TA B L E OF C O N TEN TS

FOREWORD: The Path of a Seeker, by Dona CC...............................................................................................vi

ABOUT THIS BOOK...............................................................................................................................................vii

BRIEF HISTORY OF BAHIA......................................................................................................................... ...... 8

OVERVIEW OF CARNAVAL................................................................................................................................ 11

SECT1QN I: INSTRUMENTS. CROUPS, and RHVTHMS................................. 16

EXPLANATORY NOTES.......................................................................................................................................17
FILHOS DE GANDHY...........................................................................................................................................20
Afoxé................................... ...................................................................................................................................21
ILÉ AIYÉ................................................................................................................... 22
Samba Afro............................................................................................................................................................ 23
Afoxé...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Aluja........................................................................................................................................... 26
breaks..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
OLODUM ................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Samba Reggae........................................................................................................................................................ 29
Samba.................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Reggae.................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Merengue................................................................................................................................................................32
Suíngue.................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Ritmo da Avenida...................................................................................................................................................34
Funk...................................................................................................................................................................... 35
breaks................................................. 36
TIMBALADA........................................................................................................................................................... 38
Tamanquinha........................................................................................................................................................ 39
Samba....................................................................................................................................................................40
uRumba ”...............................................................................................................................................................41
Xóte....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Frevo...................................................................................................................................................................... 43
breaks..................................................................................................................................................................... 44

SECTION II: ftXÉ-MUSÍC ~ FQR FURTHER STUDV..........................................................................46

INSTRUMENTS:
Repique stickings.................................................................................................................................................... 47
Caixa stickings....................................................................................................................................................... 48
Accent study........................................................................................................................................................... 49
Timbau..................................................................................................................................................................50
Surdo Virado..........................................................................................................................................................51
3 Surdos................................................................................................................................................................. 52
3 Surdos and Repique.............................................................................................................................................53
Feel Exercises:
Triplets.............................................................................................................................................................. 54
Sixteenths.......................................................................................................................................................... 55
SCORES:
Samba Afro................................................................................................................................................................. 56
“Fricóte” .................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Samba......................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Reggae......................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Samba Reggae. ........................................................................................................................................................... 60
Afoxé........................................................................................... ;..............................................................................61
Frevo........................................................................................................................................................................... 62

A PPEN D IX A: Glossary..............................................................................................................................................64

A PPENDIX B: N otes.......................... 66

A PPEN D IX C: Selected Reading and Sources..................................................................... 66

A PPEN D IX D: Selected Listening............................................................................................................................. 67

A PPEN D IX E: DVDs, Videos, and Websites.................................................. 68

VI

FOREWORD:The Path of a Seeker

This book series, Afro-Brazilian Percussion Guide, by the youthful and respectable musician, researcher, and teacher
Kirk Brundage, is a work that brings together information gathered as a result of many trips to Bahía of All
the Saints and Orixás, Brazil. His studies began at the end of the 1990s and culminated with the experience of
playing in Bahian Carnaval with Bloco Afro Olodum in 2006 and 2007.

The books unite knowledge acquired at the source, including studies conducted with various Carnaval groups
such as Bloco Afro lié Aiyé and Afoxé Filhos de Gandhy, whose festive manifestations have their origins in
Nigerian festivals for the gods such as Oxum in Ilesha. Kirk also experienced traditional samba de roda of Santo
Amaro and Cachoeira in the countryside of Bahía, and samba duro in the city of Salvador.

Kirk’s knowledge of the world of Afro-Brazilian religions—the rituals of Candomblé, distant ffom their origins—
were researched in their traditional contexts. This ineludes the sacred rhythms and songs used in the ceremonies
of the Jéje-Nagó (whose origin is the slave coast of Nigeria and Benin), the ceremonial complexes of Congo-
Angolan origin, and the Cabóclo (whose roots are a mix of Indigenous and African traditions). All these
manifestations of Afro-Brazilian culture recount the stories ffom the saga of having arrived in the lands of the
New World on slave ships, taking root—especially in Bahía—and spreading out in all directions.

