Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi

Dr. Chhaya Sawant

Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi

Introduction
Fungus is a member of a large and a diverse (heterogeneous) group of eukaryotic organisms - Yeasts
and Molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. Most of these
organisms are plant pathogens and relatively few cause diseases in humans. There are a large
number of different genera and species of fungi that cause human diseases. Fungi are ideal food
because they have a fairly high content of protein (typically 20-30% dry atter as crude protein) which
contains all of the essential amino acids. Fungal biomass is also a source of dietary fibre, and is
virtually free of cholesterol.
The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology. Mycology has often
been regarded as a branch of botany, even though it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy.

Characteristics of Fungi
1. Fungi are the eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, and unicellular or multicellular organisms, which
may reproduce by asexual and sexual spores.
2. All are eukaryotic - Possess membrane-bound nuclei (containing chromosomes) and a range
of membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria, vacuoles, endoplasmic
reticulum).
3. Most are filamentous - Composed of individual microscopic filaments called hyphae, which
exhibit apical growth and which branch to form a network of hyphae called a mycelium.
4. Some are unicellular - e.g. yeasts.
5. Protoplasm of a hypha or cell is surrounded by a rigid wall - Composed primarily of chitin
and glucans, although the walls of some species contain cellulose.
6. Many reproduce both sexually and asexually - Both sexual and asexual reproduction often
result in the production of spores.
7. Some fungi shows mutualistic relationship with higher plants, eg Mycorrhiza is symbiotic
associated with root of gymnosperm
8. All are achlorophyllous - They lack chlorophyll pigments and are incapable of photosynthesis.
9. All are chemoheterotrophic (chemo-organotrophic) - They utilize pre-existing organic
sources of carbon in their environment and the energy from chemical reactions to
synthesize the organic compounds they require for growth and energy.
10. Possess characteristic range of storage compounds - e.g. trehalose, glycogen, sugar alcohols
and lipids.
11. May be free-living or may form intimate relationships with other organisms i.e. may be free-
living, parasitic or mutualistic (symbiotic).
12. Some are edible, while others are poisonous. Examples of edible mushrooms – 1) White
button mashrooms - Agaricus bisporus 2) Paddy straw mashrooms - Volvariella volvacea 3)
Oyester mashroom - Pleurotus ostreatus

The habitat of Fungi:

Fungi grow in almost every habitat imaginable, as long as there is some type of organic matter
present and the environment is not too extreme. It can grow on a surface, in soil or decaying
material, in a liquid, or even on living tissue.
The mycelium of a fungus can be very large, with some species truly being “the fungus humongous.”
The giant Armillaria solidipes (honey mushroom) is considered the largest organism on Earth,
spreading across more than 2,000 acres of underground soil in eastern Oregon; it is estimated to be
at least 2,400 years old.

Some fungi are internal or external parasites, A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like
roundworms. All fungi require water and oxygen (no obligate anaerobes).
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

MORPHOLOGY OF FUNGI
(A) General. Fungi vary widely in size and shape, from unicellular, microscopic organisms to
multicellular forms easily seen with the naked eye.
o Individual cells range from 1 μ to 30 μ.
o Microscopic fungi exist as either molds or yeasts or both.
o Internally, fungal cells are fairly typical eucaryotic cells.

Structure of Fungi
• Cell Walls : similar in structure to plants’ but differ in chemical composition-fungi cell walls
are composed of mostly of chitin-plant cell walls are composed mostly of cellulose (plus
lignin in secondary walls)
• vegetative body may be unicellular (yeasts) or composed of microscopic threads called
hyphae
• cytoplasmic ultra-structure broadly similar to plants cells, but differ significantly in kinds of
organelles and their structures.

(B) Moulds : The moulds form large multicellular aggregates of long branching filaments, called
hyphae.
The body of the fungus is called as 'thallus’, composed of hyphae (sing. hypha) that elongate by tip
growth. A mass of hyphae is a mycelium.
• Eucarpic thallus: The thallus is differentiated into 1) Vegetative part, which absorbs
nutrients and 2) A reproductive part, which forms reproductive structure. e.g. Pythium
aphanidermatum.
• Holocarpic thallus: The thallus does not show any differentiation on vegetative and
reproductive structure. After a phase of vegetative growth, it gets converted into one or
more reproductive structures. e.g. yeast, Synchytrium endobioticum.
• Hyphae: Hyphae is a tubular, transparent filament, usually branched, composed of an outer
cell wall and a cavity (lumen) lined or filled with protoplasm including cytoplasm. Hyphae are
divided into compartments by cross walls called septa called as septate (with cross wall) or
coenocytic (aseptate -without cross wall).
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

(c) Yeasts : These are large (5 to 8 μ), single-celled budding organisms that rarely form filaments or
mycelia..
• They are unicellular spherical to ellipsoid cells.
• They reproduce by budding, which result in blastospore (blastoconidia) formation. In some
cases, as the cells buds the buds fail to detach and elongate thus forming a chain of
elongated hyphae like filament called pseudohyphae. This property is seen in Candia
albicans.
• The Yeast colonies are usually visible on the plates in 24-48 h.
• Their soft, moist colonies resemble bacterial cultures rather than molds.

