Expert Committee Report - Fish Containers

Recommendations of the
Expert Committee
on
“Design Improvements in Storage Containers Used by
Fish Vendors in Supply Chain for Inland Fisheries”
June 2023
Supporting handling of Fresh Fish Produce by Vendors in the Domestic

Fisheries Supply Chain
Authors: Expert Members of the Committee, established under the NPC, to recommend
Design Criteria for the Containers used by Vendors in the Fisheries Supply Chain
.
Recommendations of the Expert Committee
2023
“Design Improvements in Storage Containers Used by

Fish Vendors in Supply Chain for Inland Fisheries”
INDEX
INDEX I
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Fish production and consumption trends........................................................................................ 1
1.1.2. Fresh fish delivery to markets ......................................................................................................... 2
1.1.3. Study by NPC ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. ABOUT THE EXPERT COMMITTEE .................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1. Members of the Committee ............................................................................................................ 3
1.2.2. Purview of Expert Committee ......................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FISH CONTAINERS.................................................... 8

2.1. BRIEF ON FISH COLD-CHAIN ......................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1. Chilled or Fresh Fish ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2. Frozen or Processed Fish ................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.3. Storing Fish ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.4. Transporting Fish .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.5. Retail end ...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2. MARKETING PRACTICES............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.1. Reasons for Spoilage of Fish ......................................................................................................... 13
2.3. DESIGNING CONTAINERS FOR HANDLING FISH .............................................................................. 14
2.3.1. Thermal Insulation ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.3.2. Container Shape and Material ...................................................................................................... 18
2.3.3. Cooling Method ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.4. Handling facility ............................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.5. Food safety & Hygiene practices ................................................................................................... 30
2.4. FISH CONTAINERS IN USE BY VENDORS ........................................................................................ 30
2.5. CONTAINERS FOR FISH PRODUCE SUPPLY CHAIN ........................................................................... 38
2.6. CONCEPT OF DURATION INDEX LABELLING OF FISH CONTAINERS ...................................................... 39
CHAPTER 3: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FISH HANDLING CONTAINERS .................................... 42
3.1. MATERIAL & DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 42
3.2. CONTAINERS FOR STREET RETAIL ................................................................................................ 45
3.3. INSULATION ............................................................................................................................ 49
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3.4. COOLING ................................................................................................................................ 52
ANNEXURE - I.................................................................................................................................................. 55
Container Usage in the non-industrial supply chain.................................................................................... 55
ANNEXURE-II .................................................................................................................................................. 56
Suggested Questionnaire for users of Containers ....................................................................................... 56
ANNEXURE-III................................................................................................................................................. 57
Fish carrying capacity of Containers when packed with Ice. ....................................................................... 57
ANNEXURE-IV ................................................................................................................................................. 58
Fish vending containers – sample dimensions ............................................................................................ 58
ANNEXURE-V .................................................................................................................................................. 61
Examples of PCM uses in other thermal management ............................................................................... 61
Index of Figures
Figure 1: Growth in Fish Production ...................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 Wicker Baskets with ice slab & Open Crates with ice flakes................................................................... 2
Figure 3: Iced crates in open truck and Flake-ice replenishment.......................................................................... 12
Figure 4: Open display at retail-end ..................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5: Heat transfer - Thermal conductivity .................................................................................................... 16
Figure 6: Surface area of container shapes ........................................................................................................... 18
Figure 7: Behaviour of material on transfer of thermal energy ............................................................................ 23
Figure 8: Mobile hybrid-cooled vending container .............................................................................................. 27
Figure 9: Typical Fish Landing Sites .................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 10: Images of Containers at a Collection Centre ....................................................................................... 39
Index of Tables
Table 1: Standard material specifications of PUF ................................................................................................ 17
Table 2: Common external materials used for fish containers (Pros & Cons) ...................................................... 19
Table 3: Ice to chill 1 kg of fish ............................................................................................................................ 21
Table 4: Comparison of Ice and PCMs with respect to fish transport .................................................................. 24
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Submitted by Expert Committee
This Expert Committee to “Recommend Design Improvements in Storage

Containers Used in Supply Chain for Inland Fishes” was constituted by the National
Productivity Council (NPC), vide its Office Order ‘046/Pt.III/2023’, dated 10th of
April 2023. The Committee held its first meeting on 2nd May 2023 and its
deliberations were conducted in phases over 4 in-person meetings, besides
individual discussions held among Committee members. The outcome of these
deliberations has relied on the expedient celebration and resourceful experiences of
each expert member of the Committee. The various inputs considered by the
Committee include the information provided by the Agribusiness Group of NPC.
The Expert Committee hereby submits the compilation of its deliberations and
findings, with suggestions and recommendations on the prescribed topic.
(Pawanexh Kohli)
Chairperson
(Swetang Dave)
Expert Member
(Samit Jain)
Expert Member
(Satish Gokhale)
Expert Member
(S.P. Singh)
Member Secretary
Signed: 21-June-2023
iii
Report of Expert Committee
Design Criteria for Fisheries Containers (2023)
Chapter 1:
Introduction
India’s domestic fisheries supply chain involves practices where vendors and other stakeholders use
traditional carrier units such as baskets or unprotected boxes for storing of fish produce. Such practices
do not appropriately safeguard the produce and aggravate other logistics risks in the supply chain.
1.1. BACKGROUND
Fish is a highly perishable produce which is vulnerable to various biochemical and microbial
forms of deterioration, including physical damage, that results in food loss and associated
monetary losses. These vulnerabilities are commonly evidenced throughout the produce life
cycle (from catch to retail), especially where the produce is in the custody of small fish vendors
and during transportation. The principal causes for such food loss are attributable to insufficient
cooling, abrasive & dynamic stress on the flesh of fish, exposure to sunlight, bacterial
infestation, and external contamination, at each stage the fish is handled in its supply chain.
These risks can be mitigated by deploying modern containers specifically designed for carrying
and storing fish.
1.1.1. Fish production and consumption trends

The past decade witnessed changes in retail and distribution practices, especially with
consumers turning more aspirational (quality & variety) and growth in online shopping.
Consumers across the country are affording more fish and this has led to increased distribution
and storage times. The ensuing extended fish supply chain also puts the catch at greater risk.
Figure 1: Growth in Fish Production
160
Fish Production of India
140 (lakh tonnes : 1980 - 2021)
Marine Inland Total Production
120
100
80
60
40
20
Source: Department of Fisheries, GoI
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Fish production in India has grown to match increasing demand from domestic consumers, as
evidenced in production data. The production from inland fisheries has grown by 111.9 per
cent over the past decade at an average annual growth rate of 8.6 per cent, compared to growth
of 64.9 per cent in the previous decade. In comparison, the production of marine fisheries has
grown by 23.4 per cent and 12.8 per cent respectively. Higher growth in inland fisheries, the
bulk of which caters to domestic markets, also indicates associated growth in consumer demand
for fish. A review of data from various rounds of the National Sample Survey also supports the
indicated increase in domestic fish consumption, both among rural and urban populations.
The rapid growth in production from inland fisheries, if not matched with in-tandem
development in its associated supply chain, is most likely to result in greater food loss with a
contributory income loss for fishers and fish vendors. Inland fisheries could be reaching a
tipping point in the context of the handling capabilities in the logistics of this growing supply
chain. The modernisation of the logistics tools in this sector, especially the containers to hold
fish during distribution and storage, is necessary.
1.1.2. Fresh fish delivery to markets

It is pertinent to note, that the domestic market continues to favour fresh fish consumption,
particularly for inland fish produce. This fresh fish supply chain relies on ice as the primary
cooling medium, customarily using wicker baskets to hold and carry the fish. These are also
supplanted with open-top plastic crates for higher reusability and longevity. These non-
insulated, open baskets/crates are used as carrier cum storage units, requiring frequent topping
up of flaked ice which is necessitated for temperature upkeep. Such carriage and packaging
concepts are limited in their ability to efficiently maintain fresh fish during extended periods
of transport and retail.
Figure 2 Wicker Baskets with ice slab & Open Crates with ice flakes
Source: Committee members
The rapid increase in fish demand and production currently remains unmatched by an
associated growth in the custodial capacity of its domestic supply chain. The use of insulated
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and closed containers, during handling, transport and retail of fish will undoubtedly contribute
to mitigating the various debilitating exposure and subsequent spoilage of fish produce.
1.1.3. Study by NPC

The Agribusiness Group of the National Productivity Council has been tasked by the
Department of Fisheries, to study and analyse the capabilities and effectiveness of storage
containers currently used by fish vendors when handling fish. This study by NPC is to include
a review of efficacy in maintaining temperature and hygiene, both of which directly impact on
quality and freshness of the fish being handled. As a result of the analysis, it is also expected
that the study report shall suggest innovative methods or technologies to maintain freshness
and quality of the fish that is handled by fish vendors in the supply chain.
To support this undertaking, it was felt to pursue the advice from a group of experts who have
long-standing experience in industrial design and development of packaging, cooling
technologies and containers, including an understanding of the capacities of the informal cold-
chain sector. For this purpose, a short-term Expert Committee was established by NPC.
1.2. ABOUT THE EXPERT COMMITTEE

The Expert Committee was constituted in April 2023 by the National Productivity Council
(NPC) to recommend design improvement in storage containers used in the supply chain for
inland fishes by vendors, with the following terms of reference:
a) Recommend technical criteria for the design of storage containers used by vendors in
the fisheries supply chain. The design criteria should allow
i. ease of handling in the supply chain,

ii. passive and/or active cooling options,
iii. longevity of container,
iv. insulating from ambient conditions, and
v. ease of maintaining hygiene.
b) Suggest the most appropriate containers for use during transportation and storage of
fish by small vendors.
c) Any other related recommendations.
The Committee was set up with the objective to support NPC in the related study being
undertaken for the Department of Fisheries, Government of India.
1.2.1. Members of the Committee

The Expert Committee was constituted under Chairmanship of Capt./Prof Pawanexh Kohli
(former CEO of the National Centre for Cold-chain Development cum Chief Advisor to Dept.
of Agriculture & Cooperation), supported by member secretary, Shri S. P. Singh, (Group Head,
Agribusiness at NPC). A brief introduction of the four expert members of the Committee:
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Mr Pawanexh Kohli: former (founding) CEO of the National Centre for Cold-chain
Development (NCCD), a PPP-structured think tank, which was established in 2012 as an
autonomous advisory body on approval of the Cabinet. Concurrently, from 2012 to 2020, Shri
Kohli also functioned as the Chief Advisor to the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’
Welfare, on matters of logistics and associated policies. He served on the inter-ministerial
Committee on Doubling Farmers’ Income where he authored multiple concepts in involved
subjects including various national-level strategies. During his time at NCCD, he helped bring
key shifts in agricultural marketing policies, besides driving solutions that are pragmatic and
environment-friendly. Under his tutelage, the first holistic and comprehensive assessment of
India’s cold-chain was documented and the minimum system standards and guidelines for cold-
chain infrastructure were developed and notified.
Shri Kohli’s professional expertise of forty years include three decades as an industry
professional, where served as a ship captain and then as a business leader in private-sector
companies. He then transitioned from private to public domain, devoting efforts towards policy
development and nation-building. On industry & government councils and committees, his
insights promoted a systems approach, with a focus on market-led initiatives, indigenisation,
innovation and clean technologies. His perspectives are informed by his multi-disciplinary
global experience in shipping, food logistics, business strategy, policy development and
processes. He has spoken in a variety of platforms, including representing India as Guest of
Honor at the International Conference on Sustainability & the Cold Chain in Paris, being a
keynote speaker at the first International Congress on Clean Cooling in the UK, chairing
Working Groups on Food Waste in the Global Action Forum at The Hague, serving as expert
witness to the Policy Commission on Cold economy in London, and delivering the plenary
address at the International Cryogenic Engineering Conference. Shri Kohli has lectured at
notable institutions, such as the Lok Sabha SRI, House of Lords in UK, and as visiting faculty
at the National Defence College and LBS National Academy of Administration, among others.
During the Covid19 pandemic, he was invited as member of CARUNA (Civil Services
Associations Reach to Support in Natural Disasters), in 2021 as advisor & subject matter expert
at UPSC for assisting in interviews/ personality test boards. As senior advisor, he has aided the
development of the National Logistics Policy and climate initiatives of UN Environment
Programme (UNEP) that contribute to make the food supply chain more sustainable. He was
awarded for “Exemplary Thought Leadership” in 2012 and for “Agribusiness Excellence” in
2019. The leadership role in redefining the policy outlook on cold-chain was lauded with the
“Agriculture Leadership Award” in 2014 at the Agriculture Leadership Summit. In 2010, the
Global Supply Chain Council awarded him as the first-ever “Cold-chain Personality of the
Year” for innovative work with street hawkers. Recognising his contributions as a thought
leader, ISHRAE named him its first and only lifetime honorary member. In 2018 he was
conferred the title of Honorary Professor by the University of Birmingham, UK.
Mr Satish Gokhale: Director, Design Directions Pvt. Ltd. – an alumnus of the National
Institute of Design, India, he founded this company with Ms Falguni Gokhale in 1988. The
company combines design, technology, aesthetics and relevant materials and creates a major
impact on industrial, medical, electronic and consumer products. Shri Gokhale is a recipient of
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several local and international awards and is the sole recipient of the Global - Design of the
Decade Award instituted by the Industrial Designers Society of America. He has received a
Red Dot Award in Germany and a ‘G’ Mark (Good Design Mark) in Japan for an indigenously
designed solar based computing device, Mobiliz. One of the products he designed, MiraCradle
- a neonate cooling device - received the National Award for the successful commercialisation
of indigenous technology. Another, the I-BreastExam, a handheld breast scanner, has received
over 16 awards in the past two years including the Aspirin Award and the Lexus Design Award
India. Nadi Tarangani, the first Ayurveda device that uses AI and machine learning for nadi
pariksha, has received the Lexus and Business World Design Awards. Design Direction is the
only company to have received 5 Lexus Design Awards India over the past 5 years. One of his
most recent products, a remote operated lifesaving water drone received the Gold - Business
World - Future of Design award.
Shri Gokhale is a founder member of the Association of Designers of India, and a
member of India Design Council since its inception. He is also a member of CII Design
Committee at the national level and of the MedTech committee of IIT, Kanpur. He serves as a
governing body member at UPES, Dehradun. He has been a jury member on several design
award committees, local and overseas, and has been invited to speak at many National &
International Design conferences where he raises the awareness towards design in hard-core
engineering, healthcare sectors and the various benefits of industrial design. He is a founder
member of the Pune International Centre (PIC), an independent think tank which deliberates
on issues of national importance. Till date, he has successfully designed over 750 products in
the Indian and international markets for a host of clients, ranging from the small-scale sector
to the heavy industry sector. He holds many patents and design registrations, most of which
have been licensed and the products designed by him are marketed in over 30 countries.
(satish@designdirections.net)
Mr Swetang Dave: Managing Director – Consta Cool Pvt. Ltd., a leading