For these reasons, whoever would like to better know and understand Afro-Brazilian music and culture, this is an
excellent work by which to do so.

With my blessing and respect,

Nancy de Souza Silva (Dona CC)—Salvador, Bahía, Brazil.

October 21, 2010.
 \

vii

ABOUT THIS BOOK

W ithout the bluesmen from the Mississippi Delta, today’s jazz and pop artists would have no source to draw
upon for their music. In Afro-Brazilian music, the story is the same. W ith deep roots, it is today a potent, vibrant,
and relevant forcé both nationally and internationally. People the world over have heard The Girlfrom Ipanema and
know of the famed Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro. However, the Carnaval in Brazil’s first capital, Salvador, made
the 2005 Guinness Book of World Records as the largest Street party in the world. Also, Salvador is often cited as
being the birthplace of capoeira and samba, and remains anim portant stronghold of African spiritual traditions
in Brazil.

I never intended to write a book. Initially, my studies fulfilled a personal desire to learn. Growing up I was
captivated by Brazilian— and related—instruments and rhythms but did not have the opportunity to study. Later,
after many trips to Brazil, I discovered I was able to help others understand what I had learned. Simply, this book
brings together and organizes the information from my various teachers. It is done out of respect for them and
their traditions, and as a token of gratitude for the knowledge and opportunities I have been fortúnate to receive.
Also, I wish to share with the greater percussion community my excitement about what I consider to be the
unique strengths and rich qualities of Afro-Brazilian music. To that end, all the information in this book has been
confirmed by my teachers, and permission given by them for it to be published.

The purpose or objective of this book is less to document and more to open the door for those interested in having
a better understanding of the modern carnaval rhythms from Bahia. Some who might find this information
useful will be private teachers, percussion students, ensemble directors, professional percussionists, and drummers
looking for new ideas.

The debate about representing an oral tradition with Western music notation is ongoing. N otation is help ful
in the beginning stages of the learning process in terms of assimilation, retention, and consistency. However,
it cannot communicate the necessary intangibles of sound, energy, swing, or feel. These qualities can only be
acquired through careful listening and direct experience. It is therefore recommended—whenever possible—to
listen to recordings, attend live performances, and play with people who understand the proper sound. You will
discover that interpretations vary from person to person, group to group, and place to place—for this is art, not
Science.

As there is a tremendous amount of information, I have tried to manage the challenges of the learning process
through how the material is presented. Background information about each group is followed by scores and
breaks, with advanced ideas given their own section at the end. As the material is organized by style, instead of by
degree of difficulty, one need not move chronologically. This book is not meant to be an exhaustive or definitive
text, ñor a way to master the instruments and styles, but simply a guide in the learning process. Anyone interested
in studying further should seek out an appropriate teacher.

M ost importantly, have fun!

Kirk Brundage— Los Angeles, California.

November 2010.
0

BRIEF HISTORY OF BAHIA

Brazil was “discovered” on April 21, 1500 by Pedro Alvares Cabral. The Portuguese had commissioned Cabral in
hopes of expanding their trade with Asia in sugar, spices, and other exotic products fashionable in Europe at the
time. Cabral took the same route Vasco da Gama had taken in 1498, making him the first explorer to successfully
navigate around Africa to Asia. However, Cabral veered off course and landed in Brazil instead—although
some say on purpose. Regardless, he landed in what is today called Porto Seguro, Bahia, in northeastern Brazil.
A year later, Portugal sent the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci to map out the coast, giving ñames to places
according to the day they were discovered in the Catholic calendar. On November l st, All Saints Day, he landed
on the shores of Bahia de Todos os Santos (“All Saints Bay”), future site of the city of Salvador da Bahia. The ñame
foreshadowed the later signiñcance of the place, for in 1549 Salvador was founded as the first capital of Brazil.
However, the Portuguese did not actually discover Brazil, as an indigenous population already inhabited it.
Although uncertain, estimates put their number between 500,000 and 2,000,000, or perhaps even more. The main
group in the area around Salvador was the Tupinambá.1

