in communication technologies, such as television, mobile phones and
radios. These devices receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical
vibrations in the speaker to create sound waves.
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves.
Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna send waves
that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property
has disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal suing
the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals
inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
Applications of Radio Waves
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful
for multicasting in which there is one sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and
paging are examples of multicasting.
Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high frequency radio
technology (radio frequency). Similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency
radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable
communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of
open standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE.

Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
micro waves. Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits
microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers
that are far apart need to be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside the
buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore,
wider sub-bands can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities.
Applications of Micro Waves
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when
unicast(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the
receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless
LANs. The satellites can relay signals around the Earth. Microwaves are
used because they pass through the atmosphere and through the
ionosphere. Mobile phones use microwave signals.
There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :
1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

 Used for long distance telephone communication
 Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

 It is very costly

Terrestrial Microwave
Terrestrial microwaves use Earth- based transmitter and receiver. The
equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-
gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path
between relay stations spaced approx, 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas
are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.
For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can
be installed with each antenna. The signal received by an antenna can be
converted into transmittable form and relayed to next antenna as shown in
below figure. It is an example of telephone systems all over the world

Satellite Microwave
The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium
which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. Satellite accesses the
internet via a satellite in Earth’s orbit. The satellites are stationed in space,
typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous satellites) above the equator.
These Earth orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice,
data, and TV signals. This is a microwave relay station which is placed in
outer space. The satellites are launched either by rockets or space shuttles
carry them.

These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that
exactly matches the rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is
positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is stationery relative to earth and
always stays over the same point on the ground. This is usually done to allow
ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.

Features of Satellite Microwave

  Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.
 Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave

 Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check
whether the satellite has transmitted information correctly.
 A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave

 Satellite manufacturing cost is very high
 Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
 Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in
bad weather

Infrared Waves
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used
for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another, a short-range communication
system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
Infrared communication, which can transmit signals between devices within
small distances not more than 10 meters peer to peer or (face to face)
without anybody in the line of transmitting. The most
common use of infrared in everyday life is remote controls. These work by
sending pulses of infrared that spell out a message to an electronic device.
This device could be a television, blu-ray player, or even a
computer. Infrared can be used in a similar way for communication. When we
use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote
by our neighbours. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals
useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared
waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that
can interfere with the communication.

Applications of Infrared Waves

 The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for
data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit
digital data with a very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring
the use of infrared waves, has established standards for using these
 signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse,
PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
LIFE SKILLS
THEORY
7.1.1.10.T0 Specific Objectives
18 By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:-
a) explain the meaning and importance of life skills
b) describe life skills

Life Skills
Life Skills are abilities which enable an individual to develop adaptive and
positive behavior.  These skills enable individuals to deal effectively with
challenges and demands of everyday life.
A learner who is equipped with the necessary life skills is likely to lead a
more successful life than one who does not have them. 
Life Skills comprises of competencies that can enable the youth cope with
challenges and manage that lives in a healthy and productive manner.
BENEFITS OF LIFE SKILLS

Types of Life Skills

i. Self-awareness
Awareness Self-awareness is the ability to appreciate oneself,
including the strong and weak points of one’s character. It is
the knowledge of one self in terms of what one can do and what
one cannot do. This realization enables one to take action and
make choices and decisions which are consistent with one’s
abilities.
As people get older, they become increasingly conscious of who
they are leading to development of self-awareness. The
feedback received and the value judgment attached to it leads
one to self-image which can be positive or negative.
ii. Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to how an individual feels about personal
aspects such as appearance, abilities and behavior and grows on
the basis of their experiences of being competent and
successful in what they attempt. It enables an individual to
evaluate his or her self-worth. This is determined by how one
values him or himself in terms of physical and psychological
status. How one feels influences his or her actions towards
others. This is largely influenced by the person’s socialization
with family members, friends, teachers, peers, and others.
iii. stress management/copying with stress
Stress refers to the reaction of a body to changes in the
environment that requires adjustment or response. Human
bodies respond to changes through emotional, mental and
physical reactions. Stress can be positive to keep us alert and
ready for changes in life; but when the body is exposed to
continuous challenges without rest it leads to negative stress,
which can be the cause of tension and depression. The body
reacts automatically to physiological changes that cause stress
through the nervous system.
Causes of Stress
Stress can be caused by various factors that lead to
changes and responses of the nervous system. Some
causes of stress include:
 Conflicts
 Growth and development
 Peer pressure
 Poor communication with relatives and friends
 Poor time management
 The need to belong to a social group
 Exposure to significant pressure
 Having worries about something – causing mental
stress
 Exposure to uncertainties such as job insecurity,
business risks, etc.
 Going through overwhelming challenges and
responsibilities
 Being unable to control the situation
Effects of Stress
Stress has significant effects or outcomes on the body,
mind and soul. When someone faces significant stress,
the body reacts by releasing hormones through the
nervous system. Such hormones causes the person to
fight or take off. This is called “fight or flight” reaction.
This can cause the heartbeat rate to increase, the
breathing to be faster, and muscles to become more
tensed. A person can also start sweating. The body
usually recovers from such temporary reactions (acute
stress) Short-term stress results in mild health issues
such as: Headaches, Fatigue, Lack of concentrating,
Difficulties in sleeping, Stomach upsets, Irritation
If the stress persists for a long time, it may result to
more serious health problems: Depression, Asthma,
Arthritis, Anxiety, High blood pressure, Heart diseases,
abnormal heartbeat, Heart Attack, Obesity, Loss of sex
drive, Fertility problems
Strategies of copying with stress
 Communicating effectively
 Positive attitudes towards self
 Sharing our feelings with others
 Exercising regularly
 Seeking social support
 Eating balanced diet
 Removing the source of stress
 Seeking counselling
 Accept situations that you can’t control
 Be assertive and proactive rather than being
reactive
 Use relaxation techniques such as yoga
 Manage your time effectively
 Avoid drugs and alcohol
Forms of Positive Stress
 Positive stress is referred to as  eustress. It includes
different forms such as:
 Travel
 Falling in love
 Changes in life such as an upcoming
wedding/marriage
 Beginning something or a new process
 Experiencing new things in life such as pregnancies