manufacturer of thermal containers. A postgraduate from TU Berlin, he did his Masters in
Chemical Engineering, Thermodynamics and Process Engineering. He was a founding partner,
Managing Director of Promens India Pvt. Ltd., the Indian arm of the world’s largest
manufacturer of insulated containers. Shri Dave has decades long experience in the design and
development of modern fish carrying containers. His extensive travels into fishing regions of
the country provided him a singular understanding of the various challenges faced by fisherfolk
and allied players in India. He is well-known in this domain for his contributions that led to the
development and modernisation of fish containers which are uniquely suited in India’s
backdrop. The containers developed and introduced by Shri Dave in India encompass a wide
array of users, including to serve as cargo holds on small fishing boats, for short and long-term
storage of fish, for transport and vending and for custom functions at captive fish farms.
On the manufacturing front, Shri Dave is a leading expert in rotational moulding and is
the President of the Society of Asian Rotomoulders. He is a keen advocate of the subject and
is a lauded speaker at various national and international events. At Consta Cool, Shri Dave has
led the pioneering development of melding copper cooling pipes into plastic moulded inner
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tanks, a path-breaking innovation in eutectic freezers. It provides the ability to use salts based
eutectic solutions, which are superior to glycols in thermal energy storage, improving upon
refrigeration efficiency and energy retention capacities. Interlinking rotomoulding
technologies and refrigeration knowledge to develop corrosion-free refrigeration systems
allowed his company to uniquely develop the first fully rotomolded plastic freezer-on-wheels.
These eutectic-based hybrid freezers play a critical role in storage, transport and vending of
perishable fresh and frozen food products. (swetang@consta.in)
Mr Samit Jain: Managing Director – PLUSS Advanced Technologies Pvt. Ltd., an

innovative company in the field of energy storage. Shri Jain is an engineering graduate of BITS
Pilani and a post-graduate engineer from University of Hawai. Understanding that energy
management and energy access is the key to a sustainable world, he has driven pioneering
research in energy storage materials and their applications at Pluss. His work in smart materials
has allowed PLUSS to become the leading player in thermal energy storage products. He has
led his team to develop and create innovative products – some being the first globally, such as
MiraCradle™, the world’s first neonatal cooler, which uses passive cooling to maintain the
optimal therapeutic temperature for infants born with birth asphyxia. PLUSS received the
National Award for successfully commercialising an innovative and indigenous technology on
National Technology Day in 2017. This device has become the standard-of-care to treat birth-
asphyxiated babies in India.
To address the challenge of moving pharmaceuticals and vaccines at the right
temperature, the product Celsure™ was developed, another passive cooling mechanism, which
was awarded Most Innovative Product to be Commercialised by the Department of Science &
Technology in 2021. Pluss has received the CII’s “Most innovative MSME Award” twice
(2015 and 2017). In 2022, Global Innovation and Technology Alliance (GITA) awarded his
company the R&D Powerhouse in India in the MSME category. Shri Jain also led PLUSS to
develop several energy efficient and innovative solutions in the field of temperature control of
buildings, HVAC equipment, refrigeration and agricultural solutions. They are also partnering
on projects with UNIDOs Foundation for Low Carbon Technology Development, as well as
an Indo-Sweden joint project to enable development of technology to further Energy Transition
for Europe. He has spoken at several national and international conferences over the years on
promoting smart materials for energy storage. Under Shir Jain’s guidance, PLUSS has been
granted over 13 patents including in USA, South Africa, Nigeria, European and South East
Asian countries. Several other patents are pending grant. Extremely passionate about the
environment, he engages in Environment Conservation through Advit Foundation based out of
Gurgaon. An avid marathoner, Samit has successfully completed the Los Angeles Marathon,
the Delhi Half Marathon and the Mumbai Marathon. (samit@pluss.co.in)
---
This Committee was the proactive initiative of Shri Sundeep Nayak, Director General of the
National Productivity Council, with the specific purpose to provide domain relevant inputs to
NPC’s Agribusiness Group, towards guiding one of the research studies being undertaken for
the Department of Fisheries, Govt. of India.
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1.2.2. Purview of Expert Committee

The Committee will discuss the reasons and the criteria that must be considered when designing
containers for vendors to use in the carriage and storage of fish. The Committee will not involve
in design criteria for shipping containers used by the industrialised fish export sector as its
practices are appropriately market-driven in a well-established supply chain, under the aegis of
the intervening fish processing industry ecosystem. In contrast, the domestic fresh fish market
is primarily a fragmented supply chain sector, predominated by small vendors. Not accorded
industry status, this sector relies on local practices and traditional innovations, which
disallowed standardisation. However, this sector can benefit immensely from both support and
guidance to improve its capacity to safely handle this fast-growing business.
The Committee is not required to provide inputs in regards to the design criteria for large
containerised carriage systems, such as those used for refrigerated transport in bulk via sea, air,
road or rail. However, some comparisons may be drawn in discussions. Additionally,
specialised bulk containers used for long-term storage of frozen fish products in refrigerated
warehouses are also not under the purview of this Committee. Containers for use in the
ornamental live fish trade, are also not discussed in this report.
The report primarily is concerned with containers used for communicating the fish produce to
domestic markets, in the domestic supply chain. The report runs into 3 chapters; besides this
introductory chapter, it has a chapter that discusses the key design criteria to be considered,
followed by the chapter with design recommendations proposed by the Committee. All the
inputs in this report are derived from the domain expertise of the expert members and per the
relevant inputs of the Agribusiness Group of NPC.
Key Extracts
• Production from Inland Fisheries is fast outpacing Marine fisheries.
• Demand for fish from domestic consumers is also witnessing rapid growth.
• To meet the ongoing growth in domestic fish supply & consumption, the fish
distribution chain also needs to improve its capacity to safely handle the fish produce.
• A primary limitation is the type of containers used in the domestic supply chain,
especially where fish is in the custody of small vendors.
• Modernising the containers can mitigate any debilitating exposure of fresh fish to
inclement consitions, as it traverses the supply chain (from catch to retail).
• NPC setup an Expert Committee to recommend the most suited design criteria to
incorporate in fish containers used by vendors in the domestic fisheries sector.
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Chapter 2:
Design Considerations for Fish Containers
The domestic fisheries supply chain supplies fresh fish over short and long distances and the containers
utilised must safeguard the fish from the involved logistical challenges. The containers must not only
protect the produce from harsh inclement weather but also mitigate factors causing damage & spoilage
2.1. BRIEF ON FISH COLD-CHAIN

Cold-chain is a temperature-controlled logistics chain that commences after the fish is
harvested at sea or inland waters. Like other meat produce, marine and freshwater fish,
including crustaceans and molluscs, will begin to deteriorate rapidly after harvest due to a
variety of biochemical and microbial processes, which degrades food safety and their
commercial value. Cooling is the primary method to keep such spoilage at bay.
From the quality and regulatory perspective, fresh fish means that which has not been gutted
or processed and is handled in ice at or around zero degree Celsius (0°C). On the other hand,
frozen fish is that which was maintained at minus 18 degree Celsius (-18°C) or colder. Good
chilling and freezing practices, as the case may require, is an absolutely necessary condition
for maximising the saleable quality of all fish foods. Typically, fresh fish maintains its saleable
quality for a couple of weeks, whereas the deep-frozen product can last for months.
The fish is frozen or chilled, depending on the produce and market, and needs to thereafter be
maintained in the same condition while being transported, in cold stores, and preferably even
at retail locations. Various avoidable and unavoidable occurrences result in temperature
excursions in the cold-chain. A substantive or extended breach in the required conditions, while
handling the fish, will result in cumulative quality loss or spoilage which cannot be reversed.
The core benefits of a properly managed cold-chain are:
- to extend the marketable life by safeguarding the quality of fish produce or products
- to allow fish producers and vendors to supply markets that offer optimal prices
- to allow for business growth by expanding the marketing radius of fish
These core benefits also result in secondary next-level outcomes such as a reduction in food
losses, higher nutritional security, capturing discards early in the supply chain for other gainful
uses, sustainable economic growth through market growth, and adding a variety of new
opportunities in the business ecosystem.
2.1.1. Chilled or Fresh Fish

It is reported that nearly 85 per cent of the fish catch in India is distributed for sales in the
domestic market. Of this, 70% is marketed as fresh fish, largely through informal set-ups and
the rest in the form of smoked, dried, processed meat and others. The share of fresh fish sales
is much higher in the case of inland fish farms.
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Chilled fish is that which has not been subjected to freezing. The fish body usually contains 60
to 80% water which will freeze when the body temperature falls below -1.5 degrees Celsius.
However, if the flesh freezes, the fish then needs to be thawed and it cannot be marketed as
fresh. Fresh fish is marketed in whole format and must be chilled soon after harvest to maintain
quality. Therefore, the fish destined for the fresh market is only chilled using ice, which serves
to maintain a temperature close to 0°C but above freezing point.
Chilling of freshly caught fish is done by burying the fish in ice flakes or using chipped ice.
This method uses freshwater ice and ensures that the fish body does not itself freeze into a
block of ice but is kept in its fresh format. It brings the core temperature of the catch to about
0°C, to minimise enzymatic reactions, pathogenic and bacterial growth, and associated spoilage
for up to 12 -14 days. The fresh fish can then be communicated to markets in the cold-chain
which must maintain these chilled temperatures until it is consumed.
2.1.2. Frozen or Processed Fish

If the harvested fish is frozen and kept at temperatures below -18 degrees Celsius, then its
marketable life can be extended for long durations, exceeding months. In simple terms, freezing
is the conversion of water content in the fish from fluid to solid ice. This process must be done
rapidly to protect the tissue structure of the fish. If freezing occurs slowly, icicle-like shards
form inside the fish, that can tear into the fish and the cellular tissue loses structural integrity.
This tissue damage is visible to consumers only after thawing the body. Therefore, rapid blast
freezing, by exposing the fish to temperatures lower than -35°C, is done. Blast freezing ensures
the existing water content in the cells of the fish body solidifies into much smaller particles and
hence will not tear its tissue. To take full advantage of such blast freezing, the fish is gutted to
remove its entrails so that residual physicochemical reactions and spoilage are also minimised.
Depending on demand from markets, Gutted fish is prepared in different marketable formats,
before it is frozen. The product output can be Dressed (head and tail removed), Drawn (with
head and fins intact), Fillets (thin side cut), Steaks (thick cross-section with backbone) or Cubes
(small portions), Minced and other formats. The product can undergo block freezing for
subsequent processing or resale, or be individually frozen for retail.
When undertaking block freezing, the super-cooled blast of air is blown over trays of fish, or
contact cooling in plate freezers, which are the standard methods used. Alternately, fish that is
cut into serving-sized pieces, can be individually blast frozen in fluidised conveyors, which
suspend or vibrate each piece in a blast of supercooled air. Immersion and contact freezing are
also used, provided the individual pieces do not stick together. This method is also used for
small-sized whole produce such as shrimps. Such individually blast-frozen items are
commonly called individually quick-frozen (IQF) products. This method, lets consumers
choose from a ready-to-cook helping and not have to sub-divide the whole fish before cooking.
To better manage quality concerns over extended holding periods, deep-frozen fish requires
prior treatment and processing, using specialised equipment. The rapid freezing process
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requires the setting up of dedicated industry-scale refrigerated infrastructure The following lists
a variety of types of cooling systems used for blast-freezing fish and fisheries products.
- Air Blast Freezers
- Cryogenic Tunnel Freezers
- Plate Freezers
- Belt Freezers (Spiral Freezers)
- Fluidized – Bed Freezers
- Immersion Freezers
- Tumbler and Rotator Tunnel Freezers
- Stationery Tunnels and Carton Freezers
2.1.3. Storing Fish

Frozen fish, including the individually quick-frozen products, have a highly extended
marketable life and must be stored in refrigerated warehouses that ensure that the temperature
does not rise above -18°C. Therefore, deep-frozen fish must have access to cold stores that
have the appropriate storage capacity to handle deep-frozen products.
Conversely, fresh fish that was prepared for the market at 0°C should NOT be allowed to fall
below freezing point (as slow freezing will occur and will damage the body of the fish). Fresh
fish is not amenable to long-duration storage since it typically has a marketable life of less than
2 weeks. Fresh fish is quickly moved to the retail end and cold stores may be used only to
cross-dock the connectivity. Even if storing fresh fish, the temperature required at these storage
points is only 0°C. Storage containers come in handy for short-term storage at retail end and
can be used by local fish vendors. Such storage containers can be passively cooled, actively
refrigerated or a combination thereof. The actively cooled storage containers can also be used
to maintain deep-frozen fish at sub -18°C, as done in the case of ice-cream.
2.1.4. Transporting Fish