The Portuguese saw Brazil primarily as a place to exploit for its rich natural resources. The first product taken was
pau brasil, or “Brazil wood”—which is how the country got its ñame—followed later by precious metáis, tobáceo,
sugar, and coffee. An immense labor forcé was needed to take advantage of Brazil’s vast natural resources and
transform them into the products the Europeans desired. Initially, Brazil’s indigenous peoples were used as
slaves; however, most of them died or ran away, as they were not immune to European diseases, ñor were they
accustomed to the hard labor. The Portuguese then turned to Africa. As early as the 15* century, they had taken
slaves from Africa to Portugal for domestic work and to sugar plantations on the Madeira, Cabo Verde, Sao
Tomé, and Príncipe islands. The Portuguese also established trading posts along the African coast. The fort,
Sao Jorge da Mina (Elmina, or sometimes just Mina) in Ghana, dates froml482.2 Built initially for gold (henee
the nickname “Gold Coast”), it was later used for slaves. Another important fort was built in Luanda, Angola,
in 1575. This human trafficking, like the establishment of trading posts along the African coast, was possible
because of the sailing prowess of the Portuguese.

The movement between Europe, Africa, and the Americas became known as the triangle trade: from Europe to
Africa to trade shells, guns, rum, and tobáceo for slaves; from Africa to the New World to sell slaves for labor; and
from the New World to Europe, where the products of slavery were sold and consumed. The process began in
1549 with a decree by Dom Joáo III of Portugal, and continued for more than 300 years. The British Parliament
outlawed the slave trade in 1807,3 with the Brazilian government finally declaring it illegal in 1850. However
the trade continued nonetheless, due to its lucrative nature. Because in 1890 the Brazilian government destroyed
many documents pertaining to the slave trade, it is difficult to determine the exact number of people taken from
Africa. Historians estímate that as many as 10 million people arrived in the Americas, with 3 to 4 million arriving
in Brazil. Consequently, Brazil became home to the largest population of people of African descent outside
Africa, with Bahia having the highest concentration. Approximately 350,000 were from central Africa; and some
850,000 carne from the G ulf of Benin.4

Broadly speaking, the trade breaks down into the following distinct periods:5
1550-1600: the Guinea eyele (the area around Senegal)
1600-1700: the Congo/Angola eyele (the Bantu-speaking peoples from Congo and Angola)
1700-1800: the Gold Coast eyele (peoples from the former kingdom of Dahomey, today the countries of
Ghana, Togo and Benin)
1800-1850: the Gulf of Benin eyele (the Yoruba group of peoples from eastern Benin and western Nigeria),
and including the clandestine eyele

The plantations on which the slaves lived and worked were called fazendas, or sometimes engenhos. They were
located in the countryside around the All Saints Bay outside the city of Salvador, in an area called the Recóncavo.
Generally speaking, the fazendas consisted of various buildings, including the casa grande (where the plantation
owner lived), the capela (church), the fábrica (factory), and the senzala. The senzala was the building where the
slaves lived and where the mixing of the different African cultures took place. Here, languages, food, music,
dances, and religions all combined to become the source and birthplace of Afro-Brazilian culture. Sometimes,

AFRO -BRA ZILIA N PE R C U SSIO N G U ID E ~ CAfí/VA VAL

10

On September 7, 1822, Brazil declared its independence from Portugal. But due to the income it generated for the
crown, Bahía achieved its freedom on July 2, 1823. It took the Indians, slaves, and masters, united in a unique
sign of solidarity, to expel the Portuguese. Ironically, however, despite gaining its independence, Brazil was ruled
by Pedro I and Pedro II—son and grandson of the king of Portugal, respectively—for about the next 60 years.

From 1798 to 1835, a series of slave rebellions took place in Bahía. Similar to those that occurred in Haití, they
were largely motivated by the ideáis of the French Revolution: equality, liberty, and fraternity. The last, biggest,
and most famous, called the Revolta dos Males, took place in 1835.9 Nearly successful, this uprising was organized
by Islamic slaves originally from northern Nigeria. Despite the large number and strength of these insurrections,
all were put down. Furthermore, those who took part in the uprisings were imprisoned, whipped, deported, or
executed.