iv. Time management

Time can be defined as a period or duration within which
something or an event happens in life, usually measured in
seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years. Time is
a very important resource that cannot be recovered once it has
been lost. Accordingly, it is important for people to organize
activities in such a way that they fit within a given period and
utilize their time effectively.
Time management is therefore the process or planning and
organizing activities to fit within a desired timeframe and to
ensure that required tasks are completed on time. The ability
to manage time effectively is a desirable skill at work, school
and home.
v. cooperation and teamwork
This is the ability of a person to meet and relate with others in
various places such as schools, playing field and social gathering.
Relationships can be between children and parents or students
and teachers. They can also be between relatives, neighbors or
peers. Being able to form healthy relationships enables one to
know how to behave properly in each relationship.
vi. Peer resistance
Peer resistance helps an individual to take control of
him/herself by resisting negative influences from others.
Peer Pressure Peer Influence

Peer pressure is pressure from one’s Peer influence is when a peer’s act
 persuades/ encourages the others to
peers to act in a way that is acceptable
act in a particular way without the use
to the others in the same group.
of force.

It sometimes leads to the loss of Little to no chance of losing individual

individual identity identity

It is action oriented –  forced to do It is behavior oriented – developing a

something skill.

One has the choice or freedom to

Compels someone to follow peers
decide.

vii. Empathy
Empathy is being able to understand the feelings of other
people and appreciate their positions or ideologies. It can also
be defined as putting oneself in the shoes of another.
Moreover, it is the ability to sense and share the emotions of
other people – being able to imagine or consider the feelings
and thoughts of other people in certain situations. Empathy
falls under the cluster of social awareness in the field of
Emotional Intelligence.
This skill enables us to share our friend’s problems.
Importance of Empathy
 Understanding other people’s feelings helps the subject of
empathy to feel relieved or feel as though some burden have
been removed off their shoulders.
 Promotes effective communication
 Allows room for feedback and improvement
 Helps people to demonstrate their understanding of others.
 When you understand that someone has a certain feeling,
e.g. when a child is sad, you can be able to determine what
they are going through in their home, e.g. if their mother is
ill.
 Empathy helps someone to know what to do or how to react
to certain situations involving interactions with others.
 Empathy helps people to share the same feelings that other
people feel, helping them to find the right solution in given
situations.
 Empathy is important in building trust because one is able
predict the reactions of teammates by empathizing with
them.
Difference between Empathy and Sympathy
Empathy refers to understand and share the feelings of other
people as though we have the same feelings ourselves.
Sympathy entails being able to take part in the feelings of
others, e.g. feeling sad when someone else is undergoing a
misfortune.
Empathy refers to the ability to project one’s feelings onto
another object. Sympathy involves a focus on tastes and
opinions, e.g. when you feel sympathy for a character in a movie.
Situations Requiring Empathy
 During the death or loss of a loved one
 When infected with HIV & AIDS
 When one loses a job or being jobless
 During illness or a pandemic
 In any other life-threatening situation

viii. Negotiation and conflict management skills

Negotiation refers to the process of discussing issues openly
and calmly to arrive at an agreement and understanding
between two or more parties. It is a process in which people
make decisions or settle differences by holding discussions.
The ultimate end of a negotiation process should be to end a
dispute, avoid an argument, and find consensus. In any
difference of opinion, each party always looks to assert their
position and achieve their interests. However, it is important to
apply the principles of fairness and justice to ensure that each
party benefits from the outcome of negotiation. Negotiation
requires individuals to gain a mutual understanding and benefit,
and to establish lasting relationship after the negotiation
process.
ix. Effective communication
This is the ability of a person to communicate with people
according to their mood, age and background. It includes
speaking, reading, listening and writing skills. This skill is very
important in maintaining good relationship with other people.
Speaking correctly means saying what you want in a way that
can be easily and clearly understood.
x. Advocacy skills
Skill of influence and persuasion.
xi. Critical thinking
Critical thinking refers to the ability of a person to think in a
clear and rational way, and to understand the logical connection
between ideas. It entails being able to reason and make
appropriate and objective decisions in life. Critical thinkers
often question common beliefs and ideas rather than accepting
them as given.
In life, we often face numerous ideas, some of which are
contradictory and challenging. Thus, it is important to analyze
every situation quite critically to make the best decision.
Critical thinking also involves inquiry of the mind, ensuring that
you examine things deeply to make rational decisions.
xii. Creative thinking
Creative thinking refers to the ability to develop a new way of
doing something or solving a problem. Creativity entails coming
up with new ideas or applying existing ideas on new situations.
For instance, one needs to think creatively to identify new ideas
on how to resolve conflicts between employees. Creative
thinking includes the following elements: analysis, problem-
solving, communication, organization, and open-mindedness.
xiii. Decision-making
Problem Solving refers to the process of identifying a problem,
alternative solutions, and choosing the best solution to solve the
 problem. Everyone faces problems multiple times in their lives.
Each day presents itself with a new problem or challenge to be
solved. This lesson identifies ways of identifying a problem and
how to solve such problems effectively.
Sources of Life Skills
People learn life skills from different sources. The following are the major
ones.
1. Family: Parents, guardians and other relatives are primary source
from whom we learn different life skills.
2. Neighbors: We learn the different ways that people live from our
neighbors. Good neighbors help us to behave well.
3. Friends: Friends helps us to acquire various life skills. Exchanging good
ideas with friends help to mold us in to well-behaved individuals.
4. Schools: The good education we get at school enables us to develop
skills for life.
5. Society: the way people live in the society allows an individual to learn
what is expected of him/her and how he/she should behave in
different circumstances.
6. Religion: Good religion teachings help to get skills which enable us to
live harmoniously in society Note: The above mentioned sources of life
skills are sources of positive and progressive life skills.
ICT ETHICS AND LEGISLATIONS
THEORY
7.1.1.9.T0 Specific Objectives
17 By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: -
a) explain the meaning and importance of ICT ethics
b) describe unethical behaviour in ICT
c) explain reasons for unethical behaviour in ICT
d) explain the measures for controlling unethical behaviour in ICT
e) explain the sources of ICT legislations
f) describe ICT legislations and policies
g) explain enforcement measures for ICT legislation and policies

