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    Instrument Transformers 208 6.28, Example of the rating plate of a voltage transformer used for measurement (ee Figure 6-19) 7 MERLIN GERIN Oeste NE = tosandd esr ofmannicure Eaiaires ve RIOR Ee voltage ter ted ian age asta io may te Vesna seit example ofthe rating plate ofa measuring voltage transformer Chapter 7 Protection Functions and their Applications Protection functions are provided by relays or multifunctional devices like the Schneider Sepam, Protective relays (or multifunctional devices) are devices that permanently compare the electrical variables of networks (such as current, voltage, frequency, power, and impedances) with predetermined values, and then automatically emit orders for action (usually the opening of a eircuit-breaker) or give off an alarm when the monitored value goes above the threshold, The role of protective relays is to detect any kind of abnormal phenomena that may arise in an electrical circuit, such as short-circuits, variation in voltage, machine faults ete. ‘The relay may be: = without auxiliary power (autonomous) when the energy requited for it to operate is supplied directly by the monitored circuit (see Figure 7-1). The actuator must be sensitive because the energy supplied by the circuit is limited; = with auxiliary power supply when the energy required for it to operate is supplied by an auxiliary voltage source (AC or DC) independent of the circuit monitored (see Figure 7-2). 208 Protection of Electrical Networks (4 CF (ousvet mnnitovinns) V7 ‘Sontehing device Ss a actuator relay, Figure 7-1: connection of an overcurrent relay without auxiliary power (4 CT (ontrent monitoring) 7 V7 Switching device Sensitive Protective actuator relay “Auxiliary supply voltage Figure 7-2: connection ofan overcurrent relay with auxiliary power 7. Phase overcurrent protection (ANSI code 50 or 51) ‘The function of this protection is to detect single-phase, two-phase or three- ‘phase overcurrents, Protection Functions and their Applications 209 Protection is activated when one, two or three of the currents concerned rise above the specified setting threshold. This protection can be time delayed and in this case will only be activated if the current monitored rises above the setting threshold for a period of time at least equal to the time delay selected. This delay can be an independent (definite) time or inverse time delay. Independent time protection (see Figure 7-3) A % 7 Tyg.‘ operating curent hesbold protection operation ie delay Figure 7-3: independent rime delay ‘The current threshold and the time delay are generally set by the user. Inverse time protection ‘The time delay depends on the ratio between the current measured and the ‘operating threshold. The higher the current means the shorter the time delay (see Figure 7-4). rm Low T operating delay for 10 Ly ‘opera curren resold corresponding \o die veical supose of tie curve Figure 7-4: verze time protection 210 Protection of Electrical Networks Inverse time protection operation is defined by standards TEC 60255-3 and BS 142. These standards define several types of inverse time protection that are distinguished by the gradient of their curves: standard inverse, very inverse or extremely inverse time protection. For example, the Schneider Sepam 2000 proposes the curves in Figure 7-5 set for a time delay of 1 second (implies an operating delay of 1 second for 1 =10 Z,4,)- samme more Figure 7-5: standard inverse, very inverse and extremely inverse curves at T= I second 7.2. Earth fault protection (ANSI code SON or SIN, 50G or 51G) ‘This function is used o protect the network against earth faults The protection is activated if the residual current Ing ~ + Jy +13 rises above the setting threshold. The residual current corresponds to the current flowing through earth (see section 4.3.5). The protection operates in a similar way to the phase overcurrent protection as far as the curves are concemed 1=f (Ing) (see Figures 7-3, 7-4 and 7-5). Protection Functions and their Applications 211 ‘The protection is set so that it is as sensitive as possible in order to detect low earth fault currents esidual current measurement ‘The residual current characterizing the earth fault current is obtained in one of the following two ways: — by a core balance transformer through which the three phase conductors pass. The toroid tums encircle a magnetic flux g.zq such that guy = 0 +02 +05 (see Figure 7-6). 