The 19th century saw various important waves of migration. During the 1830s, many slaves were sent from the
sugar plantations in Bahía to work the coffee plantations in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. W hen slavery was
abolished in 1888, many newly freed people left the countryside of Bahía for the cities of Salvador, Rio de Janeiro
and Sao Paulo looking for work. Also,
interestingly, a great deal of exchange
took place between Bahía and Africa,
in two forms.10 The first was freed
slaves returning to Africa, whereby
thousands of people made the journey
back to Africa and settled in Coastal
cities in Benin and Nigeria, forming
Afro-Brazilian expatríate communities
there. Some of these people became
merchants, either by engaging in
the slave trade or by selling religious
producís that were in great demand in
Bahía. The second form of migration
consisted of people who moved,
voluntarily, from Africa to Bahía, and
who consequently had a tremendous
influence on the developing Afro-
Brazilian religión of Candomblé.

And finally, it should be noted that

although the story of the slave trade
is tragic, the legacy and triumph of
those who were enslaved is that their
descendants gave the world many
beautiful musical and cultural traditions,
among them Brazilian samba, Cuban
rumba, and American jazz.

A fro -B ra zilia n P er c u ssio n G uid e ~ Ca r n a v a l

Of special note are the irmandades. Mentioned earlier, they were the social organizations under church
supervisión that grouped the slaves by their African origin. In addition to participating in the festivals (and
competing against one another as well), the irmandades had their own event called the Reí do Congo (King of
Congo). They elected their own king and queen and made a parade called congada, using their own songs, dances,
and instruments based on their African heritage.4 The importance of these groups cannot be overlooked, as they
not only gave a special flavor to the Portuguese festivals but also helped to establish, organize, and maintain
Affican culture in Brazil.

Two carnaval-style celebrations carne ffom Portugal during the first half of the 19* century. One was the
sociedades (societies), which were the prívate indoor masked balls of the aristocracy and elite. The other was the
entrudo. An expression of the general population, the entrudo took place in the streets, had no music, and was

The lemanjá festival, honoring the goddess of the sea

chaotic. In 1848, in Rio de Janeiro, amidst the anarchy and mayhem of the entrudo, a man by the ñame of José
(Zé) Pereira started walking around with a big bass drum, perhaps the origin of the surdo (family of bass drums
that are central to carnaval ensembles). This led to the development of the cordoes (black percussion groups),
precursor to today’s bloco afros. Also during the second half of the century, the ranchos appeared. These were brass
bands comprised of middle-class white people, wearing elabórate costumes and playing a slow military-type
rhythm called marcha. The first carnaval parade in Salvador took place in 1884, and the first sociedade to parade
was called the Clube Cruz Vermelho (Red Cross Club).5 The cordoes and ranchos of the general public must have
contrasted greatly with the Club, as it was reputed to have been elite in style: elegant, luxurious and glamorous.

In Salvador, with slavery abolished in 1888, the newly freed population made their own unique contributions to
carnaval. One was the afoxés. These were Candomblé practitioners who sang sacred songs in the streets. They
dressed in African-style clothing and celebrated African themes. The first afoxé group to parade was Embaixada
Africana in 1895.6 Another contribution to carnaval was the samba de roda, which left the plantation for the Street.

At the tura of the century, the luxurious parades still took place in the central district, as did the prívate parties
and masked balls of the white elite and high society. But also around this time, public festivals called Festas de
Largo and Festas de Bañista began to appear.7 Festas de Largo, such as Festa da lemanjá and Lavagem do Bonfim
(see the accompanying photos above, and on the next page), were festivals organized by the public at other times
of the year that put sacred elements into a secular context—in other words, brought the sacred to the Street.
The Festas de Barrista appeared because the afoxés, sambas, and cordoes were prohibited from participating in
carnaval like they had in the past. They did not disappear entirely, but rather retreated away from the city center
and into the bairros (neighborhoods) where only small groups of them gathered. At the time, many forms of
A F R O -B R AZI LIAN P E R C U S S IO N G U ID E ~ CARNA VAL
14 ¿>
provoked charges of racism.

