The Protists

Learning Outcomes
• Note the protozoan characteristics that illustrate why they are
informally placed into a single group.
• List three means of locomotion exhibited by protozoa.
• Explain why a cyst stage may be useful in a protozoan.
• Give an example of a human disease caused by each of the
four types of protozoa.

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 The Protists

Protist: any eukaryotic, unicellular or colonial organism

that lacks true tissues

Algae and protozoa have been traditionally combined

into the Kingdom Protista

• Subkingdom Algae
• Subkingdom Protozoa

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The Algae: Photosynthetic Protists
Group of photosynthetic organisms
• Seaweed and kelp are the most recognizable (large,
multicellular)
• Found in ocean, shore, wet rocks, ponds, soil and trees with
sufficient moisture.
• Widespread inhabitants of fresh water & marine water (found
in cool temperature of water)
• Algae is the main component of the floating community of
microscopic organisms called PLANKTON
• Essential role in the aquatic food web
• Produce most of the earth’s oxygen

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The Algae: Photosynthetic Protists

Algae is NOT a plant.

Phycology/Algology is the study of algae
Phycologists/Algologist is the person who studies algae

4
 Characteristics of Algae
- Unicellular, colonial, filamentous organism
- Have simple organs & all eukaryotic organelles (cytoplasm, cell
membrane, cell wall-cellulose, nucleus, plastids, ribosomes,
mitochondria, Golgi complex)
- They also have PELLICLE (thickened cell membrane), STIGMA
(“eye spot” a light sensing organelle) & FLAGELLA
- Most prominent structure is the CHLOROPLAST containing the
green pigment CHLOROPHYLL
- Also contains other photosynthetic pigment that create other
colors of red, brown & yellow
- Vary in size from tiny microscopic (diatoms, dinoflagellates &
desmids) to large multicellular plantlike seaweeds & kelps
- their location depend on availability of nutrients, wavelength of
light & surfaces where they can grow

5
 The Algae
• Although they are not plants, algae are more plantlike than
protozoa
• Algae produce their energy by photosynthesis, using energy
from the sun, carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic nutrients
from the soil to build cellular material.
• Most algal cell walls contain cellulose- a polysaccharide not
found in cell walls of any microorganisms

6
Vegetative Structure of Algae
Thallus/Thalli
▪ is the body of a multicellular alga (seaweed)
▪ Made up of branched holdfast (anchor alga to rock),
stemlike & hollow stipes & leaflike blades
▪ Cells covering thallus can carry out photosynthesis
▪ Thallus lack conductive tissue (xylem & phloem)
characteristics of vascular plants; algae absorb
nutrients from water over entire surface
▪ Algae are also buoyed by a floating gas-filled bladder
called pneumatocyst

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Life cycle
▪ All algae can reproduce asexually
▪ Multicellular algae with thalli & filamentous forms can
fragment, each piece is capable of forming a new
thallus or filament
▪ Algae can also reproduce sexually
▪ Asexual reproduction may occur in several generations
& then under different conditions, same species
reproduce sexually

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 The Algae
Brown algae or kelp
- are macroscopic & may reach lengths of 50m.
- most are found in coastal water
- Algin, a thickener used in many food is extracted from their cell wall
- Laminaria japonica is used to induce vaginal dilation before surgical entry into uterus
through vagina
Red algae
- Have delicately branched thalli and can live in greater ocean depths than other algae
- The red pigments enable red algae to absorb the blue light that penetrates deepest into the
ocean.
Green algae
- Have cellulose cell walls, contain chlorophyll & store starch as plants do
- Most green algae are microscopic, although they may either be unicellular or multicellular

10
 The Algae

Diatoms
- Are tiny, unicellular algae that live in both freshwater and
seawater.
- They are important members of the phytoplankton.
- Diatoms have silicon dioxide in their cell walls; thus, they have
cell walls made of glass.
- Deposits of diatoms are used to make diatomaceous earth
(consisting of fossilized remains of diatoms), which is used in
filtration systems, insulation, and abrasives.

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 The Algae
Dinoflagellates
- are microscopic, unicellular, flagellated, often photosynthetic
algae.
- Like diatoms, they are important members of the
phytoplankton, producing much of the oxygen in our
atmosphere and serving as important links in food chains.
- Some dinoflagellates produce light and are sometimes
referred to as fire algae.
- Dinoflagellates are responsible for what are known as “red
tides”

12
 The Algae
Green algae include desmids, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, and
Euglena, all of which can be found in pond water.

Desmids are unicellular algae, some of which resemble a microscopic banana.