Like with cold stores, the kind of transport used depends on the category of fish produce and/or
products being transported. The fresh fish, which is in chilled format, can be transported at 0°C
in refrigerated vehicles. Even non-refrigerated transport, using ice-packed containers is
utilised, provided it is insulated from external heat ingress and temperature can be maintained.
The most common use of insulated and cooled (active or passive cooling) containers is seen in
this segment.
In the case of frozen fish, the transport unit is actively refrigerated to always maintain
temperatures below -18°C. Such powered refrigeration systems are installed on vehicles that
have an insulated body and refrigeration plant permanently mounted on a mobile chassis (reefer
truck). Alternately, unitised reefer containers, which can be lifted on or off a truck trailer unit
can be used. The latter is more suitable for intermodal shipments and common in international
trade as they allow for different modes of transport like road, rail, ships or air, where the
intermediary carrier does not need to directly handle the goods inside the container.
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When stowing fish in the transport unit, it is recommended to stack it densely while keeping it
away from the side walls. This ensures that the entire load can be enveloped with the circulating
cold air and any heat ingress from side walls is blown away by the airflow, before it touches
the cold goods. This practice is unlike when stowing fruits and vegetables for transport, which
are stacked loosely to ensure the cold air can circulate between and through the stowed boxes
and extract inherent respiratory heat and gases that they generate (harvested fish does not
produce heat).
It is never recommended to thaw frozen fish enroute to destinations, even when expecting
immediate sale and consumption, as bacterial activities will get triggered and there is no
subsequent control on how they behave or the toxins that will result. This practice will risk the
total loss of the product. Similarly, in the case of chilled fish, if there is a failure to maintain
temperature, spoilage will occur and render it unsafe for consumption.
2.1.5. Retail end

Retail means merchandising the stocked items directly, in desired lots, to consumers for
subsequent consumption. Modern retail systems use refrigerated cabinets, whereas the
traditional wet market may utilise block ice or storage containers for the purpose. The main
components for fish retail, frozen or fresh are:
- Display of fish while maintaining quality, including by way of temperature control and
complying with food safety standards;
- Cataloguing and weighment for the customer;
- Easy to maintain and clean.
At the retail point of sale, the vendors try to be careful when handling of fish, as it is already
in the last leg of its journey. To maximise their returns, storage containers that can keep the
fish in chilled conditions are a necessary component. Such vendors commonly purchase the
fish at source or from local distribution hubs and these same containers are used to transport
their daily purchase to their retail location.
2.2. MARKETING PRACTICES

Normally, freshly captured fish has high eating quality, but unless managed in temperature
controlled ambient, it will incur biological rot and infestation by external pathogens and the
fish will rapidly deteriorate until it is unfit for consumption and is discarded as food loss.
The domestic market has a higher preference for fresh fish and it remains the mainstay of the
fisheries sector. Fresh fish is that which is not processed (i.e., gutted, cleaned, cut, processed
and deep-frozen), and marketed at 0°C chilled conditions. Unlike processed frozen fish, which
can have a saleable life of months, the fresh fish category has a far reduced saleable life of
about 1 to 2 weeks. Both categories are highly perishable and conditions related to temperature,
contamination and other safeguards must be maintained and monitored across the supply chain.
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The domestic marketing channel of fresh fish, irrespective of its form, i.e., fresh, dried,
processed, etc. is multi-layered and requires collaboration among various actors in the supply
chain. However, in the case of ornamental fish and frozen fish, the business is more closely
integrated, in the hands of a few enterprises.
Fresh catch is moved from inland fish farms (or landing sites) across varying geographies, near
and afar, to reach multiple domestic retailers. For this movement, the fish is aggregated in small
lots into baskets, small boxes or crates, which are then transported on a multitude of vehicles
to the next handling stage. For distant domestic markets, the fresh fish is transported in
insulated (non-refrigerated) or open trucks, using ice flakes to chill and pack the fish. This
system is preferred for saving costs, compared to actively refrigerated transport modes (reefer
containers or trucks). Generally, plastic crates are used, wherein the fresh fish is buried in ice
flakes or chips to maintain the desired (zero) 0°C temperature.
The shorter marketable life of fresh fish, naturally results in a fast-selling cycle, as the fish
must reach consumption much before 10 to 12 days. In case of delayed or partial cooling, the
time in hand to safely sell the fish is reduced more, to just a few days. As such, fresh fish
vendors have a fast-selling cycle, which brings inherent advantages of higher cash flows, with
reduced inventory holding costs and associated risks. In the fresh fish supply chain, the various
actors in its marketing channels strive to connect and sell the fish to the next level as soon as
possible. On the other hand, processed and deep-frozen fish can be stored for a much longer
duration, having a much longer production-to-sales cycle and with associated holding risks.
When fresh fish is moved in ice-packed open-topped crates, the ice melts after some time,
requiring frequent topping up of the ice. The need to replenish ice is more frequent when the
iced crates are moved in open trucks and frequent pitstops for re-icing are required, enroute to
market. Using trucks with enclosed or covered carriages is the preferable option.
Figure 3: Iced crates in open truck and Flake-ice replenishment
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Improper quantity and quality of the ice being used often put hygiene and food safety at risk.
Ice made from non-potable water can cause serious contamination. Melted pools of
contaminated water also create a hygiene hazard. Such improper facilities and handling results
in poor quality of material, aggravated risk of foodborne diseases, nutritional and food losses.
This also hampers consumer acceptance and demand for fish from the hinterland population.
In fast-selling markets, where fresh fish is consumed daily by local consumers, the retailers see
a very fast turn-around of their daily stock. In such cases, there may be minimal or cursory
cooling of the fish at the last mile.
Figure 4: Open display at retail-end
2.2.1. Reasons for Spoilage of Fish

After fish is caught and removed from the water, its death sets off certain physicochemical
changes. The fish can remain soft for a few hours after death, after which the body becomes
stiff, which is called ‘rigor mortis’. This condition remains for a while, after which the flesh
muscles relax again. For quality purposes, it is generally preferred to extend the time period
before and during rigor mortis. The period of pre-rigor mortis and rigor mortis varies between
fish species but is directly impacted by temperature, handling, size and condition of fish when
it was caught. After the rigor mortis period, when the fish muscles again relax, various sensory
changes in its appearance, colour, odour, and texture begin to manifest and fish quality starts a
rapid decrease. Lowering the temperature by icing not only slows down the rigor mortis process
but also slows down the subsequent rate of spoilage. The basic reasons for spoilage are-
a. Autolysis- relates to enzymatic activities in fish, or self-digestion process which

creates a favourable environment for micro-organisms to flourish. Commonly,
autolysis occurs first and leads to bacterial spoilage and rancidity, though there can be
overlap.
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b. Bacteria- already exist in fish when alive, concentrated in gills, digestive tract and
skin. After the death of fish, the same bacteria can penetrate other regions and rapidly
multiply, leading to tissue degradation and spoilage of fish. Bacteria is psychotropic
and can multiply in refrigeration temperatures. However, at lower temperatures the
rate of multiplication slows down. The bacteria in fish from temperate waters are more
temperature resilient, but the growth of bacteria in fish caught in tropical waters is
slowed for one or two weeks when fish is kept in iced conditions.
c. Rancidity- results because of fat oxidation which usually occurs after autolysis and
bacterial spoilage. Warm temperature, exposure to light and air can increase oxidation
rates. Rancidity is more in fatty fish, such as herring, mackerel, salmon and most
freshwater species. Keeping the fish in cold temperature and covered against sunlight
and wind is important.
d. Mechanical damage- harsh handling of the raw fish material causes physical
breakdown and tissue bruising. Not only does this make the fish look defective in
appearance, but it causes the broken cells to release autolytic enzymes which hastens
spoilage. The micro-tearing of the bruised flesh also opens pathways for bacteria to
spread. Careless handling, therefore, leads to conditions that hasten spoilage. Even
high pressure of ice and over-stacked loads can cause mechanical damage. The storage
containers should minimise such effects.
Initial chilling and protecting the fish catch from sunlight and wind is normally done by placing
the raw material in containers, boxes or tubs holding ice. Different ice such as ice slurry, flakes
(common), tube or block ice are used. Subsequent gutting of fish, to remove its intestines with
undesirable enzymes and micro-organisms can also be done. However, this process also
exposes the inside to air which can lead to oxidation. Hence, some species are not gutted, like
fatty fish and small-sized fish (where gutting is also more time-consuming). For lean fish,
gutting is more common. Containers should have good drainage to remove melted water, as
prolonged submersion of raw fish material can also lead to complications.
2.3. DESIGNING CONTAINERS FOR HANDLING FISH

A container is a containing vessel, preferably enclosed, utilised to store and carry the fish from
one location to another. It should mitigate the aforementioned causes of fish spoilage, to reduce
the rate of quality deterioration and wastage.
The type of containers used in the fish trade depends on where in the supply chain and for what
purpose they are to be utilised. Containers are seen in various shapes and materials, such as
fibre baskets, wooden crates, metal buckets, plastic crates, and modern insulated crates. This
report is regarding containers used by vendors in the domestic fish supply chain, therefore the
associated capacity of the vendor to handle a fish container type is also a factor. Rather than
completely disrupt such practices, the preference to align with existing capacities is necessary.
The custody of fish is handed to multiple intermediaries in the supply chain when transiting
from the point of capture to points of sale. The highest risk of exposure to inclement ambient,
14
i.e., uncontrolled temperature and external contaminants, is during transportation to terminal

markets and onwards to points of sale. Such risks are aggravated when the travel time or the
selling cycle is extended, which is typically the case when the catch is transported into
hinterland markets.
Depending on the vendor, fish handling containers can be used specifically for i) first-mile
collection; ii) short-haul or domestic transport; iii) last-mile distribution; iv) at the retail end.
Notwithstanding the prevailing cold-chain and marketing practices, there are some undeniable,
common aspects to consider when designing fish containers, which are-
i. Insulating properties
ii. Shape and material used
iii. Cooling method used
iv. Weight and Handling
v. Food Safety & Hygiene
vi. Sturdiness and reusability
In the case of dedicated motorised transport, such as reefer vehicles, these aspects are designed
as part of the reefer body on the vehicle. However, the committee notes that most of the vendors
in the fish supply chain, for various reasons, prefer ice-cooled trucks, hence the requirement to
incorporate the above facets in small scale individual fish containers.
2.3.1. Thermal Insulation

The key consideration when designing a fish handling container is its insulating property.
Insulation is the primary means by which the internal space of the container is kept thermally
isolated from external conditions. To fully isolate the raw fish from ambient conditions,
including sunlight and air, the container should fully enclose the catch. Therefore, the
insulating material is used for the lid of the container as well.
However, all materials have the inherent ability to conduct thermal energy, albeit at varying
rates. Therefore, any container made of any material, when kept in a differing external ambient
temperature, will consistently evidence heat transfer until equilibrium between the internal and
external temperatures is reached. The rate at which this phenomenon occurs depends on the
insulating property of the material used to make the container. The higher the insulating
property, the slower the ingress of heat and therefore, the higher the protection of the contained
fish from heat exposure.
The time taken for this equalising transfer of thermal energy depends on the-
- Difference between external temperature (T1) and internal temperature (T2)
- Exposed surface area (A) of the enclosure or container.
- Thermal conductivity of the material used to isolate the external and internal space (k)
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- Thickness of the insulating material (d)
Thermal conductivity, or ‘k’ value, is a measure of the inherent property of a material, that
defines the rate at which it transfers heat by way of conduction through a given unit area.
Generally, the higher the ‘k’ value the higher the rate of heat transfer and vice versa. Diamond
is the most thermally conductive material and a perfect vacuum does not allow any conductive
heat transfer. For commercial reasons, Polyurethane foam (PUF) and polystyrene foam are the
most viable and commonly used insulating material in the cold-chain.
Figure 5: Heat transfer - Thermal conductivity
Source: Guidelines & minimum System Standards for Cold-chain, NCCD
Figure 5, illustrates the correlation between the rate of heat ingress (Q/t, in Watts) across a
barrier of a material having thermal conductivity k (W/m2.K) with surface area A (square
metres), where the ambient at one side is at temperature Tcold (°C) and the other is at
temperature Thot (°C).
Furthermore, while the use of an insulating outer skin implies that conduction is the primary
mode of heat transfer from the external surfaces of the fish container to the payload, heat may
be transferred from the ambience to the container surfaces via convection and radiation as well.
Because open-top/roofless trucks are often used for the transport of fish, in containers which
are also uncovered/unlidded, these modes of heat transfer may even become dominant modes
16
of heat ingress from the ambience. Like conductive heat transport, convective heat transport
and radiative heat transport also depend upon the overall exposed surface area of the containers,
as well as the difference between the ambient and payload temperatures, as iterated in the
equations below.
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= ℎ. 𝐴𝐴. (𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 )
𝑡𝑡
𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 4 4 )
= 𝜎𝜎. 𝜀𝜀. 𝐴𝐴. (𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑡𝑡
Note that the convective heat transfer rate also depends on the “h-value”, which varies with the
air velocity around the containers, while radiative heat transfer also depends upon 𝜀𝜀, also
known as material emissivity and varies between 0 for a perfect white body (highly reflecting)
and 1 for a perfect black body (highly absorbing). Thus, use of smooth surfaces for the outer
skin, use of windbreakers for open-top vehicles, and painting containers with low emissivity
colour can further impact and limit heat ingress into the fish payload during road transport.
For practical considerations, the outer skin of containers used by fish vendors is made of hardy
materials that can sustain the rigours of frequent handling and damaging impact. Such material
may not necessarily have low thermal conductivity. A higher level of insulation is achieved in
containers, by integrating specialised material in its peripheral walls. The objective is to create
a thermally insulated envelope, that isolates the internal space from uncontrolled external
conditions, to maximise the time it takes for thermal energy to equalise between the external
and internal space. The use of low thermal conductivity material - such as cellular foam,
sawdust, cotton wool, even bubble wrap, etc. - varies by commercial implications.
The commonly used insulating material in modern fish containers is polyurethane foam (PUF)
which exhibits thermal conductivity of 0.021 – 0.023 w/m3.K.
Table 1: Standard material specifications of PUF

