The Kingdom of the Fungi

Learning Outcomes
• List three general features of fungal anatomy.
• Differentiate among the terms heterotroph, saprobe, and
parasite.
• Explain the relationship between fungal hyphae and the
production of a mycelium.
• Describe two ways in which fungal spores arise.
• List two detrimental and two beneficial activities of fungi (from
the viewpoint of humans).

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 The Kingdom Fungi
MYCOLOGY is the study of fungi
MYCOLOGIST is the person who studies fungi
Approximately 5 million species of fungi can be divided into two
groups:
• Macroscopic fungi: mushrooms, puffballs, gill fungi

• Microscopic fungi: molds, yeasts

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 The Kingdom Fungi

Majority of fungi are either unicellular or colonial

Few forms such as mushrooms & puffballs are multicellular
YEAST is unicellular
MOLD is multicellular

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Microscopic Morphology
a. Yeast cell:
• Round to oval shape

• Uses asexual reproduction

• Grows swelling on its surface called buds that become separate cell

b. Hyphae:

• Long, thread-like cells found in filamentous fungi or molds

• It intertwine to form a mass called mycelium or thallus

• Pseudohyphae: chains of yeast

Dimorphic:

• Some fungi can take either form

• Most noticeable among pathogenic species

• Temperature dependent 37C (yeastlike), 25C (moldlike)

(a-b) Courtesy Dr. Judy A. Murphy

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Microscopic Morphology of Yeasts

© Science Photo Library RF/Getty Images RF Jump to long description

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 Fungal Nutrition

Heterotrophic:
• Acquire nutrients from a wide variety of substrates

Saprobes:
• Obtain substrates from dead plants and animals

Parasites:
• Live on the bodies of living animals or plants

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Nutritional Sources (Substrates) for Fungi

(a) © Katthy Park Talaro; (b) CDC

Jump to long description

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 Fungal Nutrition

Saprophytic Fungi (Garbage Disposers of Nature/Vultures of

Microbial World)
- Main source of food is dead & decaying matter
- By secreting digestive enzyme into dead plants/animal matter,
they decompose this material into absorbable nutrients.

❖All saprophytes are decomposers but not all decomposers are

saprophytes

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 Fungi
- Fungi are found in nutritionally poor or adverse environment
- They thrive in substrates with high salt or sugar content, high temperature
& even in snow & glaciers
- Their medical and agricultural impact is extensive
- They are not plants, fungal cell wall contain polysaccharide called CHITIN.
- They are also not photosynthetic, they have no chlorophyll
- Most fungi are unicellular (yeast and microsporidia)

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 Organization of Microscopic Fungi

Most microscopic fungi grow in loose associations or colonies

• Mycelium: the woven, intertwining mass of hyphae that makes up the
body or colony of a mold
• Septa: cross walls dividing hyphae into segments
• Septated hyphae- varies from solid partitions with no communications between
compartments to partial walls with small pores that allow flow of organelles &
nutrients between adjacent compartments
• Non-Septated/Aseptate- consist of 1 long, continuous cell not divided into
individual compartments by cross walls. Cytoplasm & organelles are freely
moving.

• Spores: fungal reproductive bodies

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 Functional Types of Hyphae

1. Vegetative (Mycelia)
- Responsible for visible mass of growth that appears in the
surface of substrate & penetrates it to digest & absorb nutrients
- This species also has special anchoring structures called rhizoids

2. Reproductive/Fertile
- Responsible for the production of fungal reproductive bodies
called spores

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Functional Types of Hyphae Using the Mold
Rhizopus as an Example

© Richard Hutchings/McGraw-Hill Education

Jump to long description
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 Reproductive Strategies
and Spore Formation
Fungi have many complex and successful reproductive strategies
• Simple outward growth of existing hyphae
• Fragmentation: separated piece of mycelium can generate a whole new
colony
• Primary reproductive mode: spore formation

*Fungal spores should not be confused with the more resistant,

nonreproductive bacterial endospores

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 Asexual Spore Formation
Sporangiospores:
• Formed by successive cleavages within a sporangium attached to a stalk
called sporangiophore

Conidiospores or Conidia:
• Free spores not enclosed by a spore-bearing sac
• Developed either by pinching off the tip of fertile hyphae or by
segmentation of pre-existing vegetative hypha.
• Unicellular or multicellular spore
• Conidia are produced in a chain at the end of conidiosphore
• Such spore are produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus

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 Asexual Spore Formation
Sporangiospores:
• Formed by successive cleavages within a sporangium attached
to a stalk called sporangiophore
Conidospores or Conidia:
• Free spores not enclosed by a spore-bearing sac

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 Sexual Spore Formation
Sexual Spores
- Results from sexual reproduction, fusion of 2 gametes
3 Phases:
1. Plasmogamy- haploid nucleus of a donor cell penetrates the cytoplasm of a
recipient cell
2. Karyogamy- the donor and recipient cell fuse to form diploid zygote nucleus
3. Meiosis- diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei (sexual spores), some of
which maybe genetic recombinants