Spirogyra is an example of a filamentous alga, often producing long green
strands in pond water.
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular, bi-flagellated alga, containing one chloroplast
and a stigma.
Volvox is a multicellular alga (sometimes referred to as a colonial alga or
colony), consisting of as many as 60,000 interconnected, bi-flagellated cells,
arranged to form a hollow sphere. The flagella beat in a coordinated manner,
causing the Volvox colony to move through the water in a rolling motion.

13
 The Algae
Euglena possesses features present in both algae and protozoa.
- Like algae, Euglena contains chloroplasts.
- Protozoan features include the presence of a primitive mouth (called
a cytostome) and the absence of a cell wall (hence, no cellulose).
- Euglena possesses a photo sensing organelle called a stigma and a
single flagellum. With its stigma, it can sense light; with its flagellum, it
can swim into the light.
- Although it has no cell wall, Euglena does possess a pellicle, which
serves the same function as a cell wall—protection.

14
The Algae

15
The Algae

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 The Algae
Important Contribution:
- Algae are an important source of food, iodine and other
minerals, fertilizers, emulsifiers for pudding, and stabilizers for
ice cream and salad dressings (Algin)
- They are also used as a gelling agent for jams and nutrient
media for bacterial growth.
- Because algae are nearly 50% oil, scientists are studying them
as a source of biofuels.
- The agar used as a solidifying agent in laboratory culture media
is a complex polysaccharide derived from a red marine alga.

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 Medical Significance
Algae are only a very rare cause of human infections. The primary medical threat is due
to food poisoning caused by toxins of certain marine algae.
RED TIDE is caused by overgrowth of motile algae imparting a brilliant red color to the
water.
Harmful algal blooms, or HABs, occur when colonies of algae grow out of
control while producing toxic or harmful effects on people, fish, shellfish, marine
mammals, and birds.
It causes Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning which is marked by severe
neurological symptoms and is fatal.
Ciguatera is another intoxication caused by algal toxins that have accumulated in fish
(bass & mackerel)
Prototheca, one genus of algae cause infections to human causing disease called
Protothecosis.
Prototheca lives in soil and can enter wounds especially on lower extremities. If
organism enters lymphatics, it can lead to fatal infection.

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Common Pond Water Algae & Protozoa

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 Protozoa
• Are eukaryotic organisms that together with algae are
classified in the kingdom PROTISTA
• The protozoa include about 65,000 species
• Most members are harmless inhabitants of the water and soil
• A few species are parasites responsible for hundred of millions
of infections in humans per year
• Most protozoa are single-celled (unicellular)
• Size range from 3-2,000µm
• More animal like than plant like
• PROTOZOOLOGY is the study of protozoa
• PROTOZOOLOGIST is the person who studies protozoa

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 Protozoan Form and Function

Single cells containing all major eukaryotic organelles

except chloroplasts
Organelles can be highly specialized into structures
analogous to:
• Mouths
• Digestive systems
• Reproductive tracts
• Legs—means of locomotion

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 Protozoan Form and Function

• Cytoplasm is divided into a clear outer layer called

ectoplasm (involved in locomotion, feeding,
protection) & endoplasm (granular inner region that
houses nucleus, mitochondria, contractile vacuole)

• Lack cell wall flexible, cell shape can remain

constant as in ciliates or change constantly as in
amoebas

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 Protozoan Form and Function

• Some protozoans possess pellicle (serve as cell wall for

protection), cytostomes (primitive mouth), contractile
vacuole, pseudopodia, cilia & flagella
• Paramecium (common pond water ciliates) possess both
pellicle & cytostome
• Amoeba & Paramecium contain organelle called
contractile vacuole which pumps water out of the cell.

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 Nutritional Habitat and Range
Heterotrophic and require their food in complex
organic form
Free-living species:
• Scavenge dead plant or animal debris
• Graze on live cells of bacteria and algae
• Some absorb food directly through cell membrane
Parasitic species:
• Live on fluids of the host such as plasma and digestive juices
• May actively feed on tissues
• Many parasitic protozoa are pathogens causing malaria,
giardiasis, African sleeping sickness and amoebic dysentery

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 Nutritional Habitat and Range
• Protozoa live on wide range of habitat, their limiting factor is the
availability of moisture
• Predominant habitat:
- Fresh & marine water
- Soil
- Plants
- Animals
- Extreme temperature & pH is not a barrier to their existence
❑Other protozoa coexist with host animal in a mutualistic
relationship (termite and its intestinal protozoa)

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 Styles of Locomotion

Pseudopods (“false feet”)