Ethical and Legal issues in ICT

• Introduction
The consistent use of information and communication technology (ICT) in
modern world enables us for countless opportunities for individuals,
institutions, business organisations and scientists, but it also raises difficult
ethical and legal problems. In particular, ICT helped to make societies more
complex and thus even harder to understand. The use of ICT has led to
changes in concepts: ownership, buying and selling, right to possession, theft,
justice in the distribution of resources and access rights. During the
nineties, the internet has grown into all business segments resulting in a
large number of questions running. It has been noted that during those time
period there has been merging of computers, telecommunications, and media
which is further emphasized by the emergence of new issues and
strengthening old ones.

“Ethics are moral standards that help guide behavior, actions, and choices .
Ethics are grounded in the notion of responsibility (as free moral agents,
individuals, organizations, and societies are responsible for the actions that
they take) and accountability (individuals, organizations, and society should
be held accountable to others for the consequences of their actions). ICT
ethics are not exceptional from the above-mentioned view of ethics.

ICT ethical issues and challenges

The key issues of problems surrounding the application of ICT are: privacy,
ownership, the responsibility, professionalism, social implications and values,
freedom of expression, access to information, the right to privacy,
intellectual property rights, and cultural diversity. It is beyond doubt that
there are benefits of new technologies such as industry development, going
to the moon, e- learning systems and improved diagnosis in various fields.
Technology is advancing inevitable and with new advancement it creates a
vacuum in the new legislation which is not always easy to deal with.
All over the world, rights that are already legally recognised are daily being
violated, whether in the name of economic advancement, political stability,
religious causes, the campaign against terrorism, or for personal greed and
interests. Violations of these rights have created new problems in
human social systems, such as the digital divide, cyber-crime, digital security
and privacy concerns, all of which have affected people’s lives either directly
or indirectly.
Cybercrime is criminal activity that either targets or uses a computer, a
computer network or a networked device. It takes various forms, including
theft, fraud, extortion, crimes against persons, sales of drugs and
contraband, intellectual property piracy, theft of information, spread of
malicious codes, denial of service attacks and cyber-terrorism. 
In light of these efforts, proposals to increase surveillance of the
communications and activities of Internet users are being introduced as a
way to prevent computer intruders from hacking into systems and to stop
other crimes such as intellectual property violations. These often include
the mass retention of personal data about users and their activities such as
Internet sites visited and mobile phone location data.
Loss of privacy Transactions are transmitted and recorded in databases at
banks, hospitals, shopping complexes, and various organizations, in the public
or private sector. The contents of electronic communications and databases
can provide important and private information to unauthorized individuals
and organizations if they are not securely guarded.
Piracy Millions of dollars of software is illegally copied each year all over
the world. This phenomenon has a great impact on the software industry.
Local and foreign software industries need consumers support all over the
world to maintain the progress of technology. Most importantly, for the sake
of growth in indigenous ICT innovation and invention, local software
industries need local support in protecting their intellectual property rights
and investment.
Freedom of speech and press common limitations or boundaries to freedom
of speech relate to libel, slander, obscenity, pornography, sedition,
incitement, fighting words, classified information, copyright violation, trade
secrets, non-disclosure agreements, the right to privacy, dignity, public
security, and perjury.
Digital Divide The increasing use of computers has increased the separation
of rich and poor, creating a digital divide between the information “haves”
and “have-nots.” What subsidies and programmes have been provided by
governments of the region to address the issue?