Purpose of sexual spores:

• Linking of genes from parents creates offspring with combination of genes
different from that of either parent.
• Important variations occur when fungi of different genetic makeup combine their genetic
material
• Slight variations in the form and function are potentially advantageous to the adaptation
and survival of the species

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Classification Based on Mode of Reproduction (sexual/asexual)
2 “Lower” Fungi
1. Zygomycotina (or Zygomycota)
- Conjunction fungi- saprophytic molds that have coenocytic hyphae
(aseptate)
- Sexual spores are called zygospores
- Include the common bread molds and other fungi that cause food
spoilage
2. Chytridiomycotina (or Chytridiomycota)
- Are not considered to be true fungi by some taxonomists, live in water
(“water molds”) and soil.

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Classification Based on Mode of Reproduction
2 “Higher” Fungi
1. Ascomycotina (or Ascomycota)
- Sac fungi which include molds with septate hyphae, some yeast and some fungi that
cause plant diseases (e.g., Dutch Elm disease)
- Form ascospore which are saclike structures called ascus
2. Basidiomycotina (or Basidiomycota)
- Club fungi, process septate hyphae
- Forms basidiospore externally on a base pedestal called basidium
- include some yeasts, some fungi that cause plant diseases, and the large “fleshy
fungi” that live in the woods (e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, puffballs)

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Classification Based on Mode of Sexual Reproduction
Deuteromycotina (or Deuteromycota)
- 5th phylum
- Anamorph- contains fungi having no mode of sexual reproduction, or
in which the mode of sexual reproduction is not known.
- They arose from mutations of teleomorph (fungi that produce both
sexually or asexually
- this phylum is sometimes referred to as Fungi imperfecti.
- includes certain medically important molds such as Aspergillus and
Penicillium.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI WITH THE TYPE OF
SPORE & TYPE OF STURUCTURE PRODUCED
Yeast

• Eukaryotic, single-celled organism (unicellular) that lack mycelia

• Are larger than bacteria & usually oval in shape
• Individual yeast are sometimes referred to as blastopores or blastoconidia
can be observed only through microscope
• Reproduce by budding
• Found in soil, water & skins of fruits & vegetables

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• Saccharomyces cerevisiae (“baker’s yeast”)
- ferments sugar to alcohol under anaerobic conditions.
- under aerobic conditions, this yeast breaks down
simple sugar to CO2 & H2O and used as leavening agent in bread
production

• Yeasts are good source of nutrients for human because they produce
vitamins & proteins
• Some yeasts such as Candida albicans & Cryptococcus neoformans are
human pathogens
• Produce colonies similar to bacterial colonies
• Larger than bacteria (3-8µm), oval, undergoes budding.

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Oral Thrush & Vaginal Yeast Infection

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 Moulds/Molds
• Seen in water & soil & on food
• They grow in the form of cytoplasmic filaments or hyphae that makes up the mycelium of the
mold.
• Some of the hyphae (called aerial hyphae) extend above the surface of whatever the mold is
growing on, and some (called vegetative hyphae) are beneath the surface
• Reproduction is by spore formation, either sexually or asexually, on the aerial hyphae
(sometimes referred to as reproductive hyphae).
• Not human pathogen except Phytophthora infestans (potato mould)
• Molds have great commercial importance:
- E.g. Within the Ascomycotina are found many antibiotic-producing molds, such as
Penicillium and Acremonium.

• Some molds are used to produce large quantities of enzymes, citric acid & organic acids.
• Flavor of cheese (blue cheese) is the result of molds that grow in them
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Fleshy Fungi

• Are large fungi encountered in the forest (mushrooms, toadstool, puffballs etc.)
• They are not microorganisms.
• Multi-cellular organism
• Mushrooms are a class of true fungi that consist of a network of filaments or strands
(the mycelium) that grow in the soil or in a rotting log, and a fruiting body (the
mushroom that rises above the ground) that forms and releases spores.
• Many mushrooms are delicious to eat, but others, including some that resemble
edible fungi, are extremely toxic and may cause permanent liver and brain damage or
death if ingested.