There are many species of yeasts which can be pathogenic for humans. There are many species
which are useful

PHYSIOLOGY OF FUNGI:
(a) Nutrition - Absorptive Heterotroph
• Most fungi contain complex enzymes and other chemical substances which, when diffused
into the host, break down the complex substances available into simpler substances that can
be used for food – wood, vegetation, leather, bread, and so forth
• The chemical processes of digestion are, therefore, completed outside of the organism, and
the fungus absorbs the end products.

(b) Reproduction: Fungi reproduce sexually or asexually, or both, depending upon the species and
the environmental conditions.

• Most fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually.

• Those that produce only asexual spores are known as Deuteromycetes Fungi imperfecti. This
group is important because it contains most of the pathogenic fungi.
• The yeasts reproduce both by spores and by a process known as budding, which is similar to
binary fission.
o Budding: The parent cell produces one or more projections called buds, which later
develop necessary structures and detach to grow into new individuals. Budding is
common in unicellular forms like yeast.
o Fission: In this process, the parent cell splits into two equal halves, each of which
develop into a new individual. Fission is also common in yeast.
Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

c) Growth. They are aerobic in nature. Fungi grow well under the same conditions that favour the
growth of bacteria – warmth and moisture.
• It is for this reason that fungal infections pose a serious problem to troops in the tropics.
• As the temperature decreases, fungal activity also decreases; however, the spores are very
resistant to cold, some surviving freezing temperatures for long periods of time.
On the other hand, fungi are easily killed at high temperatures

Growth phases:
• The growth of the fungi generally involves two phases; vegetative and reproductive.
– In the vegetative phase, Most fungi exist as molds with hyphae but some fungi exist
as unicellular yeast cells. Some fungi can change their morphology and are termed
dimorphic. For example, Candida is found in the yeast form at 37°C but changes to
the mold form at 25°C.
– In the reproductive phase, fungi may undergo either asexual or sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction involves the generation of spores; sexual reproduction
requires specific cellular structures that are used for taxonomic differentiation.

Dimorphism in Fungi

Dimorphic fungi are fungi that can switch between yeast and mold, depending upon the
environmental conditions. For example: A fungus is in the yeast form, but the temperature cools,
thus creating an environment that is conducive to mold. No problem. One type of dimorphic fungi
called Histoplasma capsulatum changes into a mold as the temperature decreases.

Yeast grows from a single cell and can be found in a variety of places including skin, foods, and in the
digestive system of mammals. It usually looks white and thread-like, and (in general) prefers warmer
temperatures.
Mold, on the other hand, grows from tube-like branches called hyphae and is found in damp and
dark areas. Mold looks furry and can be green, orange, yellow, black, purple, and brown.

Typically, mold does better in cooler conditions, whereas yeast does better in warmer environments.
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

(c) Growth. They are aerobic in nature. Fungi grow well under the same conditions that favour the
growth of bacteria – warmth and moisture.
• It is for this reason that fungal infections pose a serious problem to troops in the tropics.
• As the temperature decreases, fungal activity also decreases; however, the spores are very
resistant to cold, some surviving freezing temperatures for long periods of time.
• On the other hand, fungi are easily killed at high temperatures.
• Hyphal growth : Hyphae grow from their tips. Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of
hyphae and forms the ecologically active bodies of fungi. Mycelia have a huge surface area
which aids digestion & absorption of food

The growth of the fungi generally involves two phases; vegetative and reproductive.

• In the vegetative phase, Most fungi exist as molds with hyphae but some fungi exist as
unicellular yeast cells. Some fungi can change their morphology and are termed dimorphic.
For example, Candida is found in the yeast form at 37°C but changes to the mold form at
25°C.
• In the reproductive phase, fungi may undergo either asexual or sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction involves the generation of spores; sexual reproduction requires
specific cellular structures that are used for taxonomic differentiation.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
Fungi are usually classified according to biological taxonomy based upon the type of hypha, spore,
and reproduction. There are four classes of fungi,
• Class Phycomycetes. The algal fungi: bread molds and leaf molds.
– The only known mycosis (fungal disease) caused by fungi of this class is
mucormycosis, a very rare fungal growth of the upper respiratory tract, bronchial
mucosa, and lungs.
– It occurs largely as a complication of a chronic, debilitating disease, such as
uncontrolled diabetes.