• Blunt, branched or long & pointed
• Flowing action of pseudopods results in amoeboid motion
• Also serve as feeding structures for Amoebas, they surround particle
with pseudopodia, which then fuse together (phagocytosis)

Flagella:
• Vary in number from one to several
• Exhibit a wavelike motion
• In some species, it is attached along the length of cell by an
extension of cytoplasmic membrane called undulating membrane

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 Styles of Locomotion

Cilia:
• Hair-like projections distributed over the entire surface of the
cell in characteristic pattern
• Cilia exhibit an oarlike motion
• Because of the tremendous variety in ciliary arrangements and
functions, ciliates are among the most complex & diverse cell
• In certain protozoa, it line anal groove & function in feeding
• In others, they fuse together to form stiff props that serve as
primitive rows of walking legs

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Four Types of Locomotion in Protozoa

(a) CDC/Dr. Stan Erlandsen; (b) © Stephen Durr RF; (c) © Oxford Scientific/Photodisc/Getty Images RF; (d) Courtesy Michael W. Riggs Jump to long description

28
 Feeding and Dormant Stages
Trophozoite:
• Motile, feeding, dividing stage
• Requires ample food and moisture to remain active

Cyst:
• Dormant, resting, survival stage
• Formed when conditions become unfavorable for growth and
feeding (like bacterial spores)
• During encystment, trophozoite cell rounds up into sphere,
ectoplasm secretes a tough, thick cuticle around cell
membrane
• More resistant to heat, drying & chemical
• If with moisture, cyst breaks open & releases active
trophozoite
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 Feeding and Dormant Stages

• Can be dispersed by air current which is an important factor in

spread of disease
• Both the cyst and trophozoite form of pathogenic protozoa can
be identified through O & P (ova & parasite) testing of patient
stool sample
• O&P testing combined with immunology-based test used for
disease diagnosis in cases of Giardiasis & Cryptosporidiosis.

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General Life Cycle Exhibited by Many Protozoa

CDC/Dr.Stan Erlandsen
Jump to long description
31
• Some protozoa are parasites
• Parasitic protozoa breaks down & absorb nutrients from the
body of the host in which they live.
• Many parasitic protozoa are pathogens, such as those that
cause Malaria, Giardiasis, African sleeping sickness, and
Amoebic dysentery.
• Other protozoa coexist with the host animal in a type of
mutualistic symbiotic relationship—a relationship in which
both organisms benefit. A typical example of such a symbiotic
relationship is the termite and its intestinal protozoa.

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 Life Cycles and Reproduction
Life cycles vary from simple to complex
• Some protozoa groups exist only in trophozoite state
• Many types alternate between trophozoite and cyst stage
depending on the conditions of the habitat
• Life cycle dictates the mode of transmission
• Trichomonas vaginalis causes STI. Because it does not form
cysts, it is more delicate and must be transmitted by
intimate contact between sexual partners. In contrast,
intestinal pathogens such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia
lamblia form cysts and are readily transmitted in
contaminated water & food.

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 Life Cycles and Reproduction

Protozoan reproduction:
• Simple, asexual methods, usually mitosis
• Several parasitic species reproduce by multiple fission or
schizogony inside a host (agents of malaria & toxoplasmosis)
• Sexual reproduction (ciliates) also occurs through conjugation
• Conjugation: form of genetic exchange between two cells
wherein they exchange micronuclei giving rise to new &
different genetic combination
• Many protozoa engulf toxic bacteria & maintain them in their
cytoplasm making them toxic too.

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 Classification of Selected Protozoa (1)
Those that use flagella to move: Those using amoeboid motion to move:
• Flagella alone or both flagellar and • Primarily amoeba
amoeboid motion • Use pseudopods for locomotion
• Single nucleus • Asexual reproduction by fission
• Sexual reproduction by syngamy (division • Have external shell; mostly uninucleate
by longitudinal fission)
• Usually encyst
• Form cysts and are free-living
• Most amoebas are free-living and not
• Some species found in loose aggregates or infectious
colonies, most are solitary
• Entamoeba histolytica, medically important
• Includes Trichomonas vaginalis causing amoebiasis
(Trichomoniasis), Giardia lamblia
(Gardiasis), Trypanosoma cruzi (Changas
disease), Trypanosoma brucei (African
Sleeping Sickness)