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Role of Fungi in Nature

• Nearly all fungi are free-living, they do not require a host to complete their life cycle
• Play an essential role in decomposing organic matter & returning essential minerals
to soil.
• Can pose problems in agricultural industry as they rot fresh produce during shipping
& storage. Some species are pathogenic to field plants
• Some species are pathogenic to human (mycoses), some molds & fleshy fungi
produce mycotoxins causing microbial intoxication
• Many fungi make their home on human body as part of human microbiome
(Malassezia)

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 Medical Conditions Caused by Fungi
Most human fungal infection occurs through accidental contact with
soil, water, or dust
Pathogenic fungi:
• Community-acquired infections caused by environmental pathogens
• Hospital-associated infections caused by fungal pathogens in clinical settings
• Opportunistic infections caused by pathogens infecting already weakened
individuals

Other medical conditions caused by fungi

• Allergies – from poisonous mushrooms
• Neurological conditions due to toxin production
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Fungal Infections of Human
• Pneumocystis Pneumonia (PCP)
- Is a fungal infection affecting patients with HIV/AIDS caused by
fungus Pneumocystis jiroveci
- Cause fluid accumulation in the lungs
- Opportunistic Infection

Fungal cell walls give off chemical substances that can cause
allergies
- Aspergillus flavus -a mold, synthesizes a potentially lethal
poison called aflatoxin, which is the cause of a disease in
domestic animals that have eaten grain contaminated with the
mold and is also a cause of liver cancer in humans.

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Fungal Infections of Human

• Superficial and Cutaneous Mycoses

- are fungal infections of the outermost areas of the human body: hair, fingernails,
toenails, and the dead, outermost layers of the skin (the epidermis).
- A group of molds, collectively referred to as dermatophytes, cause tinea infections,
which are often referred to as “ringworm” infections.
- Tinea infections are named in accordance with the part of the anatomy that is
infected; examples include tinea pedis (athlete’s foot), tinea unguium (fingernails and
toenails), tinea capitis (scalp), tinea barbae (face and neck), tinea corporis (trunk of
the body), and tinea cruris (groin area)

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Fungal Infections of Human

- C. albicans is an opportunistic yeast that lives harmlessly on the skin and mucous
membranes of the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and genitourinary tract. It may lead
to yeast infections of the mouth (thrush), skin, and vagina (yeast vaginitis).
• Subcutaneous and Systemic Mycoses
- Subcutaneous and systemic mycoses are more severe types of mycoses.
- Systemic or generalized mycoses are fungal infections of internal organs of the body,
sometimes affecting two or more different organ systems simultaneously
- e.g. simultaneous infection of the respiratory system and bloodstream

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Major Fungal Infections of Humans
Superficial (Not Deeply Invasive)
Degree of Tissue Involvement
and Area Affected
Outer epidermis
Epidermis, hair, and dermis can
be attacked
Mucous membranes, skin, nails
Systemic (Deep; Organism Enters Lungs; Can Invade Other Organs)
Degree of Tissue Involvement
and Area Affected
Lung
Lung, skin
Name of Infection
Tinea versicolor
Dermatophytosis, also called tinea or
ringworm of the scalp, body, feet
(athlete’s foot), toenails
Candidiasis, or yeast infection
Name of Infection
Coccidioidomycosis (San Joaquin Valley
fever)
North American blastomycosis
(Chicago disease)
Histoplasmosis (Ohio Valley fever)
Cryptococcosis (torulosis)
Paracoccidioidomycosis (South
American blastomycosis)
Name of Causative Fungus
Malassezia furfur
Microsporum, Trichophyton, and
Epidermophyton
Candida albicans
Name of Causative Fungus
Coccidioides immitis dermatitidis
Blastomyces
Histoplasma capsulatum
Cryptococcus neoformans
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
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 COMPARISON OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI
FEATURES BACTERIA FUNGI

Cell type Prokaryotic- unicellular Eukaryotic ; unicellular or multicellular

Role in ecosystem Can be both producers and decomposers Mainly decomposers

Optimal pH Neutral pH (6.5-7.0) Slightly acidic (4.0-6.0)

Cell structure No true nucleus and membrane–bound Possess true nucleus and membrane-
organelles bound organelles

Main component of cell wall Peptidoglycan except in archaebacteria Chitin

Sterols in cell membrane Absent except in Mycoplasma Present

Mode of nutrition Heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, Heterotrophic; majority aerobic and

photoautotrophic, aerobic, anaerobic, facultative anaerobic
facultative anaerobic

Reproduction Binary fission Budding, Hyphal extension, Sexual and

asexual spores
MICROBIAL NUTRITION
HETEROTROPH
- Is an organism that must obtain its carbon in an organic form
- Because organic carbon originates from bodies of other organism, heterotrophs are
dependent on other life forms
AUTOTROPH
- Derive energy from sunlight or chemical
- Is an organism that uses inorganic carbon dioxide as its carbon source
- Have the capacity to convert CO2 into organic compounds, not nutritionally
dependent on other living things.

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MICROBIAL NUTRITION
PHOTOTROPH
- Able to photosynthesize
PHOTOAUTOTROPH
- Photosynthetic, capture energy of light rays & transform it to chemical energy
- Gain energy from chemical compounds
CHEMOAUTOTROPH
2 Types:
1. Litoautotroph- require neither sunlight nor organic nutrient, rely totally on
inorganic minerals
2. Chemoorganic autotroph- use organic compounds for energy & inorganic
compounds as carbon source.
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MICROBIAL NUTRITION

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