LEGISLATION OF ICT
The purpose of legislation is to control and regulate the use of ICT.
Different acts in result in different benefits to the end user or other
people affected by the technology.
Legislation protects people and ensures that there is no abuse by others to
those investing in the technology.
 Both the public and private sectors collect, use and transfer Personal Data
at an unprecedented scale and for multiple purposes. This Personal Data can
be put to beneficial use, however, the unregulated and arbitrary use of
Personal Data, has raised concerns regarding the privacy and control over
such data by the data subject. Through the Constitution, the Government of
Kenya is committed to protecting the privacy of individuals. The Government
recognizes that this protection is an essential element in maintaining public
trust in entities managing Personal Data and essential for the social-
economic development of Kenya in the fourth revolution. It is also meant to
protect children and vulnerable groups
The Constitution of Kenya 2010, under Article 31 recognizes the right to
privacy. Kenya acknowledges the importance of accessing information and
safeguarding it as articulated in the National ICT Policy. The purpose of this
policy is to lay foundation to enforce Article 31 of the Constitution of Kenya,
by developing privacy and data protection laws.

On 8 November 2019, President Uhuru Kenyatta signed the Data Protection

Bill, 2019 into law ('the Act'), establishing requirements for the protection
of personal data. The Act is Kenya's first data protection law, which came
into force on 25 November 2019. Francis Monyango, Law and Policy
Associate at Kenya ICT Action Network (KICTANet), provides an overview
of the privacy law and discusses the conditions set out regarding data
transfers, data processing, and data subject rights. The Act has introduced
elaborate obligations to persons who collect and process data whose
infringement would lead to stiff penalties of an administrative fine of up to
KES 5 million or in case of an undertaking, up to 1% of its annual turnover of
the preceding year, whichever is lower.
privacy concerns among Kenyans include the arbitrary use and misuse of
personal information, unsolicited marketing messages by entities, and the
need for identification at entrances of buildings. Business entities, on the
other hand, have been concerned about how they can comply with the
General Data Protection Regulation.

ICT legislations
Legislations by the government include: Property law to protect intellectual
property and Privacy law to protect information and data.
A. Intellectual Property refers to works created by inventors, authors and
artists. Legal rights that provide creators protection for original works,
inventions, or the appearance of products, artistic works, scientific
developments, and so on.
There are four types of Intellectual Property protection. They are
patents for invention, trademarks for brand identity, and designs for
product appearance and copyright for material and Trades secrets.
Patents for inventions
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a
product or a process that provides, in general, a new way of doing
something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem. To get a
patent, technical information about the invention must be disclosed to
the public in a patent application (request pending patent rights).
The three types of patents are utility patents, design patents, and
plant patents. Utility patents are issued for inventions that are novel
and useful. Design patents protect the design or image of a product.
Plant patents are issued to applicants for plants that can reproduce.
These patents protect inventions and improvements to existing
inventions.
Trademarks for brand identity
A trademark is generally a word, phrase, symbol, or design, or a
combination thereof, that identifies and distinguishes the source of
the goods of one party from those of others. A service mark is the
same as a trademark, except that it identifies and distinguishes the
source of a service rather than goods. Design for product
appearance Literary and artistic material, music, films, sound
recordings and road casts, including software and multimedia. Nike,
Bata or Adidas, for example, are all protected by a group of legal
rights.
Copyright for material
Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the
exclusive right to make copies of a creative work, usually for a limited
time (copyright protection lasts for the life of the author plus an
additional 70 year). The creative work may be in a literary, artistic,
educational, or musical form.
A trade secret is any practice or process of a company that is
generally not known outside of the company. Information considered a
trade secret takes a variety of forms, such as a proprietary process,
instrument, pattern, design, formula, recipe, method, or practice that
is not evident to others and may be used as a means to create an
enterprise that offers an advantage over competitors or provides
value to customers.
Trade secrets are defined differently based on jurisdiction, but all
have the following characteristics in common:
 1. They are not public information. The company must make a
reasonable effort in concealing the information from the public.
NOTE: If a trade secret holder fails to safeguard the
secret or if the secret is independently discovered,
released, or becomes general knowledge, protection of the
secret is removed.
2. Their secrecy provides an economic benefit to their holder.
3. Their secrecy is actively protected.
Unlike a patent, a trade secret is not publicly known. Companies can
find ways to figure out what makes their competitors successful. To
protect its trade secrets, a company may require employees privy to
the information to sign non-compete or non-disclosure agreements
(NDA) upon hire.
B. Information privacy is described as the rights of individuals and companies
to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them. Every
time you click on an advertisement or register a software product online,
your information is entered into a database. Computer technology can also
threaten privacy through spam. Spam is unsolicited e-mail messages,
advertisements or newsgroup postings sent to many recipients at once.
Computer technology threatens the privacy of our data through:
i. Cookies - contain user information and are saved in the
computer hard disk. It enables web sites to collect information
about your online activities and store them for future use, then
the collected details will be sold to any company that requests
for it. This can be protected by blocking cookies.
ii. Electronic profile/ Digital profiling - It is the process of
collecting in-depth information about a person. Details like
individual’s name, current address, previous address, age,
marital status, number and age of children are generally listed
in an individual`s profile. Such information or details are
obtained from a variety of sources that have association with
personally identifiable information that exists online. A digital
profile can include information about personal characteristics,
behaviours, affiliations, connections and interactions. Digital
profiling is used in marketing, enterprise security, criminal
justice and recruitment, among other areas.
iii. Spyware- refers to a program that collects user information
without the user’s knowledge. This can be protected by use of
an antispyware.
ICT policies
ICT policies - “The rules and regulations set by the organization. Policy
determines the type of internal and external information resources
employees can access, the kinds of programs they may install on their own
computers as well as their authority for reserving network resources. Policy
is also related to network quality of service (QoS), because it can define
priorities by user, workgroup or application with regard to reserving network
bandwidth”
The following are the objectives of ICT policies in organizations:
1. Provide guidelines for the conditions of acceptance and the
appropriate use of the computing and networking resources provided
for use by academic, professional and support staff and students of
the University.
2. Ensure that ICT resources are used in an appropriate fashion, and
support the organisation mission and institutional goals.
3. Encourage users to understand their own rights and responsibility for
protecting the ICT resources.
4. Protect the privacy and integrity of data stored on their network.
5. Elaborate the consequences of the inappropriate use of these
resources.
Outcomes of the ICT Policy
By enforcing the acceptable use policy, we aim to achieve the following
outcomes:
1. Better informed users regarding acceptable and unacceptable use of ICT
resources.
2. Responsible users regarding the value and use of ICT resources.