APPLICABLE
Description VALUE SPECIFICATIONS
Material Polyurethane Foam BS 43 TO : 1960
Modular Density 40 +/- 2 Kg/m3 BS 43 TO : 1960
Compressive Strength 1.2 Kg/cm2 BS 43 TO : 1960
Cross Breaking Strength 4 Kg/cm2
Tensile Strength 55 PSI
Continuous Service Temp. 85 °C
Thermal Conductivity @ 10 °C 0.017 - 0.020 W/M °K
Water absorption (% by vol) 3.1 ASTM C 272
Critical Oxygen Index 23 ISO 4589
Dimensional Stability 30 °C / 28 Days -0.40%
The insulating properties of a container directly relate to the material embedded in its walls,
the wall thickness, as well as the geometric shape of the container.
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2.3.2. Container Shape and Material

As discussed, besides the insulating material used, the insulating property of a container is also
determined by the surface area of the walls of a container. A container with a smaller surface
area will invariably exhibit a reduced rate and amount of thermal energy transfer, which will
occur nonetheless.
This fact warrants a discussion of the geometric shape of a container, which will define the
total surface area presented by its walls. For the same volume, a cube presents a smaller surface
area than a cuboid. In the figures below, the cube with a volume of 20 litres has a surface area
of 4374 square centimetres, whereas the cuboid shapes with the same holding capacity have a
total surface area of 4600 and 4700 square centimetres respectively.
Figure 6: Surface area of container shapes

27 cm
40 cm
45 cm
27 cm
25 cm
17 cm
20 litres 20 litres
20 litres
Volume: 20 litres Volume: 20 litres Volume: 20 litres

Surface area: 4400 cm2 Surface area: 4600 cm2 Surface area: 4700 cm2
The higher the surface area of the container, the higher the thermal energy transfer. However,
other practical considerations do not support cube-shaped containers and cuboid shapes are
more common. Even then, if containers are designed to be stacked over one another, an
aggregated cube shape can be achieved.
It is obvious, that traditional boxes, baskets, buckets or crates made of fibre, metal, plastics do
not offer the most efficient containment in terms of thermal resistance. Also obvious, is that
open-topped containers expose the fish to heat, sunlight, dust, airborne contaminants &
pathogens, and convectional heat transfer, all which are detrimental to quality and food safety.
The containers under discussion are mobile units that can be easily relocated at will. Depending
on the size and weight of the container, it may be designed for lifting by a single person, by
two persons or using material handling equipment, such as a pallet-lift. Containers used in
transport are designed for over-stacking (nestable design).
Nestable containers must have dented bottoms to prevent leaving marks on the fish in the lower
container. Nestable containers should be designed such that an over-stacked container will
serve as the top lid for the lower container.
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The external skin or material used in constructing a container should also be capable of resisting
UV exposure, hygrothermal degradation, impact, and abrasive damage. The inner skin of the
payload box, which is in close contact with fish and other components of the box also needs to
be robust and resist abrasive and repeated handling. Usually, food-safe plastics such as
polyethylene terephthalate, linear low- or high-density polyethylene and others are used to
construct such containers. Such material can be easily moulded into double-skinned forms
which sandwich the injected insulating medium to create rigid containers.
It should be noted that scratches on the walls of the container would eventually become a
potential breeding ground for bacteria. As such, the surfaces should be suitable for chemical or
hot water treatment. Containers are also designed with smooth edges to avoid accidental
damage and injuries. Ergonomic holding points are necessary to ease handling by workers.
Table 2: Common external materials used for fish containers (Pros & Cons)
Type of material Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminium / Strong & rigid, freezing tolerant, Poor insulation, heavy, corrosive
metal alloys smooth surface, easy to clean, unless having inner lining/coating,
durability, higher scrap value poor repairability
Raw Wood / Lesser weight than metals, easy to Higher permeability, weight
Bamboo repair, low-cost, non-toxic, locally changes on water absorbed, low
produced, partial insulation durability, difficult to clean,
pathogen trap.
Composites As above. Comparatively easier to Not fully hygienic, manufacturing
(wood, bamboo) clean, better durability, can be must be food grade, heavier than
/ GRP insulated. plastics.
Expanded Extremely lightweight, high Poor structural strength, easily
Polystyrene / insulation, low cost damaged, not repairable, poor
Styrofoam hygiene, poor load-bearing.
Food grade Lightweight, durable, mouldable Less durable than metals, can
Plastic (LLDPE, into specific shapes and designs, degrade with UV exposure, can
PET, HDPE) good insulation, insulation become brittle at sub-freezing
enhanced if double-skinned with temperatures, difficult to repair
sandwiched insulating material,
food grade, easy to clean, does not
soak water, higher chemical
resistance, nestable
2.3.3. Cooling Method

Despite using optimal shape and materials, because perfectly adiabatic conditions are
impossible to attain, heat will slowly, but surely, leak into the fish container. Such heat ingress
happens invariably and the heat reaching the payload will have the net effect of raising the
temperature of fish. Therefore, to maintain the freshness of fish, containers must not only be
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designed to minimise heat transfer but also aid in the removal of heat. The cooling system is a
critical design consideration for containers being used to hold fish for more than a few hours.
Cooling systems may be broadly categorised as active or passive, where the terms “active” and
“passive” are used to delineate the presence or absence of any electrical or mechanical
components in the system. Active cooling systems utilise machinery that functions on demand,
to cool the target space to a desired temperature. Such active cooling systems require a
connected supply of energy (i.e., fuel, electricity, heat) which is converted into cooling effect.
Calculations of cooling load: Regardless of the approach, the cooling system needs to
neutralize all heat ingress into a container holding fish.
As illustrated here, a container with external skin temperature T1 will evidence heat ingress
through radiation, convection and conduction from the external ambient (temperature T2).
Net heat flux on the outer skin of the box will therefore be,
𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, in Watts
The rate of heat incursion from outer skin to the inside of the insulated container is
calculated using the conduction equation, where outer temperature at T1 is Thot and inner
temperature at Tcold (temperature required to maintain the fish or 0 °C). The resulting
̇ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 , that must be
conductive load in watts, is the required cooling capacity or 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
provided by the cooling solution.
Passive cooling systems leverage stored thermal energy to effect cooling and hence do not
require to be connected to an energy source on-site. The most common form of passive cooling
practised in the fish trade is the use of ice-flakes. ice chips or ice slabs. The ice is created at
dedicated ice-plants, while the ice is deployed off-site where it is needed. Other mixtures of
fluids are also developed to behave like ice, to store and release thermal energy at varying
temperatures, ranging from sub-zero to high temperatures. This makes passive cooling the most
convenient to use in portable applications.
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While active refrigeration needs “live” energy to function and meet cooling requirements,
passive cooling systems can store the energy prior to actual requirement for cooling, acting like
“thermal batteries”. The process of storing energy in passive cooling systems is however driven
by active cooling at the back-end. Thus, ice which is used to cool the fish as it is harvested, on
a boat miles away from the shore, must first be created in actively driven ice-plants.
Once the cooling load is determined, a variety of cooling systems can be optioned. These can
also include hybrid cooling systems (where a combination of passive cooling and active
refrigeration is used).
2.3.3.1. Passive Cooling

The most common form of cooling practised in the fish trade is by using ice-flakes, ice chips
or ice slabs. Ice has various limitations and in practice, if used properly, it can maintain about
2 to 5 °C. For more accurate temperature controls other passive cooling options are needed.
Such systems utilise a phase change material (PCM), i.e., ice tailored to melt and freeze at
different temperatures. For example, using PCM that behaves like ice at -20 °C will be more
suited to maintain deep-frozen temperatures. See the box below to understand PCMs.
The theoretical weight of ice needed to chill fish of mass of 1 kg over 1 hour is shown in the
table below. In practice, much more ice is used since the surface area of ice is a variable as is
the shape and size of the fish, and since the ice is itself subject to external heat ingress.
Table 3: Ice to chill 1 kg of fish

Initial temperature of 1 kg of fish Ice required in Kg
30°C 0.34
25°C 0.28
20°C 0.23
15°C 0.17
10°C 0.12
5°C 0.06
Ideally, once the fish is at 0°C, in the absence of any heat ingress, no further ice should be
required, however, there is no perfect insulation. Therefore, ice in a container serves a
sacrificial purpose, whereby by melting itself, it absorbs any heat that ingresses. In sacrificing
itself, the ice is effectively able to consume the heat that enters the container, before it can
begin to heat up the fish. Therefore, when using ice for long-duration travel, it has to be
replenished regularly, after draining the melted water.
An appreciable secondary advantage of using crushed/chipped/flaked ice, is that it allows the

alternate layering of fish and ice in the container which allows for close contact with the fish.
A common thumb rule used in tropical regions is to have ice to fish in a weight ratio of 1:1.
However, in the case of fish held in temperate or cooled space, this ratio is 1:2. Insulated
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containers provide the advantage of carrying more fish with less ice. Where fish being handled
is already cooled to 0 °C, the layering with ice becomes unnecessary. Since the only source of
heat is from external walls (unlike fruits or vegetables, there is no respiratory heat) the cooling
is only needed in the periphery of the container. This is where the use of PCMs as wall cladding
is advantageous so that payload ratio is enhanced when transporting fish.
The disadvantage of using ice is that it cannot be used to maintain fish at sub-zero temperatures.
Further, ice, when made from contaminated or dirty water creates food safety hazards. Finally,
the current logistics design means that ice is a one-time application requiring frequent
replenishment, and as such, freshwater is used as a major consumable in the trade.
Behaviour of Ice and Phase Change Material (PCM)
Molecules in any material are in motion and colliding, and as the substance absorbs thermal
energy, its molecules move faster and faster, thereby increasing the substance’s inherent kinetic
energy. The temperature of a material (whether solid, liquid, gas) is typically a measure of its
average inherent kinetic energy. A material’s inherent kinetic energy is directly proportional to
the number of molecular collisions that happen in a material.
Energy will flow so from hot to cold, to balance any temperature difference and all materials
exhibit this process of thermal equalisation. When exposed to a different temperature, a
gradient flow of thermal energy occurs, and as the kinetic energy of the material’s molecules
increases or decreases, the temperature of the material will change to reflect the same. This
change in temperature is a reflection of the substance’s sensible energy, which is the portion
of internal energy associated with kinetic energy of its molecules. For example, if heat is
applied to water, it will immediately start to raise its temperature. As the molecules vibrate
faster and faster, the material increases in temperature and vice versa when a material is “cold”.
If thermal energy is continuously input to a material, its molecular kinetic energy, i.e., its
temperature, keeps increasing until a stage is reached when all further energy input is consumed
in restructuring the molecular bonds of the material. At this stage, the material undergoes a
change in its phase, i.e., turns from solid to liquid, or from liquid to gas (such as water into
vaporous steam, or ice into water). When such phase change occurs, there is no further
discernible change in the sensible temperature of the material, despite the added energy being
input (thus, this energy is called “latent” or “hidden” energy).
The reverse happens when the material is cooled – the molecular vibrations slow down to a
point when the molecular bonds get restructured and another phase change is seen – water
crystallises into ice, or gas condenses into liquid. These temperatures, when the phase change
occurs, are commonly known as boiling and freezing points. The energy associated with its
intermolecular bonds is also called the latent energy of the material. The latent energy of a
substance is the total energy it shall absorb or emit when undergoing a change in phase.
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Figure 7: Behaviour of material on transfer of thermal energy
A material has 3 basic phases of matter