Influential for their musical innovations, lié Aiyé has also been important in that they set the trend in other
areas, including work with at-risk youth, social consciousness, and even fashion, resulting in a veritable cultural
renaissance. Their success inspired the creation of other groups. Having opened the roads, virtually all blocos
have African themes reflected in their lyrics and costumes, provide educational programs for children, and remain
committed to the Candomblé tradition.11

The bloco afro movement took additional inspiration from American musicians such as James Brown, the
American Black Pride movement, the reggae music of Bob Marley, the politics of Rastafarianism, and the
independence of Angola and Mozambique from Portugal. These influences joined with what Bahians see as

their own unique, rich, and diverse cultural heritage, which deserves respect as a source of national pride, instead
of being shunned and persecuted. These ideas are expressed in the phrase resistencia cultural (cultural resistance).
Echoing the slave revolts of the early 19* century, resistencia cultural is a socio-political struggle that focuses
attention on issues such as racial equality, religious freedom, and respect for African heritage in Brazil.

Musically, this meant a huge expansión of the rhythmic vocabulary. Groups fused rhythms, created new ones,
and made innovations with respect to instruments—experimentation, creativity, and innovation are hallmarks
of the genre. Rhythms adapted from other styles inelude reggae, funk, frevo, salsa, and the Candomblé tradition.
Samba was reinterpreted, drawing more from samba de roda. Of the new rhythms, the most well known is samba
reggae, created by Bloco Afro Olodum. Some instruments are played in new ways, like the repique with two sticks
(an influence from Candomblé drumming) and the surdo with stick and mallet. Some groups added another
surdo part and new instruments were invented or modified, like the bacurinha (a smaller versión of the repique)
and timbau (a hand drum similar to the jembe) used by Timbalada. Each bloco has developed its own unique
sound and style that is easily identified based on its particular musical innovations. The result is the establishment
of a whole new style of carnaval drumming that many people refer to broadly as “samba reggae,” the rhythm that
ended up defining a whole genre and movement. It is important to understand that these developments took place
on a community-wide level, not simply by a single group or individual. Other well-known and important bloco
afros are Ara Kétu, Muzenza, Male Debalé, Cortejo Afro, and Didá.
A F R O - B R A Z I L I A N P E R C U S S I O N G U 1D E ~ CAR/VA VAL
 15

The latest development in the story of carnaval is the axé-music genre. Axé-music combines elements of the
bloco afros and trio elétricos with Caribbean and North American styles, resulting in an eclectic form of pop
music—with a kaleidoscope of rhythms. Specifically, the trios that played frevo baiano incorporated rhythms
and percussion instruments of the blocos into their bands. Meanwhile, the blocos reduced the number of players
from the hundreds used in the Street to an ensemble size suitable for the stage and added electric instruments—
Olodum and Ara Kétu started this trend.12 And often, the percussionists who play in axé bands have experience
playing Candomblé and/or with a bloco. Also bringing attention to the movement were white pop singers like
Luiz Caldas incorporating black aesthetics into their style, pop groups recording bloco songs (like Banda M el’s
cover of Olodum’s Faraó),u and the blocos recording with legendary singers (like lié Aiyé with Gilberto Gil and
Olodum with Caetano Veloso).

It is exciting to reflect on the growth and evolution of carnaval in Salvador from the early days to its current
popularity and diversity. Originally, the dozen or so members of the Filhos de Gandhy were afraid to parade out
of fear of pólice repression. However today, their thousands of members are lauded for their message of peace.
Before lié Aiyé, presenting African-oriented themes in the Street was prohibited, but now it is commonplace.
Their Beleza Negra festival celebrates the contribution of black aesthetics and heritage to Brazilian society. The
first trio eletrico was a beat-up oíd car without a roof—outfitted with megaphones, but today’s trios are massive,
custom-built trucks, atop which sit stages complete with professional lighting and sound systems. Samba reggae,
then, has been much more than a beat, rhythm, or musical style. Its repercussions—pun intended—have had
an immeasurable impact upon food, fashion, dance, language, and political consciousness, both locally and
internationally. Indeed, it looks to the future by respecting the past.