ICT Policy Statements:

1. The resources should be used for the purpose for which they are
intended.
2. Users must adhere to the confidentiality rules governing the use of
passwords and accounts, details of which must not be shared.
3. Users may use only the computers, computer accounts, and computer
files for which they have authorization.
4. All users of the network and computing resources are expected to
respect the privacy and personal rights of others.
5. The institution such as a University reserves the right to monitor all
activities performed by the users on the internet by recording and
reporting without the consent of the user and has the right to block
any site or group of sites according to its policies and will take
necessary action that violates this policy.
6. Users, who discover or find security problems or suspicious activity,
must immediately contact Technical Support.
7. Users must not use the network in any illegal manner e.g. commercial
purposes nor use it to login or browse illegal web sites or content.
8. Organisation network may not be used for the creation, dissemination,
storage and display of obscene or pornographic material, abusive,
indecent, obscene, and defamatory or hate literature etc.
9. Users should not create illegal copies or violate copyright protected
material in order to use, or save such copies on organisation devices or
send them through their network.
10. This policy prevents users adding, deleting, or modifying any
information on university network in an attempt to disrupt or mislead
others.
11. Users are not allowed to indulge into any activity that may adversely
affect the ability of others to use the Internet services provided by
the organisation e.g. denial of service attacks, hacking, virus, or
consuming gratuitously large amounts of system resources (disk space,
CPU time, print quotas, and network bandwidth) or by deliberately
crashing the machine(s).
12. The organisation prevents downloading any programs and installing in
the university’s computers. Any such request should be done through
technical support.
13. DICT is not responsible of the internet content that been browsed by
the end user, or problems that might happen to user from browsing
untrusted websites.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising
between individuals or within a group when the beliefs or actions of one or
more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or
more members of another group. Conflict pertains to the opposing ideas and
actions of different entities, thus resulting in an antagonistic state.
Types of conflict
Workplace conflicts
Family and domestic conficts etc.

Causes of conflict
Workplace
Family
Scarce resources
Personal Interests

Techniques or approaches of managing conflicts

Preventing conflict.
Some of the preventive measures that the management can take, according
to Schein are: a) Goal structure: Goals should be clearly defined and the role
and contribution of each unit towards the organizational goal must be clearly
identified. All units and the individuals in these units must be aware of the
importance of their role and such importance must be fully recognized. b)
Reward System: The compensation system should be such that it does not
create individual competition or conflict within the unit. It should be
appropriate and proportionate to the group effort and reflect the degree of
interdependence among units where necessary. c) Trust and communication:
The greater the trust among the members of unit, the more honest and open
the communication among them would be. Individuals and units should be
encouraged to communicate openly with each other so that they can all
understand each other, understand each other’s problems and help each
other when necessary. d) Co-ordination: Co-ordination is the next step to
communication. Properly co-ordinated activity reduce conflict. Wherever
there are problems in co-ordination, a special liaison office should be
established to assist such co-ordination.
• Resolving Behavioural Conflict / reactive
Various researchers have identified five primary strategies for dealing with
and reducing the impact of behavioural conflict. Even though different
authors have given different terminology to describe these strategies, the
basic content and approach of these strategies remain the same. These are:
1. Ignoring the conflict. In certain situations, it may be advisable to take a
passive role and avoid it all together. From the manager’s point of view, it
may be especially necessary when getting involved in a situation would
provoke further controversy or when conflict is so trivial in nature that it
would not be worth the manager’s time to get involved and try to solve it. It
could also be that the conflict is so fundamental to the position of the
parties involved that it may be best either to leave it to them to solve it or
to let events take their own course. The parties involved in the conflict may
themselves prefer to avoid conflict, especially if they are emotionally upset
by the tension and frustration created by it. People may intrinsically believe
that conflict is fundamentally evil and its final consequences are never good.
Thus, people may try to get away from conflict causing situations.
2. Smoothing: Smoothing simply means covering up the conflict by appealing
for the need for unity rather than addressing the issue of conflict itself. An
individual with internal conflict may try to “count his blessings” and forget
about the conflict. If two parties have a conflict within the organization, the
supervisor may try to calm things down by being understanding and
supportive to both parties and appealing them for co-operation. The
supervisor does not ignore or withdraw from the conflict nor does he try to
address and solve the conflict but expresses hope that “everything will work
out for the best of all.” Since the problem is never addressed, the emotions
may build up further and suddenly explode. Thus, smoothing provides only a
temporary solution and conflict may resurface again in the course of time.
Smoothing is more sensitive approach than avoiding in that as long as the
parties agree that not showing conflict has more benefits than showing
conflicts, the conflict can be avoided.
3. Compromising: A compromise in the conflict is reached by balancing the
demands of the conflicting parties and bargaining in a give and take position
to reach a solution. Each party gives up something and also gains something.
The technique of conflict resolution is very common in negotiations between
the labour unions and management. It has become customary for the union to
ask for more than what they are willing to accept and for management to
offer less than what they are willing to give in the initial stages. Then
through the process of negotiating and bargaining, mostly in the presence of
arbitrators, they reach a solution by compromising. This type of compromise
is known as integrative bargaining in which both sides win in a way.
Compromising is a useful technique, particularly when two parties have
relatively equal power, thus no party can force its viewpoints on the other
and the only solution is to compromise. It is also useful when there are time
constraints. If the problems are complex and many faceted, and the time is
limited to solve them, it might be in the interest of conflicting parties to
reach a compromise.
4. Forcing: As Webber puts it, “the simplest conceivable resolution is the
elimination of the other party – to force opponents to flee and give up the
fight – or slay them.” This is technique of domination where the dominator
has the power and authority to enforce his own views over the opposing
conflicting party. This technique is potentially effective in situations such as
a president of a company firing a manager because he is considered as a
trouble-maker and conflict creator. This technique always ends up in one
party being a loser and the other party being a clear winner. Many
professors in colleges and universities have lost promotions and tenured re-
appointments because they could not get along well with their respective
chairpersons of the departments and had conflicts with them. This approach
causes resentment and hostility and can backfire. Accordingly, management
must look for better alternatives, if these become available.
5. Problem solving: This technique involves “confronting the conflict” in order
to seek the best solution to the problem. This approach objectively assumes
that in all organizations, no matter how well they are managed, there will be
differences of opinions which must be resolved through discussions and
respect for differing viewpoints. In general, this technique is very useful in
resolving conflicts arising out of semantic misunderstandings. It is not so
effective in resolving non-communicative types of conflicts such as those
that are based on differing value systems, where it may even intensify
differences and disagreements. In the long run, however, it is better to
solve conflicts and take such preventive measures that would reduce the
likelihood of such conflicts surfacing again. If there is a single contributory
factor that helps in reducing and eliminating negative conflict, it is "trust".
Our ability to trust each other has great impact on our working lives, on our
family interactions and our achievement of personal and organizational goals.
In order to create trust and be trustworthy, it is necessary to avoid
aggressive behaviours and at the same time develop supportive behaviours
where people are respected for what they are or what they believe in and
are treated equally without bias or prejudice. In case, a conflict develops at
any level, it should be resolved with mutual benefit in mind.
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
THEORY
7.1.1.12.T0 Specific Objectives
20 By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: -
a) explain the meaning and importance of social responsibility
b) describe social responsibilities in ICT
c) explain the challenges of social responsibility in ICT