– solid, liquid, gas (4th stage is plasma)
When it changes from one phase to the

other, it absorbs or releases energy,
thereby maintaining a steady state of
temperature (high thermal inertia).
Until the phase change is completed, its

core temperature does not change,
irrespective of the external energy
being applied. The phenomenon of
high thermal inertia is used to maintain
the temperature in its surrounding.
At boiling or freezing points, the gradient change in sensible temperature ceases, as the energy
applied is being utilised to undergo phase change – in breaking or making intermolecular
bonds. At these temperature points, any additional energy input does not cause a change in the
material’s temperature – it exhibits high thermal inertia. E.g., when water reaches boiling point,
it converts into its gaseous phase and until all the water changes phase into steam, both steam
and water remain at 100°C. The reverse is seen when water is cooled to 0°C and it starts to turn
into ice. The amount of energy used by a unit mass of material to exhibit a reversible phase
change is called its ‘latent heat capacity’. The inherent latent heat capacity and the associated
resistance to change in temperature is used in the cold-chain to maintain a desired temperature.
Energy used to make or break the molecular bonding, heat of fusion, is endothermic (material
absorbs energy) when the phase is changing from solid to liquid, or exothermic (release of
energy) when the phase is changing from liquid to solid. When a material reaches its boiling
or freezing temperature, the physical temperature stays steady and high thermal inertia is
witnessed, as all the excess energy applied is consumed to make or break its molecular bonds
and the phase of the material changes. Materials are developed to exhibit phase change at the
desired temperature, and the amount of thermal backup is proportional to the latent heat
capacity of the material and the total mass of the material deployed.
Ice is a naturally available state of water which occurs when pure liquid water changes phase
into solid matter at 0°C. In thermal equilibrium, ice will remain at 0°C. However, when ice is
exposed to warmth, it will absorb the added heat and the melting ice will also be observed to
remain at 0°C, until all of it changes phase into water. Only after all the ice has been melted,
will the water begin to heat up. This allows ice at 0°C or an ice-water mixture to maintain a
steady state of temperature instead of immediately reacting by increasing its temperature. This
natural gift of ice allows it to be used to maintain fresh fish.
23
Note that ice, when supercooled to sub-zero temperatures like -20°C, on being exposed to heat,
the mass of ice will rapidly increase from -20°C until reaching 0°C, where its temperature will
then remain until it completely changes phase from solid to liquid.
The property to absorb and shed energy, when undergoing a physical change of state, from
solid to liquid and vice versa – is what makes both ice and other PCMs useful for cooling (or
heating). When heat is extracted to solidify water into ice, the resulting matter must reabsorb a
similar amount of heat to return to liquid state. In effect, ice behaves like an energy storage
unit as it absorbs the energy which would otherwise heat the space. Similar thermal energy
storage systems can be manufactured to behave like ice at temperatures of choice using PCM
material as alternatives. Unlike raw ice, PCM can be formulated to show thermal inertia at
different temperatures as required in user applications.
PCMs are a viable alternative to ice. These are chemical mixtures formulated to behave like
ice and exhibit high thermal inertia at the required temperatures of choice. Hence, one can
manufacture “ice” that melts at -20°C (as an example). Also, to ensure reversibility of the
energy storage, these PCMs are provided in encapsulations or containers of desired form factor.
In this manner, unlike ice, once PCMs melt upon absorbing the ambient heat, they do not flow
away and can be recovered for use the next time by refreezing it. This provides an added benefit
of hygiene and zero fish contamination during transport. The reusability of PCMs is also a
future-ready option, as freshwater scarcity becomes an increasing reality.
The phase change of materials occurs at predetermined temperatures and happens over a
prolonged period. The time taken for phase conversion, during which it exhibits high thermal
inertia, is useful to maintain a steady temperature in the space surrounding the PCM. If external
heat ingress is minimised, a small amount of ice, or other PCM will keep the surrounding space
at a steady temperature for longer periods.
Presently, several PCM compositions are commercially available across the world, spanning
the temperature range of -70 ℃ to upwards of 200 ℃, and are employed in applications ranging
from cryogenic applications to concentrated solar plants (respectively). PCM is also available
to maintain temperatures for human occupancy and reduce air conditioning loads. PCM
encapsulated into slabs, balls, or other shapes allows the parcelling out of its thermal charge in
a wide variety of portable applications.
Table 4: Comparison of Ice and PCMs with respect to fish transport

Criteria Ice PCM
Comparatively expensive one-time
Very cheap, particularly when
Cost cost but ROI can be as low as a month
made with low-quality water
via savings in ice consumption
Easily sourced; most fishing co- Sourced through PCM manufacturers
Availability
ops have ice-making facilities only
24
Criteria Ice PCM

Maintains temperature around 0
℃ adequately; melting ice Can maintain temperatures more
enhances heat transfer; in most precisely due to a wider selection of
Thermal
containers, ice quantities are in melting temperatures; manufacturers
Performance
excess or in deficit. Users may help engineer the solution precisely to
face wastage or constant ice vendor needs
refilling, respectively
Removable containers/panels; remove
Easy to use but requires repeated
from box to charge for next use,
Handleability efforts to scoop and pack ice
reinstall prior to fish packing. Easy
between fish layers
and dry assembly design
Prevents excess fish loading, Containers need to be adequately
bulking injuries. Distributes fish designed to stack and distribute fish
weight. weight properly
Use benefits Predominantly a “drier operation”. No
Melting water enhances thermal
molten water or PCM in contact with
contact, washes away slime and
fish. Thermal performance is pre-
excretions from fish as it drains
engineered by PCM manufacturer
PCMs are designed to last upwards of
In the long run, this approach has
1000 reversible operation cycles. One-
a higher OPEX. Large amounts of
time cost mandatorily includes PCM
ice consumption can be
panels, plus adequate refrigeration
prohibitive.
facility for charging PCM
Fish contamination events are PCMs or their containers do not
Disadvantages
higher when transport ice is made contaminate fish, but lose out on
with contaminated water. natural benefits of melting water
Melting water (mixed with fish
PCM-based fish containers designed
slime) settles at the bottom, makes
with adequate water drainage/
a breeding ground for microbes
containment strategies
and bad odours
When employing PCMs, a back-of-the-envelope calculation may help estimate the costs and
̇
volume associated with integration of PCMs. Using the cooling load requirement 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (in
Watts) calculated as discussed above, the mass requirement of PCMs for a given fish transport
application may be assessed as;
̇
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚 =
1000 × 𝐿𝐿
Where,
𝑚𝑚 = mass of PCM required (in kgs)
𝑡𝑡 = duration of transport (in seconds)
𝐿𝐿 = latent heat capacity of the PCM, in kJ/kg
25
2.3.3.2. Active Cooling

Depending on the function of the vendor in the fisheries supply chain, some containers can be
designed with active refrigeration, or active cooling. These container types are primarily
envisaged at the retail end of the supply chain. The users will be medium to small retailers who
have fixed and secure premises and will move their containers infrequently. Such containers
will ensure that these vendors are able to modernise their capacity to store fresh fish safely over
longer durations. Much like commercial deep freezers, these containers can be of varying
capacities but are designed for storing fresh fish at 0°C. As an option, they can also be
compartmentalised to store deep-frozen fish products at -18 °C.
Actively cooled containers will be equipped with self-contained refrigeration machinery. The
active refrigeration employed in such containers usually comprise compressor-based air
conditioners but could also use liquid chillers and thermoelectric cooling devices. Often, these
technologies are coupled with fans, air diffusers and controllers and relay switches to create
self-controlled thermal boxes with very precise temperature control. However, these need to
be attached to a source of power to function. In other words, in the absence of power, the
cooling process comes to a halt and additional heat flux into the box will raise its internal
temperatures at a rate corresponding to the quality of insulation and the number and frequency
of door openings. In this way, active cooling solutions have a setback of constant fuel/power
requirements. Combined with the heft and size of conventional technologies, as well as the cost
of manufacturing active cooling technologies, this means that active cooling technologies are
at a considerable disadvantage in applications requiring portability.
The cooling capacity of the refrigeration machinery is calculated using the following formula:
𝑘𝑘. 𝐴𝐴. Δ𝑇𝑇

̇
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = × 1.75
𝑑𝑑
Where,
̇
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = rate of cooling, in W
𝑘𝑘 = effective thermal conductivity of all components of the box, in W/m.K
𝐴𝐴 = total exposed surface area of the payload box, in m2
Δ𝑇𝑇 = temperature difference between the outer skin of the payload box and the target payload
(fish) temperature
𝑑𝑑 = total thickness of all the box components in the direction of thermal ingress
The factor of 1.75 is used and it indicates that a 75% factor of safety is being applied.
2.3.3.3. Hybrid cooling

As the name suggests, hybrid cooling systems combine passive and active cooling systems to
leverage the best features of both. The technique is used to maintain temperatures of electronics
in remote communication towers (cell phones), where power source may be sporadic. While
active cooling provides consistency and precision, passive cooling provides portability, low
mass and volumetric footprint, and together they allow the possibility to stagger (offset) the
eventuality of failed power supply.
26
Many grocery stores in our country are already getting equipped with chest freezers and milk
chillers that also employ hybrid cooling. Grocers store thermally sensitive perishables such as
meat, chocolates, ice creams and dairy products in such freezers. However, due to the
intermittent supply of electricity in many cities, it is hard to ensure consistent quality of the
product on hot summer days with constant power outages or brownouts which impact
refrigeration machinery. Herein, the inner cavities of these chest freezers are lined with suitable
eutectic mixtures / PCMs which serve as thermal batteries in the absence of electricity to ensure
that product temperature does not rise above critical limits. Another example is the ice-lined
refrigerator used for storing vaccines. While electricity is available, the refrigeration system
maintains the set temperature and simultaneously freezes the water in close-looped pipes that
line its walls. When there is a power outage, the vaccines remain at the required temperature,
thanks to the ice lining which slowly melts as and when the temperature rises. As such, some
areas of cold-chain have already identified situations and possibilities where a combination of
the two technologies can provide better performance.
Figure 8: Mobile hybrid-cooled vending container
Cross section of Container integrated with

passive and active cooling – used on mobile carts
as a freezer on wheels.
A compressor is used to cool the copper cooling
coils which run through a separate tank holding
PCM. Embedding the coils in the PCM makes the
system energy efficient.
When connected to a electricity source, the
system charges (freezes) the PCM which
thereafter serves as a thermal battery, providing
passive cooling for the duration the container is
disconnected - container is used for vending.
Source: Consta Cool
Mobile hybrid-cooled containers are readily evidenced in the ice cream sector. The ice cream
vending cart is essentially a chamber on wheels which encapsulates a PCM or eutectic mixture,
i.e., a glycol-water mixture, with a phase changing point (freezing temperature) of less than -
20 °C. The ice cream vendor connects her/his cart to a power source at night, which freezes the
eutectic mixture in the cart’s body. Later during vending hours, the cart is disconnected from
power source, yet continues to keep the ice cream at the required sub-zero temperatures. In this
manner, the mobile ice cream cart does not require tedious assembly or activation for the use
of PCMs, and yet at the time of vending, can retain frozen temperatures without any live input
of energy. This practice is also known as “load shifting” and may also be efficiently deployed
for mobile fish vending. Containers on wheels that can maintain fresh fish at 0 °C will be a
boon for fish vendors since they can conduct door-to-door sales in towns or at designated
vending locations, while maintaining food safety norms.
27
In the case of fish transport, small reefer trucks – if employed – may be manufactured with
integrated eutectic plates and function in a similar way, wherein the diesel-powered chilling
systems (which can directly run on electricity at departure and arrival points also) can
intermittently cool the product, while PCM serves as a backup provider.
Hybrid cooling systems are a marriage between active and passive cooling systems. The idea
of incorporating PCMs within an active cooling system may be used with the intent of a) load
shifting, b) thermal protection due to electrical failure, or c) portability. In the case of the fish
containers such systems are best utilised at the retail end or in areas where ice is not available.
For example, various inland lakes and waterways are licensed to fishers. These regions may
not have an ice-making plant or electric power. A solar-powered refrigerator installed
strategically at these locations can operate a small PCM charging station, which can then be
used by the fishers to safely transport their fish in containers, back to their market or homes.
2.3.4. Handling facility

The containers are filled with fish at the landing site or aggregation points by vendors.
Depending on their circumstance, the containers are then moved up the supply chain until they
reach retailers. Some of the fish containers travel in trucks to distant locations while others may
only move a short distance to local retailers. A few vendors may also use the containers to
supply bulk users such as HORECA or processing industry. In some instances, the vendor may
also empty the container at intermediary aggregators. While the entire route, from start to end,
may appear linear and one-directional, market economics drives vendors to cycle their
containers and have adequate retrieval processes. For instance, if a vendor were to ship a ton
of fish from shore to an inland retailer in plastic crates, they are going to retrieve the empty
plastic crates for cleaning and reuse as well. Alternately, the crates are channelised as a shared
resource by organised groups in the supply chain. The market dynamics are such, that even
regular crates used in the fisheries sector and not readily used by others due to contamination
and tainting concerns.
The Committee, in considering insulated and lidded containers, also takes into consideration
that such containers will have inherent unladen weight, besides the weight of fish and the
cooling system used. Though the use of insulated containers is expected to reduce the load of
ice, in all cases, the containers will be handled frequently, involving lifting, stacking, cleaning
and allied activities. Containers would therefore be fitted with handles, locks or padlocking
arrangements, fork-lift slots and other options, to ease their day-to-day handling.
Borrowing from the current trends and practice, the fish containers may also be designed to be
open-top, but also stackable/nestable. This will allow the boxes to be stacked efficiently while
reducing any weight redundancies. To save further on the insulating costs, smart containment
solutions may be devised wherein a set of insulation-lacking containers can be enclosed or
surrounded by stacks of insulated containers from all directions to maximize a cladding effect.
28
As a corollary, insulated blankets or thermal covers may also be used to shroud a set of stacked
and nested containers and further reduce heat ingress.
The containers should also contain fixtures to improve both their mobility and portability. Such
features should be designed keeping in mind that they will aid in easy aggregation of fish as
well as distribution to relevant last miles. The containers’ cooling capacity may be designed
keeping in mind applications beyond delivery by the vendor, where the benefit of this extra
cooling will translate to end users (fish consumers) in terms of enhanced freshness and quality
of the product. Trolley/tractor wheels could be such an appendage, which should be adequately
removable to stack or load the boxes in trucks. Alternatively, for larger loading capacities, it
may be desirable to use forklifts to move these boxes around, and as such, adequate slots may
be provided at the bottom of the containers for stability. The use of rigid clamps is not
recommended for securing lids on containers when such boxes are regularly relocated and
subject to torsional forces. The lid securing straps are normally made of rubber which can give
way when suffering distortional stress – rigid clamps can instead communicate the forces to
the rigid base structure and damage the container itself.
Whether using active cooling or passive cooling, the containers should be designed in a way
where they may be easily detached from their cooling peripherals. This is particularly important
when it may be necessary to sterilize and clean the empty containers to ready them for the next
distribution run. Such modularity would also ensure easy repair and replacement of broken
components, improving the serviceability of the containers. Additionally, in case PCM
encapsulating panels are used, the ability to install and remove the panels with ease is
important, so that more efficient PCM charging strategies can be deployed.
Separately, while using ice should be discouraged due to lack of hygiene, care should be taken
while designing the fish containers to ensure that the benefits of ice are retained even in its
absence. For example, it is advised to design compartments, or stacks of plates within the fish
container, where the fish may be placed. Such plates, several of which would be placed in one
container, could prevent injury to fish due to being overburdened by the fish above it and the
weight distribution is more adequate. It may be possible to design these plates in such a way
that they also maximize contact surfaces for conducting heat away from the fish (for example,
by integrating PCM within the plates, or by making the plates out of aluminium).
Finally, in the case of containers employing passive cooling, designing of indicators and other
features to help the user determine the state of PCM charge is desirable. To be clear, it is
essential to have basic, binary indicators on the PCM panels that help the user understand if
the panel is ready for use, is over-charged or undercharged. Use of improperly activated or
partially charged PCM panels could not only result in undercooling of the fish, but also give
the vendor a false sense of complacency.
29
2.3.5. Food safety & Hygiene practices