0,0: and ¢ are proportional to the phase currents / /; and Js, and ¢q {s thus proportional to the residual current. ‘The earthing strap shown in Figure 7-6 must go through the toroid so that an intemal cable fault (core-shield) can be detected. Indeed, in the opposite case, the short-circuit current circulates in the cable core and comes back via the shield, It is therefore not detected by the toroid: by dee current tansformers whose neurals are comnected, thus making the sum Ing =f +1 +1;, which is the system generally used in MV and HV (see Figure 7-7). Figure 7.6: residual current measuring Figure 7-7: residual current measuring instrument using. core balance instrument using three current transformers Minimum threshold setting of earth protection There is a risk of spurious tripping of the protection due to measurement error of the residual current, specilically in the presence of transient currents, In order to prevent this risk, protection setting must be above: — approximately 12% of the nominal rating of the CTs when measurement is carried out using three current transformers; 212 Protection of trical Networks = 1 A for a time delay of 0.1 second when measurement is carried out using a core balance. Making protection insensitive to third and multiples of third harmonics Protection must be made insensitive to third and multiples of third harmonics that may come from the network or from the saturation of the CTs during high pick- up currents or transient operating conditions including aperiodic components, Indeed, third and multiples of third harmonies are detected by the protection as a residual current because they are in phase. Let us take three balanced currents jy, fp and J with a phase displacement of 1/3 of a period: i, O=Feos at 4 (= Foas af ely 2s (=Fe0s.0(1+22) i @=Feos of + les) where 7 =2 signal period Note: the phase displacement of the currents is temporal and must therefore be written as shown above. By replacing «by 3 a the third harmonics ofthese tree currents ure ys = fys e083 0 . (1) fay (= hy cos 30142) = Vos} or 3 ns O= hs ow 0(102E = lig 608 (3.01 +27) = fy 0083.08 yg 608 (3 01 +07 Ins cos(3 01+ 207) = iy c0s(301+42)= fy 8301 thus: I + lays + Lys =9 hy 08300 We can also see graphically that the third harmonies are in phase (see Figure 7-8). The same applies forall multiples of the third harmonics. Protection Functions and their Applications 213 In the absence of an earth fault, the residual current is equal to three times the sum of third and multiples of third harmonics that circulate in each phase. It is thus important to make protection insensitive to third and multiples of third harmonics so as not to cause spurious tripping. a é Figure 78: the third harmonics ofa three-phase system are in phase 214 Protection of Electrical Networks 7.3. Directional overcurrent protection (ANSI code 67) This has a phase overcurrent function defined in section 7.1 associated with a ‘current direction” detection function. It is used, for example, when a busbar is fed by two sources (see Figure 7-9). nor aout 7 Je al cB " yo A Pa Q t Gg qe ; dh ng “Ye + shorriruit urea siculaion ff] ein etn destin deton ‘overcurrent protection devices iectional protection devices short-circuit current fed by source 1 chor sirwuit surrent fad by course 2 Figure 7.9: dual fad Bushar Protection Functions and their Applications 215 When a fault occurs at A, the two short-circuit currents I; and I.» ate simultaneously established. A fault current flows through the’ four protection devices: P1, P2, P3 and P4, Now in order to clea the fault without interrupting the power supply to the feeders, only circuit-breakers CBI and CB2 must tip. In order to do this, directional phase overcurrent protection devices are installed at P2 and P3 = Protection P3 is not activated when a current circulating in the opposite direction to its detection direction flows through it. — Protection P2 is activated when a current cireulating in its detection direction flows through it. It causes the circuit-breaker CB2 to trip and the current I. is interrupted. An intertripping system causes CBI to trip and the current I. is interrupted. — Protection P4, which is time delayed, is not activated The faulty section is thus isolated. It is said thatthe protection detects the “direction of the current”; in reality it detects the sign of the active power. Thus, the phase displacement @,, between the voltage and the short-circuit current must be known, The directional protection at P3 detects a short-circuit current circulating from the transformer towards the busbar. The active power detected by the protection is positive: 5p ad 96 Pps 20 2 The directional protection at P2 detects a short-circuit current circulating from the busbar towards the transformer. The active power detected by the protection is negative: = 3a Fg. 2 SE and 008 Gx, $0 7 Pare SF Geer To determine the phase displacement the current of one phase must be compared in relation toa polarizing voltage. For a current in phase 1, the most frequently applied polarizing voltage is the phase-to-phase voltage between phases 2 and 3, i. the voltage perpendicular to the current 17 for Zero phase displacement (see Figure 7-10) 216 Protection of Electical Networks Similarly, for a current in phase 3, the polarizing voltage chosen is the phase-to- phase voltage between phases 1 and 2 (see Figure 7-11). (for 6-0) Poking Un Figure 7-10: phase 1 polarizing voltage Figure 7-11: phase 3 polarizing voltage ‘The protection connection angle is said to be 90°. Two relays are sufficient for the balanced three-phase short-circuit and the three phase-to-phase short-circuits to show up, for example, on phase 1 and on phase 3. Indeed, whatever the phase-to-phase short-circuit, it will concem either phase 1 or3. ‘The choice of polarizing voltage is explained as follows. For the current on phase | when a three-phase short-circuit occurs, the voltage detected by the protection is low, so it is better to use a phase-to-phase voltage; = when a phase-to-phase short-circuit occurs between phases 1 and 2, the voltage Uz is very low, possibly zero, if the fault occurs close to the protection. Similarly, when a short-circuit between phases 1 and 3 occurs, the voltage U3 may be low and the phase-to-phase voltage U3 must therefore be taken to guarantee a sufficient voltage amplitude. For the current on phase 3: —using the same reasoning, the polarizing voltage is Uy Protection Functions and their Applications 217 7.3.1. Operation Directional phase overcurrent protection is activated if the following two conditions apply to atime equal to the time delay chosen: ~ the current is higher than the setting threshold; — the current phase in relation to the polarizing voltage is in a range referred to asthe tipping zone. The protection tipping zone is o half plane. This half plane is defined by a characteristic angle @. which is the angle of the line perpendicular to the boundary line ‘between the two zones and the polarization vector (see Figure 7-12 for @ = 45°). a) phase 1 0-45 b) phase 3 Figure 7-12: ripping zones ofthe directional protection for phases 1 and 3 witha ‘characteristic angle 8= 45° 218 ‘The usual characteristic angle values are 30°, 45° and 60°, The value generally used is 45° and we shall see why as follows. ‘We can see that the current 1; is: = inthe tripping zone for - 90°<, < 8 = 90° = in the nonetripping zone for @ + 90° << 8 +270° A isthe angle between J, and Usp and it corresponds to a phase displacement @ between f, and F, such that: 9 = & + 90° Similarly, the current J, is = inthe tripping zone for 90° < B, < @ +90" = in the nonetripping zone for @ + 90° < i <8 +270" Bis the angle between fy and Us, and it corresponds to a phase displacement between /, and V; such that: g, =, + 90° Why is a characteristic angle 0 introduced? ‘This angle is related to the natural phase displacement of the current in relation to the voltage when a short-circuit occurs. We shall study this phase displacement for two types of possible shortcircuits: the symmetrical three-phase, and the phase+ to-phase short-circuits Phase displacement upon occurrence of a symmetrical three-phase short-circuit ‘The network upstream of the short-circuit is equivalent to a resistor R in series with a reactor X° and the ratio fs between 0.05 and 0.5 in MV (see section 4.1.1). The natural phase displacement between the voltage and the current for co “ 20 |, hence 73°< g < 87° ‘h phi +h that x (33 cach phase is sch hat p= (33<2%< , wen [35< R579) Vith the connection angle at 90°, the phase displacement , between J, and Uy is B=0-0 > ¥<[al

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