Corporate Social Responsibility is defined as the responsibility of

enterprises for their impact on society. Deployment of CSR adds incredible
value to a company’s business while also supporting communities and the
environment.
A correct understanding of CSR would provide business organisations with
good clues to how they can approach social issues caused by development and
use of ICT.

Importance of social responsibility

1. Because their behaviour has had strong influence over a wide range
of people in the modern market economy and ICT can function as an
amplifier of power imbalance (economic crisis which has led
to unemployment rates), business organisations, have to carefully
engage in activities of development and usage of ICT and take their
social responsibility regarding intentional as well as unintentional
outcomes of the activities.
2. Corporations are expected to make a positive contribution to the
advancement of the society while working to prevent the eruption of
corporate scandals with a view to encouraging the sound
development of their own organisations and society.
In order to execute their commitment to CSR, corporations strive
for forging favourable relations with, and thus winning enhanced
confidence from, a variety of stakeholders existing around
themselves, including consumers, suppliers and customers,
employees, shareholders, local communities and international
communities at large, through sincere corporate practices that
adhere to the CSR, in pursuit of sustainable development for both
themselves and the society.
3. Builds and maintains brand image
4. Satisfies all stakeholders’ needs. Suppliers consider incentives from
customers, therefore, companies should determine which incentives
 would help their suppliers perform better in meeting CSR
expectations. Some examples of incentives could be a combination of
longer contract terms, increased purchase volumes, higher prices
and public recognition through awards and certificates. These
incentives may hurt their profits initially, but in the long run the
advantages derived from better CSR performance, such as less need
for monitoring, reliable supply chains, diminished risk to brand
image, improved product quality, and better operated facilities,
could potentially counter the initial reduction in profits.
Social responsibilities in ICT
In order to meet these challenges, the actors of the ICT sector have to
take responsibility for:
a) E-waste management: the goal is to find a clean, economical and
constructive means of disposal e.g, Manufacturing industries
developing and implementing technologies which can seriously reduce
energy consumption or CO2 respectively to protect natural resources
and the climate.
i. Focusing on waste reduction, recycling and finding more
environmentally-friendly components for products.
ii. Adoption of an e-Market for suppliers and organizations
looking for cheap, reusable and recyclable hardware.
iii. Donation to schools and non-profit organizations. The hope is
that this forum will help shrink the digital divide and decrease
pollution from e-waste.
iv. Offering their expertise in environmental efficiencies in order
to create an ethical supply chain. This process will start by
educating suppliers and moving on to educating other
organizations and may represent a future revenue stream.
b) Living conditions:  Developing and implementing technologies which
help to society and public. There is also the way for a development of
“Smart Sustainable Cities”, which has, for example, intelligent
transportation system, street lighting,
c) Employment: ICT companies should treat their employees nicely. That
principle should be applied also for employees of their suppliers. In
the case of unemployment, organisations should focus on getting more
people into work rather than environmental initiatives
d) Focus on Diversity
To address the lack of female representatives in the ICT industry,
companies can seek membership in local female associations like
Organization of Women in International Trade (OWIT) and
 Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID). These
organizations concentrate on developing women’s technical skills,
offers networking opportunities, career guidance and increase
awareness and interest in the field of ICT. Through these channels,
companies can attract top students to through internships or
executive hiring programs. Other senior female executives in the ICT
industry can act as champions for the overall initiative by
participating in information sessions, mentorship programs and
initiatives like job shadowing.
e) Confidentiality and privacy. Implementation of new technologies e.g
encryption, in ICT requires also to solve challenges of ICT such as
security.
f) Education and training: Offering ICT training programs to employees
and society. KENET provides training services to its member
institution to enable them to improve on their campus network and
efficiently utilize the services offered by KENET.
Unfortunately, however, it is not necessarily easy for business organisations
to recognise ethical and social issues related to ICT correctly and to
address them properly. Following Are the Opinions Against Social
Responsibilities:
1. The sole motive of the business is profit maximization. Adhering to
social responsibility could result to loss of profit. Necessity of
development of for example a professional outlook of ICT engineers,
would not be recognised because it is costly and return or benefit of
establishing ICT professionalism in business organisations can be hard
to be evaluated in terms of money.
2. Because they operate in competitive markets, they cannot necessarily
disclose every piece of information regarding development,
deployment and use of ICT, though these may cause irreversible
transformation of societies. This implies that business organisations
should develop a proper information disclosure scheme concerning ICT
as well as a satisfactory level of professionalism among employees.
3. Poor employee engagement - When employees are hired regularly on
short term contracts and laid off at the end of their term, thereby,
avoiding higher wages and benefits, which would have been incurred
otherwise. This prevents workers from actively partaking in
companies’ growth and decreases loyalty.
4. Lack of Social Skills
 Every entity does not have enough skills and knowledge to solve each
and every social problem. This can be the reason for a poor image in
the society.
So, these problems should be solved by some specialized parties.
5. Lack of Broad Public Support
Generally, society does not accept the involvement of business
entities in social programs. That is why it gets difficult for the
business to solve the problems without the participation of the public.
6. Splitting corporate focus. Takes focus away from customer acquisition
 EMERGING TRENDS IN ICT AND ETHICS