Since the fish being handled is dead, it no longer has any defence mechanisms against spoilage-
causing micro-organisms. Such organisms can accumulate in the fish container. To prevent the
buildup of such factors in the fish container, its regular cleaning may involve using steam or
hot water, detergents or specialised disinfecting chemical products. These practices are
typically part of the HACCP practices in the formal sector who abide by SOPs that dictate the
frequency and type of cleaning that is carried out.
The informal sector too, is keenly aware that a dirty container can put their produce at risk and
the upkeep of container hygiene is done, even though a record of appropriate practices may not
be available. However, the type and design of the containment vessels that are used, may not
facilitate such good practices or result in the desired level of hygiene. The cleaning process is
normally a good wash-down of the container, which may include chemicals and scrubbing.
To facilitate and ease such wash-down practices, the fish handling containers should be
provided with suitable-sized drain holes. The bottom of the container should also be designed
with spillways to ease the periodic drainage of melted ice and debris.
Fish containers can also be subject to dynamic forces during loading/unloading and travel. Such
forces can result in impact damage and abrasive damage to the body of the container. If the
container skin is cracked or split open due to such forces, its insulating properties are greatly
reduced, besides hampering its structural integrity and containment capacity.
Similarly, slivers of the container material can abrade due to chafing or abrasive action and
contaminate the food. These are examples that result in food safety hazards. For this reason,
containers made of a variety of fibre-based materials such as glass-fibre composites or wood
material, are not recommended unless they are diligently treated to withstand abrasive forces,
dynamic impact, high moisture environments, and chemical washing.
While disadvantages exist in using poor quality ice, the use of crushed ice may not be
categorically rejected, as with proper implementation of potable ice, the thermal control
performance of the containers can improve. However, clean sourcing, handling, drainage
(during use) and disposal of ice is of paramount importance and the use of poor-quality ice can
severely compromise fish quality and safety. In other words, if a vendor cannot ensure sourcing
of ice made from clean water, then their containers should be designed for zero ice content,
using other non-ice cooling technologies.
2.4. FISH CONTAINERS IN USE BY VENDORS

A field team from NPC travelled to various locations in the country to record first-hand inputs
on the variety of fish containers used by vendors, including to transport fish to markets. The
field team shared a sampling of the pictures taken, which are being displayed in this chapter
with remarks from the Committee members.
30
Images from Fish Markets in Ennore, Chennai, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Ghazipur
Source: NPC Agribusiness team
Insulated containers (stacked on left) are seen to be lightweight and fitted with metal clamps.
Such domestic variety of picnic boxes are of small capacity and may not have any drain holes
- being lightweight when empty, they can be manually cleaned by one person. The clamps on
the container are broken, a common occurrence when containers are subjected to cross-
torsional forces, especially during loading/unloading on transport. Metal clamps are not
recommended for such use, as they transmit any torsional forces to the base structure of the
container which in turn can damage the container itself. Designs that use rubberised straps for
securing are preferred, as they allow some flexibility, and in fact are sacrificial (break
themselves), instead of allowing the container body to break.
Styrofoam boxes of various capacities were also observed in use as fish-carrying containers.
These are commonly repurposed from the pharmaceutical trade, where they are subjected to
lighter loads.
31
When used in the fish trade, these Styrofoam boxes are subject to heavier loads and do not
endure for long. Such boxes are also not cleaned easily which makes them unsafe for food
items. The damaged boxes are discarded and contribute to unwanted non-biodegradable waste.
Common metal vessels and domestic-usage cool boxes were also observed in use.
One of the fish vendors was seen to have a specialised box for merchandising purposes. The
container has a smaller access port built into its main, top lid. The small access port is opened
to facilitate regular opening during retail. The larger main lid is opened when replenishing fish,
ice or for cleaning operations. Since, the container is expected to be situated in a single location
for retail, not subjected to frequent movement, metal clamps are in use. A drain-hole is
observed which allows the vendor to easily empty and water build-up (from melting ice), before
topping up the contents with fresh ice-flake.
However, such fish containers are generally suitable for small-sized fish products. Access to
larger-sized fish will still require opening the main lid. It is pertinent to note, that all top-
opening containers, do not lose much cool air during operations unless the opened container is
exposed to strong wind or left uncovered for an extended duration.
32
Plastic mesh crates, water drums, and other plastic vessels were also observed. The drums and
plastic boxes are seen to be used to store live catch, pending sales. The lower right pictures also
show insulated plastic boxes, albeit filled with water to hold lie fish.
Chennai Fish Market
33
A fish vendor (seller) in a shanty, is seen to be using large insulated containers (including
Styrofoam boxes) to store their daily purchases, and keeping small lots of fish on cutting blocks
for display and retail.
A similar was the case with a fish retailer at a regular shop.
34
The picture below shows small-sized fish catch, in transport containers, opened to keep on
display.
Transport cum holding container being used to display iced fish at a retailer
35
Fish stored in galvanized metal boxes. The erosion of the galvanized coating is visible.
A well-stacked insulated container is seen on the

right. The container used is apparently a modern,
well-insulated transport cum storage type. It has
been brought into use for retail stocking and the
space is utilised efficiently for display of fish.
36
Large stock of Styrofoam containers for use as fish containers. It is pertinent to note, that these
containers are originally used for pharmaceutical shipments, They are then re-used in fisheries
trade, as they are available in large quantities and at low cost.
Though actually a non-biodegradable discard of the pharmaceutical industry, final waste is

commonly attributed to the fisheries sector. Such containers have short usable life and get
damaged easily in the hands of fish vendors and contribute to waste dumps.
37
2.5. CONTAINERS FOR FISH PRODUCE SUPPLY CHAIN

The fish supply chain originates on fishing boats or capture sites. However, from the
perspective of fish vendors, their supply chain of the captured produce originates at the
collection points where harvested fish is off-loaded for onward handling. The fresh fish
collection sites or source points are-
• Landing Centres in Established Ports (wharf, jetty, pier, can have large volumes)
• Landing Centres at Village Beaches (open, traditional, smaller handling volume)
• Collection Centres at Fish Farms (captive to fish farm, on-demand operations)
• Collection Centres at inland Lakes and Rivers (small load, includes subsistence fishing)
Figure 9: Typical Fish Landing Sites
Each of these source points generates a different quantity of fish and hence may require
different capacities of containers. The source at inland lakes and rivers is usually licensed to
fishers by the government where the volume of fish to be handled is usually the least and with
the shortest supply chain.
In other cases, the fish may be transported to nearby points of sale, or to more distant market
centres. The captured fish can also be destined for processing plants, however, that supply
chain comes under the purview of the industrialised enterprises, is well regulated as per
marketing demands and FSSAI norms, and not directly related to small vendors.
38
Organised collection centres would normally hold a stock of fish containers for daily use. Much
like fresh produce packhouses, of milk collection centres, these are the fist-mile of the forward-
aggregation-supply chain of the fish produce.
Figure 10: Images of Containers at a Collection Centre
It is natural that the containers should facilitate ease of handling and withstand rough exposure
from such handling. Different container design solutions are used as per the requirement.
• Baskets and Crates (single skinned, injection-moulded) are used to transport fish to
nearby selling points. Distance within 30 km size 10-70 litres
• Insulated Boxes (double-skinned sandwiching insulation) are used to transport Fish to
markets 50 km and above and travel time more than 2-3 hours. Size 70 -150 litres
• As lifting cranes or forklifts are not available at fish collection centres, the commonly
preferred containers are 70-100 litre capacity, as they can be handled by 2 people.
• Where material handling equipment is available, then container sizes can be larger
(heavier) as is commonly seen in more developed regions like Europe, China and Japan.
2.6. CONCEPT OF DURATION INDEX LABELLING OF FISH CONTAINERS

Insulated fish containers come in various sizes. Typically, the dimension of a container
determines its holding capacity, usually measured in litres. However, an equally critical
39
capacity is the thermal capacity of the container. There is no standard to ascertain this and it is
usually guess-estimated from the thickness of the walls of the containers. As explained in an
earlier section, the dimension, insulating material and insulation thickness determine the
thermal conductivity or thermal management capacity of fish containers. The Committee feels
that fish containers should be labelled accordingly to facilitate fish vendors with ease of use,
monitoring and purchase decisions. This should be specifically mandated for fish containers
that are provided through the aegis of government agencies to support the fish vendors.
Labelling thermal conductive values of the material used will not make relevant and easy sense
to the users. The standard used should be readily measurable and validated by the users
themselves. It is therefore suggested that a user-friendly method be instituted. This standard
should benchmark the time taken for ice to melt inside an enclosed container - the container
can be labelled by the number of hours it takes for the ice to melt.
Duration Index of Fish Containers: the number of hours it takes for ice to melt in the
container when the unit is placed in external ambient of 35 °C, where the volume of ice
placed in an empty container is one-fifth of the internal volume of the container.
Unlike the star-labelling of air-conditioners by BEE, which cannot be readily validated by

consumers, a simpler duration index benchmark that can be easily confirmed by users has
various benefits.
The concept is explained-
Fill the fish container with 1/5th of its holding capacity with ice (e.g., a 50-litre container to be
filled with 10 litres of ice, or 10 x 1-litre water bottles of ice). The container is then closed and
left in external temperature of 35 °C. The time taken to melt the ice fully will now depend on
the quality and thickness of the insulation. Say, it takes 5 hours, then the container’s duration
index should be labelled “5”. Users can then make relevant decisions to purchase a container
with duration index of 5, or 10 or 24, depending on their utility or their individual requirement
to hold fish under iced conditions.
Such empirical validation can easily be performed by the users and help the users select the
right kind of box, for the right cost and plan to minimise their ice requirements. The fish
container suppliers will also compete to optimise the duration index of the boxes with
appropriate materials. The user can also repeat such a test easily, at will, and then use the results
to make intelligent decisions to replace an aged container.
It may be noted, that a box with a duration index of 5, may hold a full load of iced fish at 0 °C
for a longer duration than 5 hours, since the duration index is a benchmark which is measured
with only one-fifth capacity with ice. However, the fish vendor has a base benchmark, which
s/he can easily reference and validate as per need.
40
The Committee also notes that, colloquially, the quality of a container is typically being gauged
by its empty weight – the convention being, the heavier the better. However, weight can be
misleading, as it can be artificially modified by mixing unnecessary heavy additives (which do
not add to its insulating properties). A laboratory test of the container material is normally
required to detect such ‘false” weight-adding additives. Similarly, the density of insulation used
can also vary without having any qualitative improvement.
The labelling of the “duration index” will resolve such issues and give control to the users/fish
vendors. A user-validated index will also onset the appropriate competition among
manufacturers of insulated containers and thermal jackets.
Key Extracts
• Fish containers are not merely for the physical containment of captured fish.
• Fish containers must also serve to retain the physical quality of the harvested fish
and safeguard the produce from external contaminants.
• Currently, small fish vendors use traditional baskets or metal vessels for handling
fish, which are non-insulated containers.
• Rigid plastic containers are commonly used for communicating fresh fish to distant
markets on trucks. Styrofoam boxes, discards of pharmaceutical industry, are also
in common use when fish is required to be held with ice for longer duration. These
are typically single use boxes.
• Non-biodegradable waste from Styrofoam boxes is attributed to fisheries sector,
though originating for use of health services industry.
• There is no differentiation between containers for marine fish or freshwater fish. The
container size (volumetric capacity) is the primary differentiator, selected to suit the
type of handling envisaged in the fresh fish supply chain.
• Key Parameters such as insulating property, skin material, cooling method define
the overall holding quality of fish containers.
• Fish containers should be covered (lidded) to prevent unnecessary exposure to open
environment with includes pathogenic and contaminating hazards.
• Instead of disrupting current practices of small lot fish vendors, thermally insulating
jackets can be used, to cover the produce held in open baskets or crates.
• Duration Index is a simplified method to quantify the qualitative parameters of fish
containers – measured by tie taken for ice to melt.
• Duration Index can be empirically validated by users to assess ageing, replacement
cycles and to intelligently select from the available container models.
41
Chapter 3:
Recommendations for Fish Handling Containers
Containers are used in the supply chain to facilitate efficient handling and marketing by fish vendors.
Fish vendors, typically require containers, first at the fish collection sites, for transportation of
fish and finally for the retail leg of the supply chain. The containers used to lift fish from fish
collection sites can also continue in use until the fish is retailed, however, this depends on the
operational model of the supply chain. The recommendations of this committee largely relate
to external design, material and insulating properties of the fish containers. For cooling, ice
remains the logical and prevalent medium, however, the committee also sees relevance in
suggesting the use of eutectic (PCM-based) cooling, including hybrid solutions where possible.
The use of appropriate containers assures that the fish being supplied is suitably packaged not
only to minimise losses in the supply chain but also to ensure that market connectivity is
reliable. The benefits are multi-fold, as not only more quantity of fish can be safely marketed,
but its quality is maintained to fetch an optimal price. Modern containers also improve the
scope to safely connect the fish produce with untapped demand and expand the market size to
match the expected growth in production.
Covered and insulated containers allow for a higher level of care and should be designed to-
a) Protect the fish from impact damage during handling

b) Provide easy handling of fish in desirable lots
c) Simplify the loading/unloading of fish at points of exchange
d) Simplify the transportation of fish
e) Contain the fish in the most suitable conditions to protect it from a harsh environment
f) Support organisation and standardisation in handling and marketing of fish
3.1. MATERIAL & DESIGN