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 Classification of Selected Protozoa (2)
Those using cilia to move:
• Trophozoites are motile due to cilia
• Some have cilia in tufts for feeding and
attachment
• Most develop cysts
• Have macronuclei and micronuclei
• Division by transverse fission
• Most have definite mouth and feeding
organelle
• Free-living and harmless
• Most complex of all types
• Balantidium coli causes dysentery (only
ciliated protozoa causing disease in humans)
• Paramecium, Stentor, Blepharisma are
examples of pond water ciliates
Those with no motility (Sporozoa):
• Motility absent in most representatives
• Complex life cycles with well-developed asexual
and sexual stages
• Entire group is parasitic
• Most important sporozoan pathogen is
Plasmodium causing malaria
• Sporozoa produce spores like cells of
sporozoites which also exhibit unique form of
gliding motility
• Most sporozoan forms thick-walled zygotes
called oocysts.
• Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis)
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37
 Protozoan Identification and Cultivation

Most protozoa can be identified to the level of genus

because of their unique appearance
Considerations in identification:
• Shape and size of cell
• Type, number, and distribution of locomotor structures
• Presence of special organelles or cysts
• Number of nuclei

Blood, sputum, cerebrospinal fluid, fecal, or vaginal

specimens smeared on a slide w/ or w/o staining
May also be cultivated on artificial media or in laboratory
animals for study

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 Important Protozoan Pathogens (1)

• Parasitology: study of protozoa and helminths

• Parasite: term most often used to denote protozoan
and helminth pathogens

Amoeboid Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis (intestinal Humans, water and
and other symptoms) food
Naegleria, Brain infection Free-living in water
Acanthamoeba

Ciliated Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Balantidium coli Balantidiosis Pigs, cattle
(intestinal and other
symptoms)

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Important Protozoan Pathogens (2)
Flagellated Protozoa
Giardia lamblia
Trichomonas vaginalis
Trypanosoma brucei, T. cruzi
Leishmania donovani,
L. tropica, L. brasiliensis
Nonmotile Protozoa
Plasmodium vivax,
P. falciparum, P. Malariae
Toxoplasma gondii
Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora cayetanensis
Disease Reservoir/Source
Giardiasis (intestinal distress) Animals, water and food
Trichomoniasis (vaginal Human
symptoms)
Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Animals, vector-borne
sickness and Chagas disease)
Leishmaniasis (either skin Animals, vector-borne
lesions or widespread
involvement of internal
organs)
Disease Reservoir/Source
Malaria (cardiovascular and Human, vector-borne
other symptoms)
Toxoplasmosis (flulike illness) Animals, vector-borne
Cryptosporidiosis (intestinal Free-living, water, food
and other symptoms)
Cyclosporiasis (intestinal and Water, fresh produce
other symptoms)
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 Pathogenic Flagellates: Trypanosomes

• Trypanosoma brucei: African Sleeping Sickness

• Trypanosoma cruzi: Chagas disease
• Long, crescent-shaped cells with a single flagellum
• Both found in the blood during infection
• Both transmitted by blood-sucking vectors

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 The Parasitic Helminths

Learning Outcomes
• List the two major groups of helminths and provide examples
representing each body type.
• Summarize the stages of a typical helminth life cycle.

42
 The Parasitic Helminths
Tapeworms & Flukes
Roundworms
Usually large enough to be seen
with the naked eye:
• 1 mm to 25 m in length
• Roundworm < 1mm
• Longest tapeworm 25m
• Considered microorganism
because microscope is needed
to identify their eggs & larvae (a) CDC; (b) © Clouds Hill Imaging Ltd./Science Source

Jump to long description

43
2 Major groups of parasitic helminths (based on
body type)
1. Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes)
- Thin segmented body plan, dorsoventrally flattened

2. Roundworms (Phylum Aschelminthes/Nematodes)

- long, cylindrical, unsegmented body

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 2 Subdivisions of Flatworm

a. Cestodes/ Tapeworms
- long, ribbon-like arrangement
- dorsoventrally flattened

b. Trematodes/ Flukes
- flat, oval bodies, leaf-shaped
with ventral & oral sucker

❖Not all flatworms and roundworms are parasites by nature; many live free in soil
and water.
❖Most disease-causing helminths spend part of their lives in the gastrointestinal
tract.