There are future and emerging technologies that may have an even more
profound impact.
1. Consider for example brain-computer interfaces. In case computers
are connected directly to the brain, not only behavioral
characteristics (recording user internet activities) are subject to
privacy considerations, but even one’s thoughts run the risk of
becoming public, with decisions of others being based upon them. In
addition, it could become possible to change one’s behavior by means
of such technology. Such developments therefore require further
consideration of the reasons for protecting privacy. In particular,
when brain processes could be influenced from the outside,
autonomy would be a value to reconsider to ensure adequate
protection.
2. Technology thus does not only influence privacy by changing the
accessibility of information, but also by changing the privacy norms
themselves. For example, social networking sites invite users to
share more information than they otherwise might. This
“oversharing” becomes accepted practice within certain groups.
With future and emerging technologies, such influences can also be
expected and therefore they ought to be taken into account when
trying to mitigate effects.
3. Another fundamental question is whether, given the future (and
even current) level of informational connectivity, it is feasible to
protect privacy by trying to hide information from parties who may
use it in undesirable ways. Gutwirth & De Hert (2008) argue that it
may be more feasible to protect privacy by transparency – by
requiring actors to justify decisions made about individuals,
thus insisting that decisions are not based on illegitimate
information. This approach comes with its own problems, as it might
be hard to prove that the wrong information was used for a decision.
Still, it may well happen that citizens, in turn, start data collection
on those who collect data about them, e.g. governments. Such
“counter(sur)veillance” may be used to gather information about the
use of information, thereby improving accountability (Gürses et al.
2016). The open source movement may also contribute to
transparency of data processing. In this context, transparency can
 be seen as a pro-ethical condition contributing to privacy (Turilli &
Floridi 2009).
4. It has been argued that the precautionary principle, well known in
environmental ethics (man's  moral  and  ethical  obligations toward
the  environment), might have a role in dealing with emerging
information technologies as well (Pieters & van Cleeff 2009; Som,
Hilty & Köhler 2009). The principle would see to it that the burden
of proof for absence of irreversible effects of information
technology on society, e.g. in terms of power relations ( able to get
the other person to do what they wish) and equality, would lie with
those advocating the new technology. Precaution, in this sense, could
then be used to impose restrictions at a regulatory level, in
combination with or as an alternative to empowering users,
thereby potentially contributing to the prevention of informational
overload on the user side. Apart from general debates about the
desirable and undesirable features of the precautionary principle,
challenges to it lie in its translation to social effects and social
sustainability, as well as to its application to consequences induced
by intentional actions of agents. Whereas the occurrence of natural
threats or accidents is probabilistic in nature, those who are
interested in improper use of information behave strategically,
requiring a different approach to risk (i.e. security as opposed to
safety). In addition, proponents of precaution will need to balance it
with other important principles, viz., of informed consent and
autonomy.
Finally, it is appropriate to note that not all social effects of information
technology concern privacy (Pieters 2017). Examples include the effects of
social network sites on friendship (due to availability of info), and the
verifiability of results of electronic elections. Therefore, value-sensitive
design approaches and impact assessments of information technology should
not focus on privacy only, since information technology affects many other
values as well.