The material and design of fish containers should facilitate the different handling solutions that
are deployed by the handlers. The type of handling solution depends on the model of each
supply chain. As a thumb-rule, short supply chains are those where the point of sale is within
30 km of the fish collection source. In such a situation, the fish is normally sourced at collection
sites by retailers directly; the total product life cycle is also short as the fresh fish is sold within
the same day.
In longer-duration supply chains, the retailer is a recipient at destination of a long transport leg
of the supply chain, usually longer than 3 hours travel, up to a few days away. The fish needs
to last for the entire duration, including a day or more at consumers’ kitchens. Here the need
for containers that can maintain fish at a temperature close to 0 °C, is greater.
42
• Fish containers / boxes must be suitable to handle fish with ice, and made of material
that is resistant to corrosion or degradation from salts and water. Equal Portions of Ice
and Fish for Storage and Transport for more than 24 Hours. For a few hours of transport,
ratio can be 1:2.
• Resistance towards UV degradation is also necessary. Made from UV Stabilized Food
Grade Virgin Polyethylene to ensure outdoor life of more than 10 Years.
• Other highly desirable material characteristics are impact and scratch resistance, and
anti-microbial properties.
• Containers should have smooth Inner surfaces with rounded edges and corners to
prevent the accretion of dirt, secretions and other substances in the tub. The surface
should be easy to clean.
• The structural integrity of the material depends on its thickness and structural design.
The material and design should suit the gross load, including during dynamic conditions
in practice. Usually, safe working load is assessed at three times the static load-bearing
capacity.
• Containers designed to be nestable should be able to withstand being over-stacked with
loaded containers up to 3-metre height for 8 hours without undergoing deformation.
The containers should be able to be over-stacked with or without a lid.
• Nestable containers must be designed such that the container bottom does not put
pressure on fish stowed in lower containers. The weight should be transmitted through
corner posts and a dented/curved base should ensure a safe gap is maintained from the
contents of the lower container.
• The surface of the box, especially inside, should be smooth and with rounded corners
and edges. Rounding up the edges along the walls enables better cleaning and hygiene.
• Inside the bottom of the container should be designed with spillways/ channels such
that melted water will collect below the fish. The design should incorporate at least one
drain hole as near the bottom as possible. Drain at a corner is easily accessible and helps
drain the ice-melt along with any bodily secretions. In small containers (say up to 20
litres in size), that can be safely upturned by a person, a drain hole may not be required.
• Wall thickness (internal and external) should be above 3 mm to ensure good impact
resistance and to make it durable for rough handling during transport. Between the
inside and external skin, a minimum 35 mm of insulation is suggested.
• Plastic boxes should be tested for durability in conditions where it is exposed to high
and low temperatures for an extended period of days, and submersion in solution of
industrial synthetic detergents and withstand washing with steam.
• Containers should have hand-holding facility – handles, lugs or indentations – to allow
safe handling (4 strong handles at 4 corners enable easy handling by 2 people). Heavier
containers can be designed for use with pallet lifters, with bottom slots for that purpose.
43
• Suitable securing arrangement on the lid of containers intended for storage can be
provided as an option. Rubber straps for locking ensure a tight lock but is sufficiently
flexible to prevent damage to the container when put under stress. Metal clamps or
butterfly bolts tend to communicate stress from the lid to main body and cause damage.
• Outside bottom should be ribbed and toughened to add durability because containers
are frequently pushed on floors for movement.
• Depending on need, containers can be embedded with a temperature gauge, installed
with wheels for rolling on-off (modern retail stores) and various other options.
Source: Internet
Sample design specifications of an insulated container with 70-litre gross volume:
A. Gross Volume: 70 litres

 Outer Dimensions Approx..:-L- 750 mm, W-483 mm, H-387 mm
 Storage Dimensions Approx..:- L- 681 mm, W-414 mm, H-293 mm (TOP)
 Weight:- 10.5 kg Approx..
 Average PUF Insulation:- 35 mm
 Lockable with Rubber Strip
 Drain Facility
 Grip Handle built into corners
 Stackable with and without lid
 Smooth rounded corners for prevention of
dirt collection
 Dimension Tolerance :- + / - 1.5 %
44
3.2. CONTAINERS FOR STREET RETAIL

Fish is commonly retailed by vendors at designated stalls or on traditionally earmarked
roadside locations. Such vendors have very short handling duration of the fish produce, a daily
ware for their livelihood. Small containers, designed to modernise such retail and keep the fish
safe for consumers, are recommended.
On the left, open metal tubs are in use, on right the fish vendor is using modern containers.
For such retailers, the source of Fish:

 Local Landing Centres or Local Fish Markets
Vending of Fish:
 Insulated Containers of 25 litres, 60 litres and 110 litres Capacity.
 Fish stored with crushed Ice in the Insulated Containers and Displayed on the top.
 The Containers provided with a Vending lid and Container locking facility.
 Fish Cutting Block and Waste Bin to be provided
Benefits:
 Fish is maintained at the right temperature
 Ensures hygienic handling free from flies, insects, dirt and rodents.
Sample dimensions and design for containers used for small retail storage:
Gross Volume: 117 litres
 Outer Dimensions Approx.:-L- 750 mm, W-585 mm, H-539 mm
 Storage Dimensions Approx.:- L- 650 mm, W-
485 mm, H-391 mm (TOP)
 Weight:- 17.5 kg Approx..
 Lockable with Stainless Steel Clamps
 Drain Facility
 Grip Handle provision
 Locking Hinge – inset for durability
45
Containers for merchandising – nested to form insulated carts for fish vending.
Cart designs- renderings by Design Directions
Vending cart – designed with nestable containers. Each container is a handling unit by itself.
When stacked on a mobile vending cart, they multiply the holding and selling capacity of the
fish vendor. The cart itself is designed with a collapsible canopy, which interlocks and secures
the entire unit against theft.
46
Cart designs- renderings by Design Directions
Vending carts can be static or mobile. The mobile units can be in the form of push-carts or
cycle-rickshaws.
Made of lightweight plastics, the vending carts should allow ease of handling by the vendor.
Appropriately designed fish vending carts can have chambers that handle both chilled and
frozen products.
The cooling system in such vending carts will need to be passive – with ice or with PCM
encapsulated in replaceable tablets. Alternately, they can also incorporate hybrid cooling,
where deemed necessary (as seen in the case of ice-cream vending carts).
Since a majority of fish vendors are womenfolk, mobile vending platforms can help greater
empowerment of such fisherwomen. It would allow them to portray a cleaner and modern
retailing image, help to expand their market radius and free them from site specific rentals.
47
Group ownership model – cooperatives or self-help groups can own insulated containers. Such
groups can be structured as per function in the supply chain such as group of fish retailers who
will need a specific heavy bodied type of container, versus a group of fish aggregators who
will want lighter containers for ease of transport, versus inland fish farms who will have their
own specific requirements.
48
3.3. INSULATION
• Highly cellular materials may form the insulation layer for the containers. A k-value
(thermal conductivity) higher than 0.05 W/m.K is not recommended. Due to
commercial and functional superiority, polyurethane foam (PUF) is recommended.
• The laminar geometry of the insulation should be such that it should seamlessly cover
the entire surface area around the fish (i.e., the inner walls, base and roof of the
container).
• Modern fish containers must integrate the insulation during the container fabrication
process. This is to ensure the integrity of the insulation, and to prevent permeation of
moisture into the insulation.
• Containers must be labelled with Duration Index to ease selection by fish vendors and
for testing the efficacy of containers. The index should be arrived by sealing the
container with 1/5th load of ice, and placing it in external ambient of 35 °C. The number
of hours taken for the ice to completely melt should be labelled as its duration index. A
standardised method to ascertain the insulation performance, especially one which
vendors/users can readily validate, will benefit this sector. Alternatively, the ISTA 7D
or 7E testing standards, as being used by the pharmaceutical sector may be considered.
• Duration Index does away with the need for keeping insulation thickness and material
as a criterion. Nevertheless, as a thumb-rule, where Polyurethane Foam (PUF) is used,
the PUF density should be 40 ± 2 kg/m3 (with thermal conductivity of ~0.023 w/m3.K)
and a minimum thickness of 35mm. Higher thickness will provide for a greater duration
index (higher thermal barrier). PUF has other standard properties of compressive/
bending/tensile strength, and fire class which will automatically apply.
3.3.1.1. Alternative insulation

To improve fish handling of existing non-insulated baskets, pots, boxes etc., the use of thermal
laminate covers (e.g., polynum insulating material) is recommended. These can be supported
in the form of jacketed covers which can be used as a thermal protection that envelopes the
outside of the existing containers. Such jackets can be fabricated to suit various shapes and
sizes, made of insulating flexible material which is tolerant to water exposure and preferably
with a reflective surface. This material is lightweight, tough and easy to clean.
49
Where the shape and size of crates or wicker baskets are standardised, such insulated covers or
thermal envelopes can also be developed to serve as an inner layer, versus enveloping the entire
containment unit. The images below are self-explanatory.
The size of the jacket (internal height) should be lower than the nesting rib such that when the
fish vendor stacks crates on top of each other the fish should not take the load.
50
Such inner thermal envelopes can also be developed for hand-crafted wicker baskets.
Images not actual – rendered by “Design Directions”
51
Such heat jackets should be manufactured by proper thermal welding and NOT stitched to
avoid unwanted pinhole leakages. Polynum material is unaffected by moisture and does not
delaminate or disintegrate with time. It is lightweight, thin and easy to work with. It is distinct
from other types of insulation materials, Polynum material is non-toxic, and completely safe to
use with food and other perishable products.
Such thermal envelopes will greatly boost the capability of existing traditional containers,
allow the use of ice to retain coolth, protect the raw fish from external pathogens and dust, and
allow a low-cost option to fish vendors who wish to hold fish for more than a few hours.
Appropriate subsidy support may be considered to incentivise the small fish vendors to
implement such insulating techniques.
3.4. COOLING
• Cooling with ice
The use of ice is well established and vendors have standardised experiences to rely
upon. The use of ice has other benefits too, as the ice-melt helps wash off the post-
mortem skin excretions and helps retains moisture. For this reason, a minimal amount
of ice is recommended when transporting fresh fish, even if another cooling system is
available. The amount of ice that can be used in insulated containers is mentioned in an
earlier section. However, the usage of ice has associated hazards, especially when
unsafe water is used for such uses. Furthermore, scarcity of water is foretold, with the
climate changes that are occurring. Therefore, some alternatives need to be investigated
and encouraged.
• Cooling with PCMs or Eutectic mixtures
o Within the construction of fish containers, PCMs should be positioned as close to the
wall as possible to minimise external heat ingress.
o In engineering the PCM cooling effect, phase change temperature, latent heat capacity
and choice of PCM chemistry (organic v/s salt hydrate) are the most important factors.
Since the phase change temperatures can be anywhere between 2℃ to 10℃ lower
than the control temperature of the payload, a thermal barrier should be installed to
prevent freezing contact with the payload.
o Contained within thin encapsulations like tablets, panels, bottles or similar, the total
thickness of the PCM layer, including skin thickness should not exceed 10 cm for the
most effective use of PCMs. The PCM should be provided in form factors that strictly
conform to the inner surface geometries of the payload box.
o PCM encapsulation should be of modular design, such that the encapsulations can be
installed flush against each other and create a uniform and seamless inner PCM
environment in the container. The designs should consider the easy removability of
the PCM encapsulations to facilitate cleaning and maintenance processes.
52
o Before use in fish transport, PCM requires to be “charged” or “activated”. This may
be achieved by subjecting the PCM to temperatures at least 10 ℃ lower than its phase
change temperature. The choice of charging temperatures may vary depending on the
cooling facility available, however, for charging to occur and effective rates, the
thermal gradient between the charging temperature and phase change temperatures
needs to be considerable.
o PCM charging requires access to active refrigeration systems such as conventional
cold rooms, plate freezers or chest freezers will be adequate to charge PCMs to handle
fresh fish.
o All the material selection guidelines that dictate the design and construction of the fish
containers also apply to PCM encapsulations, with the additional caveat that
encapsulation material should exhibit robust compatibility with the PCM chemistry
over the span of operation temperatures ± 20 ℃ for at least 1000 cycles.
o Some form of an indicator can be provided upon the individual PCM entities that
inform the user on whether the PCM is completely charged and ready for the intended
use. Such an indicator should also have a nominal operational life of 1000 cycles.
53
o The PCM formulation should be non-toxic, non-carcinogenic and non-flammable.

While the formulation will remain isolated from the fish because of containment, the
risk assessment of the container design should account for scenarios where the PCM
leaks into the payload environment and contaminates the fish, and the container
designer should formulate relevant mitigation and alerting strategies for the same.
o The fish container should be designed to have slots, grooves or guiding systems which
direct and hold the individual PCM components in the right place during the container
operation.
o If the PCM-based fish containers are to be used in tandem with crushed ice, explicit
instructions regarding the proper use and amount of ice should be conveyed by the
manufacturer to the container users. The duration index of the PCM container should
be specified in such cases for both ice-use and no ice- use scenarios.
• Hybrid cooling systems (Eutectic systems)
o When using embedded PCM in actively cooled containers, the construction should
be such that the PCM is positioned as close to the active cooling unit/element.
`
Insulation
Copper
PCM coils
o If periods of simultaneous cooling of PCM, as well as fish loads via active cooling,
are intended/required, then the cooling capacity of the active cooling system should
be sized by adding the cooling requirement (in watts) of the payload and the PCM and
adding a safety factor. If the PCM and active cooling systems are to be utilized
alternatively, then the cooling capacity of both PCM and active refrigeration should
correlate to fish cooling requirements.
54
Annexure - I
Container Usage in the non-industrial supply chain.