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Nematodes/Roundworms
▪ Cylindrical and tapered at each end
▪ Have a complete digestive system consisting of a mouth,
intestine and anus.
▪ Males are smaller than females & have one or two
hardened spicules (mating structure) on posterior ends
▪ Some species are free living in soil and water, others are
parasites of plants & animals
▪ Intestinal roundworms are the most common causes of
chronic infectious diseases (Ascaris, hookworms,
whipworms)

46
 General Worm Morphology

Multicellular animals with some organs and organ systems

• Reproductive tract is the most developed part
• Primitive digestive, excretory, nervous, and muscular systems
• In particular groups, such as the cestodes, reproduction is
so dominant that the worms are reduced to little more
than a series of flattened sacs filled with ovaries, testes,
and eggs
• Most worms have thick cuticles for protection
• Mouth glands for breaking down the host’s tissue

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Life Cycles and Reproduction (1)
Complete life cycle:
• Fertilized egg (embryo)
• Larval stage
• Adult stage
Majority of helminths derive nutrients and reproduce sexually
in the host’s body
Nematodes: sexes are separate & have different
morphologies
Trematodes: sexes can either be separate or hermaphroditic-
male and female sex organs in the same worm
Cestodes: generally hermaphroditic

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Life Cycles and Reproduction (2)
General life cycle:
• Transmission of an egg or larva to the body of another host,
either different or the same species
• Intermediate (secondary) host: the host in which larval
development occurs
• Definitive (final) host: host in which adulthood and mating
occur
• Transport host: is an intermediate host that experiences no
parasitic development but is an essential link in the
completion of the cycle.

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Life Cycles and Reproduction (3)
Sources for human infection:
• Food, soil, water, infected animals

Routes of infection:
• Oral intake or penetration of unbroken skin

Humans are the definitive hosts for many species and

the sole biological reservoir for about half of the
diseases
• Animals or insect vectors also serve as reservoirs
• In the majority of helminth infections, the worms must leave
their host to complete the entire life cycle.

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Transmission of Helminth Diseases (1)
Roundworms–Nematodes Common Name of Host Requirement Spread to Humans By
Disease or Worm
Intestinal Nematodes
Infective in egg (embryo)
stage:
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis Humans Ingestion
Enterobius vermicularis Pinworm Humans Fecal pollution of soil
with eggs
Infective in larval stage: Close contact
Trichinella spiralis Trichina worm Pigs, wild mammals Consumption of meat
containing larvae
Tissue Nematodes Burrowing of larva into
tissue
Onchocerca volvulus River blindness Humans, black flies Fly bite
Dracunculus medinensis Guinea worm Humans and Cyclops Ingestion of water
(an aquatic containing Cyclops
invertebrate)

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 Transmission of Helminth Diseases (2)

Flatworms Common Name of Host Requirement Spread to Humans By

Disease or Worm
Trematodes
Schistosoma japonicum Blood fluke Humans and snails Ingestion of freshwater
containing larval stage
Cestodes
Taenia solium Pork tapeworm Humans, swine Consumption of
undercooked or raw pork
Diphyllobothrium latum Fish tapeworm Humans, fish Consumption of
undercooked or raw fish

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 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm

Enterobius vermicularis
• Causes a very common infestation of the large intestine
• Worms range from 2 to 12 mm long
• Tapered, curved cylinder shape
• Causes Enterobiasis which is simple, uncomplicated
infection that does not spread beyond the intestine.
Enterobiasis occurs most often among families and other
close living situations. It affects children frequently.

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Life Cycle of the Pinworm, a Roundworm

Jump to long description

54
Helminth Classification and Identification
Classification criteria:
• Shape
• Size
• Degree of development of
organs
• Presence of hooks, suckers,
other special structures
• Mode of reproduction
• Kinds of hosts
• Appearance of eggs and
larvae
Identification:
• Microscopic detection of
adult worm, larvae, or eggs
• Often have distinctive
shapes or external and
internal structures
• Occasionally cultured to
verify all life stages
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Distribution and Importance of Parasitic Worms
About 50 species of helminths parasitize humans
• Distributed in all areas of the world that support human life
• May be geographically restricted; higher incidence in tropical areas
Yearly estimate of worldwide case numbers in the
billions
• Conservative estimate of 50 million infections in North America

Humans evolved in the constant presence of helminths

• Only recently have humans evolved into a “helminth-free” existence

• Absence of helminth infections may contribute to autoimmunity and

allergy

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Variation Among Eukaryotes
Protozoa Fungi Algae Helminths Humans
Level of Always Unicellular/Mu Unicellular/Mu Multicellular Multicellular
complexity unicellular lticellular lticellular (adults),
Unicellular
(ova, larva)
Cell wall None Chitin or Cellulose None None
cellulose
Cytoplasm Divided Not divided Not divided Not divided Not divided
(endoplasm/ec
toplasm)
Nutritional Heterotrophic/ Heterotrophic Heterotrophic/ Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
type Autotrophic Autotrophic
Motility Flagella, cilia, Flagella Flagella Flagella Limbs
pseudopodia, (gametes) (gametes) (gametes)
or none
Important Cysts Hyphae/spores Chloroplasts Ova None
structures for
identification

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