EMERGING TRENDS IN ICT

The Information and Communications Technology (ICT) industry is
experiencing profound change across a broad range of areas.  The following
evolving trends play a significant role and impact on society and therefore
ICT:
 Anytime, anywhere, any device access to communications, content,
commerce, and applications: Consumer Cloud Services is a concept
involving the storage of various consumer electronic items in “the
cloud” for the benefit of anytime, anywhere, any device access.  The
concept is that one would not be limited to things like not being able
to listen to their music because it is stored on a laptop (only) and not
accessible when wanted on the go.

 Increased emphasis on non-human communications: With worldwide

carriers reaching saturation of human users, network operators are
looking for new ways to generate revenue and enhance profitability. 
At the same time, miniaturization is reaching the point in which
embedded computing can be virtually ubiquitous.  With the advent of
IP version six (IPv6) and the attendant huge increase in IP addresses,
virtually everything can be labeled (e.g. have an address or
reference).  All of this adds up to translate into a world in which
objects (devices, equipment, and other assets) are communicating,
transacting, signaling, etc.  Arguably this market will overtake human
communications rapidly as there are vastly more objects in the world
than humans, they can communicate much faster, much more
frequently, and for many more reasons than humans.

 The convergence and integration of many things: Many things are

converging including everything from networks, services, and entire
business models.  One key example that is particularly poignant for
enterprise is the convergence of M2M, IoT, Social, and Big Data.  In
many enterprises, discrete information systems that were developed
over time for specific functions in an uncoordinated fashion have
traditionally hampered high-level decision-making.  When internal
systems are organized in a silo fashion, top management typically
struggles to spot correlations among individual departmental reports
that could indicate areas for cross-departmental or divisional
improvements.  Historically, discrete data collection systems fail to
present big picture perspectives since any actionable information on
trends is constrained, as if perceived through horse blinders.

 Open networks, open interfaces, and many applications: While a

large part of the market is yet to understand their technological and
 strategic significance, Telco Network Application Programmer
Interface (API) play a critical part in carrier networks as a secondary
stream of revenue. Telco Network APIs capitalize on existing network
infrastructure to create a vast array of business opportunities for
carriers worldwide. In essence, these APIs allow carriers to
disseminate a wealth of internal information or resources to third
parties.  This could entail everything from network QoS for video
service delivery to Subscriber Data Management (SDM) for
advertising and profiling, the goal being to enable third party
developers to offer services in return for revenues.

Because of the aforementioned trends (and a few others beyond the scope
of this blog post), the following developments are anticipated:
 Artificial Intelligence is becoming a part of Everything: It getting
integrated into everything from machine learning, predictive analytics,
security software, intelligent agents, and more.

 Data is a Central Part of all Corporate Planning: The so-called Data

Economy is here to stay.  It is pervasive throughout everything from
Analytics, Big Data, Business Intelligence, Discovery and Visualization
(of data), and more.  ICT companies of all types and enterprise in
general are learning that data is one of their most valuable assets and
there are evolving tools to realized optimal benefits.

 Cloud Computing is moving beyond IT: Once relegated primarily to

IT personnel tasks with reducing costs, cloud computing is becoming a
strategic differentiator, enabling companies to more flexibly manage
operations, create, and maintain new products and services.  It is also
continuing to expand beyond pure “computing” to include
communications, applications, content, and commerce across a diverse
number of industry verticals.

 The Internet of Things (or Internet of Everything) is becoming

more than Just Buzz Words: As meaningful problems find solutions
with IoT, and it becomes clear that it is not just technology chasing a
need, IoT will become part of the global lexicon of indispensable
things, just like Smartphones and the Internet itself.

 Broadband (particularly wireless) is Enabling Key Technology

Areas: While 4G via LTE is currently the worldwide recognized
 standard for high-speed wireless data, it will pale in comparison to
what will be commercially available by 2020 when 5G is in operation. 
With 5G there will be no perceivable latency, facilitating expansion of
a number of advanced applications such as Augmented Reality and
Haptic Internet.  Interestingly, these applications will cause vast
amount of data to come into being, which will drive the need for more
expansion in the data economy.

The Skillsoft Analyst Perspectives report entitled ICT Infrastructure,

Platforms, Software, and Services: Trend Analysis, Market Outlook,
and Forecasts for 2016 and Beyond provides comprehensive analysis of
key ICT infrastructure, platforms, applications, and services. Primary
coverage areas include 5G, Artificial Intelligences, Big Data, Cloud
Computing, and the Internet of Things.  Secondary areas include Wearable
Technology, Digital Security, Smart Cities (and supporting technologies),
Gamification (e.g. embedded entertainment), Industry 4.0, Edge Computing,
SDN and NFV, DevOps, and advanced applications such as WebRTC and
emerging low-latency dependent services such as Haptic Internet and
Augmented Reality.

REFERENCES
https://www.iau.edu.sa/sites/default/files/content-box/
ict_policies_procedures_-v6.0.pdf
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/t-f-electronic-profiling-act-using-
electronic-means-collect-chapter-15-problem-2sq-solution-9781285225456-
exc
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/patent.asp
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/digital-profiling
https://www.wipo.int/patents/en/
https://www.shuledirect.co.tz/notes/list_notes/45474/45475#45476
https://pdfeducation.com/life-skills-knec-notes-for-diploma-certificate-
and-craft-courses/