After fish is landed at collection site, the type of fish container that is used depends on the role
of the vendor in the supply chain, the handling facilities and the length (time) of supply chain.
Location Remarks
Sorting at Containers may be non-insulated and light weight (crates) for quick
Landing site handheld transfer to subsequent activity
Icing and Boxing Containers should be insulated, with laden weight such that two persons
can easily handle subsequent transfer. The height of containers should
be such that weight of ice does no crush fish. Size of container will vary
depending on whether moving for onwards transport to local retail or
for distant markets - e.g., intended for bicycle or rickshaw transfer to
nearby market or on trucks for inland markets
Loading on Containers should be liftable onto truck bed and over-stacking by two
Transport persons. Containers need not have lid, if over-stacking load serves as
top cover. It should facilitate easy re-icing when enroute and have with
option to drain water.
Transportation As above
Offloading As above
Sorting and Retailers may use own containers if receiving directly. Otherwise
Distribution to transport containers are segregated by load and distributed to retailers.
retail At last mile, the container should be properly insulated and re-iced.
Storing at Retail Depending on capacity of retailer. The container can be static and fitted
with eutectic or actively cooled refrigeration. Alternately, the small
vendor may use the same insulated container used to receive the catch
for storing his/her retail load until next supply cycle. Containers may
also be preferred with a securing or padlock arrangement.
Containers should not be made of material that is difficult to clean, i.e., bamboo baskets,
wooden boxes, etc. Unless the freshly caught fish will be sold and consumed within a few
hours, all containers used should be insulated against high temperatures and be able to protect
the fish from external pathogens, sunlight and unnecessary exposure to air.
Depending on the total time the fresh fish will spend in the supply chain, the insulation
thickness may vary, i.e., thinner or minimal insulation for fast selling produce in local market,
thicker insulation with longer duration index for produce that takes a few days to reach the
consumers.
The size of container should be consistent with the needs of the vendor / user – e.g., smaller
size is more useful for those selling fish on roadside. Containers owned by a group of vendors
can be bigger in size, however it should aid quick draining of melted ice.
55
Annexure-II
Suggested Questionnaire for users of Containers
Occupation/role of the User:
Describe the current fish container being used: material, shape, size, capacity?
Site where empty container is kept:
Beach landing site/market where fresh fish is purchased:
What is the empty and loaded weight of the container?
Is it insulated? Does it have a lid?
Does it have a latch or padlock?
Ownership of container - individual or group-owned?

If group, total number of members in a group: ____ #/Male, ____ #/Female
If group, does every group member have access to use the Container?
Do you find it easy to handle the container?

Who maintains the container (cleans it)?
What is average life of the container?
What cleaning process is used?
What type of fish is kept in the container?
List species & which is most important and why?
Is ice also used in the container?
What type of transport do you use to take fish to the market?
How long do you keep the fish in the container? with ice ____ and without ice ____
What is top reason for spoilage- temperature, handling damage, contamination.
Have you had fish stolen from your container?
Do their customers prefer fish that is stored on ice or without ice?
Do they over-stack their containers at vending location?
Are their containers nestable or designed for over-stacking?
Ask user to list benefits (free listing) of using existing container:

Ask user to list challenges (free listing) of using existing container:
How many days does your fish stay fresh using the container?
Will an insulated container help you access other (new) markets?
If yes, what new markets will you like to sell your fish at?
List the advantages of selling to a new market/customer
Your suggestions to improve the container (how would you build it differently) – size, type of
material, weight, cover, latch, side/top opening?
Questionnaire should extract quantifiable responses. Generic rating or ranking should be

avoided as these are subjective to individual’s exposure, understanding and interests.
56
Annexure-III
Fish carrying capacity of Containers when packed with Ice.
The fish carrying capacities of various containers depend on the density of the mixture of ice
and fish. Density of different types of ice is assessed as follows 1-
Type of ice Bulk weight Specific volume

kg/dm³ m³/ton
Crushed block 0.690 1.45
Tube 0.565 1.80
Plate 0.570 1.75
Flake 0.445 2.25
Fish to Ice ratios using different types of ice: assuming the average density of fish at 0.95 kg
per dm³ (1 litre) the density of 1 litre of ice and fish in a fish container will be as follows:
Type of ice Ice to fish ratio

1:1 1:2
Crushed block ice 0.82 kg 0.86 kg
Tube ice 0.75 kg 0.82 kg
Plate ice 0.76 kg 0.82 kg
Flake ice 0.70 kg 0.78 kg
Therefore, if using crushed block ice in a container, at above mentioned ice to fish ratio, the
total weight handled in a container will be-
Container Ice to Fish ratio Ice to Fish ratio

Volume 1:1 1:2
(litres) kg ice kg fish kg ice kg fish
25 8.6 11.9 5.8 15.8
50 17.3 23.8 11.5 31.7
100 34.5 47.5 23.0 63.3
150 51.8 71.3 34.5 95.0
300 103.5 142.5 69.0 190.0
It is obvious that where insulated containers are used to handle fish that is already cooled
down to 0 °C, a higher weight of fish can be carried by using 1:2 ice to fish ratio. In fact, if
the holding period is for only a few hours, even less ice would be required. Such assessment
is made easier for the fish vendors if fish containers are labelled with the “duration index” as
being recommended by the Committee.
1 Information extracted from FAO
57
Annexure-IV
Fish vending containers – sample dimensions
by Consta Cool Pvt Ltd. (www.consta.in)
A. Gross Volume: 100 litres – transport and holding container

• Outer Dimensions approx.:-L-807 mm, W-528 mm, H-435mm
• Storage Dimensions approx.:- L- 745, W-466mm, H-333mm (TOP)
• Weight:- 13.5 kg approx.
• Average PUF Insulation:- 35 mm
• Lockable with Rubber Strips
• Drain Facility
• Grip Handle - designed into each corner
• Stackable with and without lid
• Smooth rounded inside edges corners for
prevention of dirt collection
• Dimension Tolerance :- + / - 1.5 %
B. Gross Volume: 70 litres – transport and holding container

 Outer Dimensions approx.:-L- 750 mm, W-483 mm, H-387 mm
 Storage Dimensions approx.:- L- 681 mm, W-414 mm, H-293 mm (TOP)
 Weight:- 10.5 kg approx.
 Lockable with Rubber Strip
 Drain Facility
 Grip Handle built into corners
 Stackable with and without lid
 Smooth rounded corners for prevention of
dirt collection
C. Gross Volume: 295 litres – stocking and holding container

• Outer Dimensions approx. :-L-920 mm, W-714 mm, H-763 mm
• Storage Dimensions approx. :- L- 863 mm, W-
657 mm, H-568 mm (TOP)
• Weight :- 31.0 kg approx.
• Average PUF Insulation :- 40 mm
• Lockable with Rubber Strip
• Drain Facility
• Grip Handle provision
• Specially designed Handle & Corner
58
D. Gross Volume: 600 litres – stocking & holding container

• Outer Dimensions Approx. :-L-1225
mm, W-1030 mm, H-817 mm
• Storage Dimensions approx. :- L- 1162
mm, W-967 mm, H-589 mm (TOP)
• Weight :- 62.5 kg approx.
• Average PUF Insulation :- 45 mm
• Lockable with Rubber Strip
• Drain Facility
• Grip Handle provision
E. Gross Volume: 117 litres – retail-end stocking container

 Outer Dimensions approx.:-L- 750 mm, W-
585 mm, H-539 mm
 Storage Dimensions Approx.:- L- 650 mm, W-
485 mm, H-391 mm (TOP)
 Weight:- 17.5 kg approx.
 Drain Facility
F. Gross Volume: 63 litres – retail-end stocking container

 Outer Dimensions approx. :-L- 645 mm, W-483 mm, H-465 mm
 Storage Dimensions approx. :- L- 505 mm, W-368 mm, H-346 mm (TOP)
 Weight :- 8.6 kg approx.
 Average PUF Insulation :- 35-40 mm
Approx
 Drain Facility
59
60
Annexure-V
Examples of PCM uses in other thermal management

Information from product developer - Pluss Advanced Technologies Ltd. (www.pluss.co.in)
Product name Target applications Impact
MassEffekt™ -Addition PCM-filled HDPE bottles • Reduces energy consumption of the

of thermal mass to induce (encapsulation) for cold refrigeration system by up to 25 per cent.
indoor thermal efficiency storage/warehouse
• Provides a high return on investment (ROI)
with payback less than three years.
• Improves temperature stability.
• Reduces dependency on a power source.
• Reduces requirement of fossil fuel based
back-up.
• Shifts peak power loads to off-peak hours.
PronGo® - Part load Insulated box with PCM- • Aims to replace single-use non-recyclable
shipper solutions filled bottles/pouches for solutions, reducing the wastage created by
transportation single-use EPS and gel packs and driving
down the overall supply chain costs and
driving circularity.
• Mitigates product loss
• Enables part-load shipment, so that products
that need different temperatures can be
shipped together in the same vehicle,
leveraging the box-level temperature
difference.
• Increases the distribution radius with higher
temperature back-up.
Himacool® Active heat-exchangers • ThermoTab™ active PCM plates maintain the
filled with PCMs, electric temperature inside the cold room for 18 to 20
Off-grid PCM based Solar
refrigeration unit, solar PV hours.
Cold Room
panel and accessories
• Reduced diesel consumption.
• Grid-independent, renewable energy solution,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Reduced food loss up to 80 per cent;
expanded shelf life up to 10 days; increased
income for farmers.
• Overall cost reduction in supply chain, from
farm to market.
61
Product name Target applications Impact
Celsure® Temperature validated and • High performance shipper boxes enabling up

pre-qualified complete to 150 hrs of temperature backup
Vaccine and pharma
shipper boxes
product transportation • Option of designs available to offer both
single-use and reusable solutions.
• Ensure precise and accurate temperature
control within very closed tolerances.
Chest freezer & coolers Chest freezer and coolers • Provides 12-16 hours of back-up.
with thermal energy integrated with PCM
storage to increase energy • Reduced food loss/waste; increased income
efficiency for farmers.
• Helps with load balancing and peak shaving
during high demand periods.
• Energy cost savings up to 2,640 Indian rupees
per month due to reduced use of diesel during
power outages (assuming outage of 16 hours a
day).
PCM-based reefer truck to Active heat-exchangers • ThermoTab™ active PCM plates maintain the
electrify refrigeration filled with PCMs, electric temperature inside the container for 10 to 12
refrigeration unit hours.
• Provides 100 per cent fossil fuel-free
refrigeration during transport, reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Reduced food loss; increased income for
farmers.
• Improved market connectivity for farmers.
• Reduces operational costs up to 90 per cent.
62

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Recommendations of the

Supporting handling of Fresh Fish Produce by Vendors in the Domestic

“Design Improvements in Storage Containers Used by

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FISH CONTAINERS.................................................... 8

This Expert Committee to “Recommend Design Improvements in Storage

1.1.1. Fish production and consumption trends

Figure 1: Growth in Fish Production

Source: Department of Fisheries, GoI

1.1.2. Fresh fish delivery to markets

Source: Committee members

1.1.3. Study by NPC

1.2. ABOUT THE EXPERT COMMITTEE

i. ease of handling in the supply chain,

c) Any other related recommendations.

1.2.1. Members of the Committee

Mr Swetang Dave: Managing Director – Consta Cool Pvt. Ltd., a leading

Mr Samit Jain: Managing Director – PLUSS Advanced Technologies Pvt. Ltd., an

1.2.2. Purview of Expert Committee

2.1. BRIEF ON FISH COLD-CHAIN

2.1.1. Chilled or Fresh Fish

2.1.2. Frozen or Processed Fish

2.1.3. Storing Fish

2.1.4. Transporting Fish

2.1.5. Retail end

2.2. MARKETING PRACTICES

Figure 3: Iced crates in open truck and Flake-ice replenishment

Source: Committee members

Figure 4: Open display at retail-end

Source: Committee members

2.2.1. Reasons for Spoilage of Fish

a. Autolysis- relates to enzymatic activities in fish, or self-digestion process which

2.3. DESIGNING CONTAINERS FOR HANDLING FISH

i.e., uncontrolled temperature and external contaminants, is during transportation to terminal

2.3.1. Thermal Insulation

- Thickness of the insulating material (d)

Figure 5: Heat transfer - Thermal conductivity

Source: Guidelines & minimum System Standards for Cold-chain, NCCD

Table 1: Standard material specifications of PUF

2.3.2. Container Shape and Material

Figure 6: Surface area of container shapes

Volume: 20 litres Volume: 20 litres Volume: 20 litres

2.3.3. Cooling Method

2.3.3.1. Passive Cooling

Table 3: Ice to chill 1 kg of fish

An appreciable secondary advantage of using crushed/chipped/flaked ice, is that it allows the

Behaviour of Ice and Phase Change Material (PCM)

Figure 7: Behaviour of material on transfer of thermal energy

A material has 3 basic phases of matter

When it changes from one phase to the

Until the phase change is completed, its

Source: Committee members

Table 4: Comparison of Ice and PCMs with respect to fish transport

Criteria Ice PCM

2.3.3.2. Active Cooling

𝑘𝑘. 𝐴𝐴. Δ𝑇𝑇

2.3.3.3. Hybrid cooling

Figure 8: Mobile hybrid-cooled vending container

Cross section of Container integrated with

Source: Consta Cool

2.3.4. Handling facility

2.3.5. Food safety & Hygiene practices

2.4. FISH CONTAINERS IN USE BY VENDORS

Source: NPC Agribusiness team

Source: NPC Agribusiness team