• Class Ascomycetes. The sac fungi: yeasts, mildews, and cheese molds. Fungi of this class are
implicated in only three fungus diseases, all of which are rare.

• Class Basidiomycetes. Mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and smuts. The only pathogens in this
class are the mushrooms of the genus Amanita, which cause severe systemic poisoning
(sometimes death) when eaten.

• Class Deuteromycetes. Fungi imperfecti: a heterogeneous collection of fungi without sexual

reproduction. Most of the pathogens encountered in medical mycology belong to this class.
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

Other Classification and identification of molds

The following criteria are used chiefly for differentiation and identification of molds:

1 Hyphae : septate or non-septate

2 Mycelium : clear or dark (smoky)

3 Mycelium : colored or colorless

4 Whether sexual or asexual spores are produced and the type

5 Characteristics of the spore head

a) Sporangia: size, color, shape, and location
b) Spore heads bearing conidia: single conidia, chains, budding conidia, or masses; shape and
arrangement of sterigmata or phialides; gumming together of conidia

6 Appearance of sporangiophores or conidiophores: simple or branched, and if branched the type of

branching; size and shape of columella at tip of sporangiophore; whether conidiophores are single or
in bundles

7 Microscopic appearances of the asexual spores, especially of conidia: shape, size, color; smooth or
rough; one-, two-, or many-celled

8 Presence of special structures (or spores): stolons, rhizoids, foot cells, apo-physis,
chlamydospores(big resting spore), sclerotia(a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium
containing food reserves.), etc.

Beneficial effects of fungi:

Medical benefits:
• Antibiotics e.g. penicillin produced by Penicillium notatum.
• Produce drugs e.g. ergot - which is used to reduce blood pressure, muscle relaxant). Ergot
is a fungus which infects members of the grass family e.g. wheat, rye.
• Used in genetic research e.g. Neurospora.
• Production of human enzymes and vaccines.

Economic benefits:
• Food e.g. edible mushrooms - Agaricus campestris (protein content is very high), truffles;
vitamin B, vinegar, cheese e.g. camembert, stilton (due to Penicillium species). Used in
Manufacture of ‘meat’ and vegetable extracts.
• Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)– brewing/wine-making/baking, Mycorrhiza - symbiotic
fungi found in the roots of many trees/plants (e.g. beech, pines and orchids) which are
essential for growth.
• Lichens - fungi and algae - primary colonisers e.g. Rochelle = dye for litmus paper, food for
Artic reindeer.
• Source of industrial enzymes - Penicillium and Aspergillus species.
• Sewage treatment - Saprolegnia species.
• In biotechnology, e.g. making ethanol from sugar cane (‘gasohol’).
• Manufacture of citric acid by Aspergillus species. Used in manufacture of sweets and soft
drinks & to ferment soybeans for soy sauce.
 Microbial growth Characteristics - Morphology of Fungi
Dr. Chhaya Sawant

Harmful effects:
Medical disadvantages:
• Animal disease e.g. ringworm (skin infection picked up from infected farm animals)/athletes
foot – Trichophyton sp. (spores are picked up on soles of feet from swimming pools and
showers), thrush (oral or genital – Candida sp.), farmer’s lung - Aspergillosis (affects farmers
and birds), saprolegnia on salmon.
• Can be poisonous e.g. Amanita, the death cap toadstool – contains toxins that cause liver
and kidney failure & often death. The Fly Agaric has toxins that attack the central nervous
system, acting as a strong hallucinogen.

Economic:
• 1. Cause more than 30,000 plant diseases e.g. potato blight (Phytophora infestans – Irish
famine late 1840s), apple scab, wheat rust, dutch elm disease (Ceratocystis - disease spread
by a beetle, disease spreads inside bark), mildew (vines are particularly affected), smuts
(cereals), soft rot (affecting fruit in storage), black spot on roses, grey mould (botrytis) on
many vegetables.
• 2. Decay food (Rhizopus rots strawberries and Penicillium rots e.g. oranges, yeast grows on
fruits and sweet liquids).
• 3. Material damage: leather, wood (dry rot - Serpula lacrymans and wet rot), mildew of
cloth/paper.